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ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY
CREATING DIVERSE ORGANIZATIONS: A GUIDE FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT
PROFESSIONALS
BY
AVRA DAVIDOFF
A Final Project submitted to the
Graduate Centre for Applied Psychology, Athabasca University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF COUNSELLING
Alberta
(May) (2009)
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COMMITTEE MEMBERS
The members of this final project committee are:
Name of Supervisor Dr. Nancy Arthur
Name of Second Reader Dr. Sandra Collins
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ABSTRACT
Canada�s organizations are fast transitioning from monocultural to multicultural entities.
Career development professionals are challenged with the task to maximize the benefits of
organizational diversity while limiting its challenges. When left unmanaged, diversity can
threaten the functioning of the organization and foster conflict, hostility, and discrimination.
When managed well, diverse organizations are able to compete effectively and maximize
profits, which are paramount given global competitiveness. The author outlines a systems
model for implementing organizational development initiatives, drawing attention to the
importance of social justice as part of this process.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Introduction�������������������������������...1
Key terms�����������������������������...2 Diversity���������������������������.2 Culture����������������������������3 Ethnocentrism�������������������������3 Non-dominant groups����������������������4 Systemic barriers������������������������4 Affirmative action�����������������������..5
CHAPTER II
Theoretical foundations���������������������������.7 Characteristics of diverse organizations������������������7 Rational for diversity in organizations������������������...8 Canada as the multicultural mosaic����������������...9 Demographics�������������������������9 Immigration�������������������������10
Changing value systems��������������������...11 The new employment contract������������������.11 Globalization�������������������������12 Approaches to managing diversity�������������������...13 Existing research��������������������������..13 Advantages����������������������������...15 Challenges����������������������������....16
CHAPTER III
Applied product: A systems model for organizational diversity initiatives�������18 Global and community influences�������������������...19 Communication��������������������������....20 Trust and respect��������������������������..21 Empowerment and inclusion����������������������22 Social responsiveness������������������������...24 Leadership�����������������������������25
Leadership philosophy���������������������.25 Creating buy-in������������������������26 Vision and mission����������������������...27 Steering and advisory groups������������������...28 External consultants�������������������...��..29 Strategic integration����������������������.31
Assessment���������������������������...�32
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Needs analysis������������������������..32 Cultural auditing�����������������������..34 Benchmarking������������������������..35
Measurement plan����������������������....36 Education�����������������������������.36 Diversity training�����������������������.37 Self-awareness����������������������.��37 Communication�����������������������....38 Alignment of organizational systems����������������...��39 Recruitment and selection���������������������...�.40 Recruitment plan���������������������..��40 Advertisement������������������������..40 Selecting candidates for interviews����������������.41 Interviewing candidates�������������������...�42 The interview process���������������������..43 Orientation����������������������������...45 Policies and procedures����������������������..�.46 Career development practices��������������������..�46 Importance of culture and diversity����������������.47 Mentoring�������������������������.....48 Expatriate assignments��������������������.�49 Performance appraisals������������������������51 Compensation and benefits���������������������..�52 Learning and development����������������������...54 The physical environment����������������������....55 Marketing����������������������������.�55 Follow up�����������������������������.56 Accountability������������������������..56 Evaluation�������������������������....57 Integration of outcomes��������������������...57
CHAPTER IV Synthesis and implications������������������������...�59 Strengths�����������������������������..59 Limitations���������������������������...�60 Why diversity initiatives fail���������������������....62
The future of diversity������������������������.63 Additional research����������������������..63 Gathering stakeholder perspective���������������...�64 Interdisciplinary collaboration������������������.64 Expanding role for career development professionals���������.65 Increased institutional leadership����������������.�65
Conclusion���...���������������������.......�����.65 References��������������������������������67
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LIST OF FIGURES
A Systems Model for Implementing Diversity Initiatives��������...��75
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CHAPTER I
Introduction
Diversity has become the new buzz word for human resources and other career and
organizational professionals. However, the meanings of diversity often vary, as do the
approaches intended to manage diversity. Management interventions are often approached
through a process of trial and error. It is also evident that Canada�s organizations are quickly
evolving from monocultural to multicultural structures, consequently, working with diverse
individuals is becoming the norm rather than the exception for employees (Sue, Arrendondo,
& McDavis, 1992). As much attention is often concentrated on diversity at the individual
level, the organizations in which individuals work deserve equal attention, particularly to
address systematic discrimination and to ensure that individual and societal behaviours are
addressed with the same scrutiny and importance (Arrendondo et al., 1996).
Russell-Chapin and Stoner (1995) contend that although organizations are becoming
increasingly aware of the importance of diversity, a number of inaccurate assumptions often
prohibit organizations from taking the appropriate steps towards effective diversity
management. Firstly, they suggest differences among diverse individuals are often viewed as
deficiencies and threats to effective organizational functioning, equating differences to
disloyalty or rebellious behaviour. Secondly, there exists the assumption that members of
non-dominant groups would like to or should assimilate and conform to dominant group
standards and behaviours. They suggest that these inferences have contributed to the belief
that equal treatment means the same treatment. Lastly, they argue that organizations have
long adhered to the belief that effective diversity management entails altering the attitudes
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and behaviours of diverse employees as opposed to altering the organizational culture and
practices.
This discussion will endeavor to address some of these assumptions while offering a
model for effective organizational diversity management. This discussion will begin with an
overview of some key terms, relevant to understanding this discussion and the model�s
implications. Chapter II outlines the theoretical foundations contributing to the need for a
comprehensive model for implementing organizational diversity initiatives and also reviews
approaches to managing diversity, existing research, and the advantages and challenges of
diversity management. Chapter III continues with reference to a proposed model to facilitate
organizational diversity, elaborating on its components and relevance to the process. Chapter
IV concludes the discussion by highlighting some of the strengths and limitations of the
model including its potential impact on the future of organizational diversity.
Key Terms
Although a number of terms are often used interchangeably when referring to
diversity management, they may have vastly different implications given the context it is
being used in. Therefore understanding the key terms relevant to this discussion can be
confusing. To address this, I will offer key terms that are important in understanding the
subsequent discussion.
Diversity. Some have commented on the use of the term diversity, suggesting that it
can be a confusing term, often equated with multiculturalism (Harrison & Sin, 2006; Sue et
al., 1998). Sue et al. suggest that while multiculturalism may exist in diverse groups, it in
itself is not sufficient to create diversity, nor are diverse groups necessarily multicultural in
nature. Harrison and Sin suggest that diversity is often inappropriately used interchangeably
3
with terms such a within-group variability, difference, heterogeneity, and relational
demography. Ambiguity and lack of agreement about the construct complicates the
discussion about approaches to enhancing diversity in organizations. For the purpose of this
discussion, diversity will be defined as �the collective amount of differences among members
within a social unit� (Harrison & Sin, p. 196).
Culture. For the purpose of this discussion, culture is considered to be a broad term
that extends beyond ethnicity, encompassing dimensions of race, ethnicity, language, sexual
orientation, gender, age, ability, socio-economic status, religious, and spiritual orientation
(American Psychological Association, 2002). Although these dimensions are not meant to
represent an exhaustive list of the potential determinants of culture, it is necessary to
demonstrate a broad definition of culture that guides the assumptions that (a) every
individual is a cultural being, (b) culture is learned and transmitted through social interaction,
and (c) culture is dynamic and susceptible to change (Arthur & Collins, 2005a). Given the
above definition and assumptions, one must consider that all interactions are cross-cultural in
nature, including interactions between all the stakeholders within an organization.
Ethnocentrism. Collins and Arthur (2005) define ethnocentrism as �a belief,
conscious or unconscious, that one�s own cultural experience, values, assumptions are
normal or foundational and that what is different is defined in relation to that self-referenced
worldview� (p. 70). Essentially, it is a conclusion that one�s cultural rules are superior or
more correct to those of others (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998). Inherent to ethnocentrism are
biases which are inflexible attitudes and belief, either positive or negative, about a given
group of people (Thiederman, 2008). Unfortunately, �isms� (i.e., sexism, racism, ageism) are
predicated on ethnocentrism and biases (Collins & Arthur).
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Non-dominant groups. Non-dominant groups are groups in society who are typically
marginalized as a result of being different from the dominant power holding Anglo-Saxon,
male, heterosexual culture (Arthur & Collins, 2005a). Although the term minority may have
been used in the past to explain group differences, this term is less useful. It is implied that
minority groups are inherently less equal, fewer in numbers, and incorrectly focuses on the
disadvantaged group as the root of the problem. In contrast, the use of non-dominant groups
draw attention to power dynamics within society and the social positioning of some groups as
being more or less privileged (Arthur & Collins).
Systemic barriers. Systemic barriers are various social, economic, political, and
religious systems that interact in a complex and dynamic manner to adversely impact one�s
personal, social, and career development (Arthur & Collins, 2005a). These barriers are often
relatively transparent to the dominant population, and sometimes even to the individuals who
are impacted by systemic barriers. While some barriers are transparent, others may be more
implicit in our social structure. As a consequence of these barriers, there exists an unequal
power distribution inherent to society and a lack of equal opportunities for non-dominant
groups. Although not an exhaustive list, Arthur and Collins provide a list of systemic barriers
often experienced by members of non-dominant groups, including:
sexual harassment, access to funding for education, daycare for children of working parents and students, occupational discrimination, clustering of subgroups into specific occupations, lack of career mobility, physically accessible buildings, myths and stereotypes about disabilities, restriction in acceptable norms of behaviours, availability of role models, attributions for success, homophobia, biases against older workers, violence, racists remark, pay equity, social policies, acceptance of foreign employment credentials, hiring practices, access to technology, acceptance of accommodation strategies (p. 29).
The examples illustrate the prevalence of institutional bias which is characterized by
the dominance of a homogenous set of norms and values with respect to organizational
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functioning (Cox, 1993). As an example, Cox illustrates the prevalent expectation of self-
promotion during recruitment and promotion that conflicts with modest norms inherent to
other cultures. Consequently, those people whose cultural norms prevent them from engaging
in self-promotion are likely to be overlooked for opportunities for which they are qualified.
In turn, the search for employees who are similar to those in control of hiring may prevent
employment access by members of non-dominant groups (Purkiss, Perrewe, Gillespie,
Mayes, & Ferris, 2006; Schneider & Northcraft, 2005).
Affirmative action. Unfortunately, much resistance to organizational diversity
initiatives exists due to the confusion between affirmative action and diversity initiatives.
While affirmative action programs may have extended opportunities to members of non-
dominant groups by helping them access employment, such programs did little to ensure their
success and employment retention. These programs also did little to address the
organizational systems within which these non-dominant groups functioned, thus
perpetuating many of the stereotypes and barriers that lead to their exclusion in the first
place. Although affirmative action programs aim to change the numbers of particular groups
within an organization, diversity initiatives attempt to change the organizational culture to an
entity in which everyone and their contributions are valued (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998).
According to Gardenswartz and Rowe, affirmative action is legally driven, whereas, diversity
initiatives are strategically driven.
The above list constitutes a select few terms relevant to this discussion. With
subsequent development in the area of organizational diversity, new terms are bound to
appear while others lose their utility and significance. As an example, the term affirmative
action was used heavily in the preceding decades, but its use has since declined as words
6
such as diversity have come into use and our understanding of organizational diversity has
deepened, becoming more dynamic and holistic. With further development, the same
argument may also extend to the theoretical foundations of organizational diversity which
will be addressed in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER II
Theoretical Foundations
In order to comprehend the purpose of this undertaking and derive utility from the
presenting information, theoretical foundations must be addressed. Understanding theoretical
foundations will also assist in putting the subsequent information into context. In order to
understand the theoretical foundations guiding this discussion, it is necessary to consider
characteristics of diverse organizations, the rational for organizational diversity, approaches
to managing diversity, existing research, and the advantages and challenges of organizational
diversity.
Characteristics of Diverse Organizations
Sue et al. (1998) argue that it is ineffective to strengthen the multicultural competence
and diversity practices of individuals if the organizations in which they operate continue to
adhere to monocultural and biased perspectives. As society has quickly evolved into an
increasingly diverse structure, organizations have failed to keep pace. Sue et al. suggest
�organizational entities that fail to successfully implement diversity into the very structures
of their practice will fail to be relevant to their constituencies, and will fail to compete and
survive� (p. 42). Sue et al. have devised 11 characteristics of multiculturally competent
organizations and include the following:
1. Demonstrate leadership and commitment from all levels which is evidenced by
corresponding behaviours, not just words.
2. Possess and operationalize written policies regarding multiculturalism and diversity.
3. Develop multicultural and diversity action plans with well defined goals and time
frames.
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4. Create organized groups of stakeholders who are empowered to monitor, develop,
evaluate and influence the organization�s multicultural and diversity goals.
5. Solicit and integrate stakeholder feedback with respect to culture, diversity, goods and
services, organizational culture, policies and procedures, etc,. into organizational
development.
6. Integrate accountability for diversity and multiculturalism goals into organizational
systems.
7. Infuse multiculturalism and diversity criteria into recruitment and retention processes
and procedures.
8. Recognize the positive relationship between �success� and mentoring opportunities
and support networks for non-dominant groups.
9. Support coalition building, affinity groups, and networking of non-dominant groups.
10. Commit to educating stakeholders across all levels about diversity issues.
11. View diversity as part of the community and understand the recursive relationship
between the organization and the community.
These are not static characteristics and further research on Multicultural Organizational
Development (MOD) and organizational diversity may influence subsequent descriptors.
However, this list of organizational characteristics will serve as general guidelines for this
discussion.
Rational for Diversity in Organizations
A number of influences impacting Canada are necessary to consider when
contextualizing the rationality for increased attention to diversity in organizations. Key
factors to consider are the guiding philosophy of Canada as the multicultural mosaic,
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demographic changes, immigration, changing societal values, the new employment contract,
and globalization.
Canada as the multicultural mosaic. As a country, Canada is viewed as a world
leader in the attempt to integrate and appreciate multiculturalism across all levels of society,
and through legislation, encourages diverse individuals to maintain their cultural
backgrounds (Arthur & Collins, 2005a; Esses & Gardner, 1996). Canada�s identity is largely
rooted in �establishing an environment in which people of all cultural backgrounds are
welcomed and encouraged to participate actively in society while openly maintaining their
distinctiveness� (Arthur & Collins, p. 4). As the benefits and challenges of diversity become
more apparent on a local and international stage, Canadians and Canadian organizations are
well positioned to lead the discussion on diversity and culture, and must continue to do so in
order to stay true to the philosophy inherent to the Canadian Mosaic.
Demographics. Canada wide, provinces, cities, communities, and organizations are
experiencing a clear shift in demographics, transforming society from monocultural to
multicultural. Canada�s workforce is quickly aging and a large portion of the labour force
(i.e., baby boomers) is expected to exit the labour market within the next 10 to 15 years
(Alberta Human Resources and Employment, 2002). Non-dominant groups, such as women
and individuals with disabilities are entering the labour market in unprecedented numbers
(Alberta Human Resources and Employment). While some individuals are electing to work
beyond the traditional age of retirement, others are retiring earlier, and still others are
electing to work past retirement for continued sense of purpose or meaning, or out of
economic necessity. As an example, Carr-Rufino (2005) highlights the struggles of sandwich
10
generations who simultaneously assume responsibility for the health and well being of their
dependent children and aging relatives.
In many ways, it would seem that employers are reluctant to let their experienced
workers go due to their accumulated knowledge and expertise, and also in response to
Canada�s current and projected continuation of labour shortages. As younger generations,
known as Generation X, Generation Y, Echo Boomers, Nexters or Millenials (Loughlin &
Barling, 2001), search for opportunities to get their foot in the door, the result seems to be a
widened generation gap among employees within organizations. As Flynn (1996) suggests,
generational differences are much the same as gender or racial differences and should be
regarded as a diversity issue. At the same time as birthrates of many groups have declined,
Canada�s Aboriginal population, particularly in Alberta, is fast becoming one of Canada�s
quickest growing populations (Alberta Human Resources and Employment, 2002).
Immigration. As Canada�s birth rate has fallen below the replacement level, our
country has become increasingly dependent on foreign labour to address population deficits
and skill shortages (Alberta Human Resources and Employment, 2002). However, as many
immigrants soon discover upon arrival, they are unable to assume the profession they have
been trained for in their country of origin (Chen, 2008). The points system used in
immigration evaluation may have assigned weight to overseas training and experience, and
hence facilitate entry to Canada. However, foreign credentials are not always recognized by
Canadian employers or relevant licensing institutions, leaving many newcomers unemployed,
underemployed (Chen; Neault, 2005) and disillusioned. It is also noteworthy that value
systems of immigrants often differ from the value system of Canadian society (Arthur &
Merali, 2005), creating opportunities for miscommunication and alienation.
11
Changing value systems. According to Sonnenschein (1999), the disparity among
diverse groups in relation to education, health, and socio-economic status portrayed in the
media has in many ways contributed to the changing moral fabric of society. He suggests this
new moral fabric demands increased equality and accountability in order to reconcile social
injustices. The concept of meritocracy which currently pervades North American society and
organizational functioning has been called into question. Sue (2008) argues the myth of
meritocracy, which suggests a positive correlation between hard work and success,
disregards the reality and experiences of many non-dominant persons who experience a
number of barriers to achieving their goals. Sue argues that systemic discrimination and
oppression by dominant groups and ideologies are key forces that work against meritocracy.
For the concept of meritocracy to be genuine in its implications, equal opportunity, support,
and resources must exist for all. However, I will contend that equal opportunity, support, and
resources does not equate to the same opportunity, support, or resources among individuals.
Social trends also need to be considered as employees adopt new attitudes and priorities
which highlight the importance of family, personal development, and work-life balance
(Sullivan & Mainiero, 2007).
The new employment contract. Simonsen (1997) notes the relationship between
employees and organizations is governed by a new employment contract which no longer
guarantees lifetime employment with one company in exchange for loyalty. Consequently,
employees are maintained as long as they add value to the organization and employees stay
as long as they their needs are being met (Simonsen). She argues that the employment
contract and career success is becoming individually defined and no longer equates to the
traditional notion of long term employment with one company or hierarchical advancements.
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Given that employees are becoming more diverse, one can expect equally diverse definitions
of career success.
Globalization. Organizations are no longer confined to competition or decision
making that only considers the local or national context. Rather, globalization has meant
competition on a world wide scale and has resulted in the intertwining of world economies
and economic interdependence. Unlike the post cold war era isolationist policies of the
United States, it is unlikely that organizations and countries could thrive or effectively
compete globally, by retreating to such practices on any scale. It can be argued with
reasonable confidence that the global economy has in some way, directly or indirectly,
affected every nation (Snow, Miles & Coleman, 1992). This is evidenced by the common
occurrence of economic consequences in one country impacting the economy of another
country (Cambridge, 2001). This can be of particular relevance to multinational corporations
who erect various global locations so as to avoid fostering a dependency on resources,
material or human, in any one country (Cambridge). Unfortunately, this has also meant
exploitation of communities, individuals, and specifically, employees through socially
unacceptable labour practices (Cambridge).
The above mentioned factors have changed the way we live, work, travel, and
purchase. Consequently, Canada is experiencing a cultural diversification among
organizations, employees, and consumers. It should be noted that the impact of these factors
cannot be neatly compartmentalized. Attempting to isolate these influences in the hopes of
dealing with each one individually would overlook the complex and recursive relationship
these factors demonstrate.
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Approaches to Managing Organizational Diversity
Organizational diversity has been approached from various perspectives, each putting
forth a different agenda (Roosevelt, 1991), often reflecting the current sociopolitical and
economic climate from which they were generated. Roosevelt argues that most approaches
have been based on platforms citing civil rights, women�s rights, humanitarianism, moral and
social responsibilities, and more recently, the needs of the business. Roosevelt states that
while the �perspectives are all different, they are all equally legitimate� (p. 17). While the
legitimacy of the approaches seems to be a valid argument, further research on the
effectiveness of these approaches needs to occur in order for this claim to be substantiated. In
the model presented later, the approach used combines social responsibility and the needs of
the business.
Roosevelt (1991) also points out that traditional approaches emphasized assimilation
and conceptualized diversity as the interplay of only individual and interpersonal constructs.
Current approaches are now transitioning to a perspective of valuing differences, and are
becoming aware of the simultaneous interplay between individual, interpersonal, and
organizational factors (Roosevelt). Going one step further, I would suggest diversity needs to
be conceptualized as the interplay between the aforementioned factors, adding community
(local and global) factors to the mix. Contemporary approaches are also acknowledging the
utility of systems theory and principles in conceptualizing and managing organizational
diversity (Cox, 2001; Kreitz, 2007; Mor-Barak, 2000).
Existing Research
Many have written about the general paucity of research, especially empirical
research, with respect to organizational diversity (Curtis & Dreaschlin, 2008; Pitts, 2009;
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Shen, Chanda, D�Netto, & Monga, 2009). It would seem from this writer�s perspective that
the majority of research focused on specific diversity interventions such as career
development programs (Bernes & Magnusson, 1996), diversity awareness training and
mentoring (Curtis & Dreaschlin) with outcomes measured across one dimension (e.g.,
turnover, job satisfaction). There was no empirical research discussing the implementation of
a particular model of diversity management with outcomes on either organizational or
individual functioning.
Curtis and Dreaschlin (2008) argue that existing research has produced inconclusive
and contradictory evidence which is too limited for practitioners to extract evidence based
practices from. They also point out that few organizations possess the appropriate knowledge
and resources to conduct research on organizational diversity, and are reluctant to give access
to external researchers due to emotive and potentially litigious complications. Current
research has been described as descriptive versus evaluative (Pitts, 2009) and is often
characterized by quasi-experimental designs, surveys, and qualitative methods (Curtis &
Dreaschlin).
Given the various barriers in gathering empirical evidence to support the
implementations of diversity management models, there are a number of organizational case
studies highlighting diversity management programs, not specific diversity management
models (Cox, 1993; Curtis & Dreaschlin, 2008; Leach, George, Jackson, & LaBella, 1995;
Thomas, 1991). It seemed that many case studies omitted key information such as the
organization, its salient issues, and the components deemed to be part of the diversity
management program. Therefore one cannot easily replicate interventions or draw an
informed conclusion about their utility. However, Curtis and Dreaschlin caution that an
15
organization�s context is relevant and necessary to consider when attributing meaning to
subsequent outcomes as outlined in a case study. As each organizational context is unique,
generalizing the information from case studies to other organizations becomes difficult.
Advantages
It is suggested that diverse organizations are more adept at gaining and maintaining
market shares locally and globally as such organizations are more proficient in understanding
an equally diverse consumer base (Carr-Rufino, 2005; Cox, 1993). Diverse organizations are
more skilled at attracting and retaining talent (Carr-Rufino) which is paramount given noted
and projected labour shortages across a variety of industries. It has also been suggested that a
diverse organization increases organizational flexibility, and in particular, can solve problems
more effectively and creatively (Carr-Rufino; Cox). Diverse groups are less susceptible to
group think and have broader and richer bases of knowledge from which to draw upon (Carr-
Rufino; Cox). Carr-Rufino suggests that when diversity in managed well, employees
perceive that they are valued and cared for, which in turn improves employee morale and
productivity, and reduces absenteeism. Effective diversity management equates to a decrease
in workplace conflicts, including bullying, grievances and lawsuits, decreases health and
safety concerns, and fosters trust and loyalty among stakeholders, and particularly among
employees and consumers, and improves the corporate profile by actively contributing to
social responsibility (Alberta Employment and Immigration, 2008; Carr-Rufino; Cox).
Diverse organizations are more adept at meeting various legal obligations such as Equal
Opportunity Legislation. This may also facilitate an increased access to contracts as in the
case of various federally regulated employers who are mandated to meet the criteria of a
representative workforce in order to maintain government contracts and business (Alberta
16
Human Resources and Employment, 2002). The bottom line is that when organizations are
managed well, diversity has the potential to cut costs and increase profits (Carr-Rufino; Cox).
Although the aforementioned points do not constitute an exhaustive list of the possible
benefits, the business case for an effective model of diversity management is persuasive.
Challenges
Perhaps one of the main excuses organizations use when attempting to avoid
implementing diversity initiatives is the commitment and cost involved, including finances
and time (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998; Simonsen, 1997). Although inevitably there will be
costs associated with the change process, misinformation is likely to contribute to false
conclusions regarding the cost of diversity associated activities. It is possible that such
excuses serve as systemic barriers towards needed change. Given the current economic
climate of instability, many would likely argue that such an undertaking is not feasible given
that many organizations are on the brink of bankruptcy or are attempting to balance the
books through restructuring and downsizing. Although financial input may be required (e.g.,
additional training and development, changes to the physical environment, hiring of
consultants), there are also a number of changes that can be made without significant costs,
such as demonstrating consistency and attitude changes. While some benefits may be readily
visible in a short period of time, other benefits may take longer to materialize. Cox (2001)
suggests that for an organization to become a functionally effective diverse organization, the
process may take upwards of five to 10 years, thereafter requiring routine maintenance to the
process. However, given the previously mentioned advantages and subsequent positive
financial and social outcomes effective diversity programs can offer, perhaps the issue is not
17
whether organizations can afford to implement such programs but whether organizations can
afford not to?
Another obstacle is the need to dismantle and challenge the existing institutional
systems which have excluded and marginalized non-dominant groups while serving the
interests of dominant groups well. In essence, these obstacles translate into fear about
decreased competence of staff and quality of work (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998), and more
so, a fear of the loss of privilege and power. Although this does not have to be an impossible
feat, it does require ongoing attention to the larger socioeconomic situations contributing to
this obstacle. In order to implement the model and guide it in a purposeful and well
intentioned manner, knowledge regarding organizational diversity is required.
One must also acknowledge that the theoretical foundations presented above
constitute only one perspective. Given the variety of disciplines and perspectives attempting
to tackle the multifaceted construct of organizational diversity, differing opinions and
theoretical rational can be expected. Each perspective needs to be critically analyzed and
researched in order to advance our understanding and refine our interventions. As new
research and trends emerge, the theoretical foundations anchoring the discussion on
organizational diversity will likely evolve to reflect current circumstances and salient issues.
With an increased understanding of the guiding theoretical foundations, we can begin to look
at the integration of these aspects through a systems model for organizational diversity
initiatives.
18
CHAPTER III
Applied Product: A Systems Model for Organizational Diversity Initiatives
Models are needed to guide organizational change. A few models are available in the
literature that conceptualize the integration and management of diversity (e.g., Bernes, 2000;
Cox, 1993, 2001; Leach et al., 1995; Mor-Barak, 2000). The purpose of this discussion is to
provide a new framework for guiding diversity initiatives. The presenting model incorporates
concepts from previous models, while new concepts have been integrated to reflect the
relevant trends and research. New additions reflect the importance of culture to individual
and organizational development, an emphasis on empowerment and holistic approaches, the
recursive nature of the organization with respect to community and global influences, as well
as society�s changing values system which demands accountability and responsibility from
the business sector (Cox, 2001).
The proposed framework is largely influenced by General Systems Theory (von
Bertalanffy, 1968) which suggests that any given system (e.g., an organization) consists of
mutually dependent variables, with the whole being more than the sum of its parts. A system
is comprised of various subsystems (e. g., employees, policies and procedures, goods and
services, organizational culture). Unlike closed systems which are isolated from their
environments, open systems are subject to external influences as well as the influences of
subsystems, the recursive nature of which, can impact other subsystems, the functioning of
the entire system, or other external systems (von Bertalanffy).
Graphically, the model is represented as a large circle with a perforated outer ring to
denote that the system is permeable to community and global influences (i. e., other systems)
including chance occurrences, which influence the functioning of the system. These outside
19
influences are also susceptible to the system�s influences. The outer ring is illustrated by
communication, trust and respect, empowerment and inclusion, and social responsiveness,
which must be demonstrated and reciprocated by the organization�s stakeholders, and
specifically by the organization and its employees. Positioned in the inner circle are
leadership, assessment, education, alignment of the organizational systems, and follow up,
which have been adapted from Cox�s (2001) conceptualization. These components form a
loop which perpetually cycles and contributes to the diversity goals that are represented by a
circle in the centre of the system, denoting its central importance to the organization�s
functioning. A graphic representation of the model can be found in the Appendix. The
respective components of the model will now be discussed.
Global and Community Influences
As open systems do not exist in isolation (von Bertalanffy, 1968), organizations must
consider events and activities outside the organization that could impact organizational or
stakeholder functioning. As an example, natural disasters and health epidemics could gravely
impact the viability of organizations and the wellbeing of stakeholders.
Global and community influences may be seen in examples such as current economic
circumstances, social trends, research on products and services, future employees, employee
assistance providers, and political institutions. It should be noted that while some global and
community influences can be predicted and controlled to varying degrees by an organization,
many influences escape this control; therefore, chance occurrences also need to be
considered. Similar to the influences impacting organizational development, the Systems
Theory Framework of career development suggests that it is counterintuitive to think that
20
career development will always be logical, predictable, or planned (Patton & McMahon,
2006).
Communication
Communication among and between all stakeholders to facilitate a successful change
initiative (Cox, 2001; Lieberman, Simons, Berardo, 2004; Simonsen, 1997) is equally
paramount during diversity initiatives. Lieberman, Simons, and Berardo suggest a constant
stream of communication characterized by transparency, inclusive language, and honesty,
and is delivered via various mediums such as written, spoken or visual representations. As an
example, technically astute and younger employees may be familiar with and prefer
communication modalities such as Twitter and Facebook. It would seem reasonable to
suggest that the format of the information to be communicated may widely vary depending
on the audience. As argued by Cox, communication needs to be accurate, meaningful, and
user friendly. This may require implementing audience specific communication strategies. As
examples, consider individuals who experience communication barriers as a consequence of
low literacy levels, English as a second language, unfamiliarity with local slang and
colloquialism, attention disorders or learning disorders such as dyslexia or dyscalculia to
name a few. If communication is consistently presented in a rigid manner and style, those
with differing communication needs are unable to assign meaning to the information
presented. Consequently, these individuals become distanced from the information and are
disempowered to engage in the change process.
Furthermore, while Lieberman et al. (2004) suggest the importance of communicating
mistakes, Cox (2001) cautions against communication overkill which may subsequently
undermine the legitimacy of the diversity initiative. Simonsen (1997) also draws attention to
21
the paternalistic nature of information hoarding often demonstrated by executives and
management professionals alike in bureaucratic and hierarchical organizations. She suggests
open and honest communication strategies regarding all aspects of the business are warranted
to foster trust and respect among and between stakeholders, allowing employees to
strategically plan their careers. It should also be noted that communication is not solely the
responsibility of management. Employees and other stakeholders should be encouraged and
supported with the provision of appropriate resources and opportunities to engage in the
communication process, free of unreasonable recourse.
Trust and Respect
As Simonsen (1997) contends, without trust and respect, �even the best initiatives
will be suspect, because employees will look for a hidden agenda� (p. 56). Simonsen
suggests that in order to ensure trust and respect, one must recognize individual dignity and
integrity. In some instances, this may mean treating individuals differently in order to extend
the same opportunities. As an example, an individual in a wheelchair may require a modified
workspace, or an individual with a visual impairment may require magnification equipment
or a larger computer monitor for successful tasks to be initiated. Additionally, recognizing
and valuing the inherent dignity and integrity of individuals may require recognizing the
influence of one�s biases. As an example, assuming that all women are excellent
administrators, and subsequently assigning task consistent with this myth, could undermine
the inherent strengths and interests unique to that individual. Such actions can erode the
relationship between the employee, manager, and organization.
Simonsen (1997) further contends that trust and respect must be demonstrated
through straight talk, open and direct communication, listening for understanding, clarifying
22
and attending to the meaning and feelings conveyed by the message, and must be followed
by clear expectations, commitment, reliability, and be built on a solid base of honesty. It is
also important to note the central importance of trust and respect in facilitating
empowerment.
Empowerment and Inclusion
Empowerment and inclusion of stakeholders, and particularly of employees, is central
to the diversity initiative. Many non-dominant groups entering the labour force (e. g.,
immigrants and individuals with disabilities) have typically experienced exclusion and
disempowerment through intentional and unintentional systemic and institutional
discrimination (Thurlow, Mills, & Mills, 2006). For example, consider an executive who
fails to consider women for management positions as he believes women to not be aggressive
enough in terms of achieving sales, marketing, or managing employees. Alternatively,
consider an individual with experience of mental illness who experiences drowsiness from
his medication and would benefit from starting work an hour later than the regular schedule
suggests. Many employers are reluctant to make this accommodation even when such
modifications pose no threat to organizational functioning or profits.
Arthur and Collins (2005a) assert that inherent to society is a differential distribution
of power which contributes to the systemic oppression and disempowerment of non-
dominant groups. They also point out that it can be very difficult to empower individuals
who have experienced oppression across many levels in society due to an acquired attitude of
learned helplessness. However, many have written about the importance of facilitating client
empowerment and encouraging individuals to become active agents in the transition process
(Caporoso & Kiselica, 2004; Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnson, 1998; Hansen, 1996). Lieberman
23
et al. (2004) suggest fostering an environment that is indicative of empowerment and
inclusion. This means having all stakeholders demonstrate ownership of the change initiative.
For this to occur, they suggest communicating the purpose and outcomes of the initiative,
which in a general sense, is aimed to benefit everyone in the organization and encourage and
allow contribution. Lieberman et al. also suggest identifying and implementing individual
motivators. Managers can gather information about motivators through formal and informal
processes such as through casual conversation, surveys, or during orientations and
performance evaluations. Some questions to ask include the following:
• What do you like about your current position?
• What would you change about your current position?
• What motivates you to exceed expectations?
• What incentives would like to see for your accomplishments?
• What conditions are necessary for you to experience role satisfaction?
Such information can be used to foster workplace incentives that match employee interests
and needs.
In addition to the communication, trust, and respect mentioned previously,
empowerment and inclusion are also created through supported risk-taking and innovation, a
reasonable tolerance of failures, absence of fear mongering, organizational and stakeholder
flexibility, and self-awareness (The Harvard Business Essentials Series, 2003). Equally
important are identifying and developing individual strengths, interests, and skills of
employees (Harris & Moran, 2000). Harris and Moran suggest creating a participatory
organization that demonstrates the sharing of authority and responsibility, provides
recognition, validation, visible support, and choice and control over one�s life. Organizations
24
adhering to bureaucratic and hierarchical practices are unlikely to facilitate the empowerment
and inclusion necessary to propel the diversity initiative. The distinction between inclusion
and assimilation should also be noted. Although successful inclusion may require adaptation,
identity and culture should be supported and encouraged to remain distinct.
Social Responsiveness
Systems Theory incorporates a recursiveness within and between other systems and
subsystems (von Bertanlanfy, 1968). It is reasonable to suggest that organizational
functioning, particularly the impact of the organization on its employees and the goods and
services provided, also impact all levels of society (Acar, Aupperle, & Lowry, 2001). As an
example, the invention and evolution of the computer and internet has had a tremendous
impact on all aspects of our lives, extending well beyond the individuals and organizations
that created the technology. Consider the following activities which have sprung up since the
technology�s inception in the last few decades: cyber crime, online education, dating and
social networking sites, online shopping and banking, and videoconferencing.
Due to the influence and profile many organizations exert, as well as society�s
changing values system which demands increased accountability and equity, there is an
increased expectation for organizations to exhibit corporate responsiveness, and specifically
to exercise responsibility and ethical rigor in the provision of goods and services (Heslin &
Ochoa, 2008). Corporate social responsiveness extends beyond the rudimentary and
mandatory compliance to existing legislation such as Equal Opportunity initiatives. Evolving
expectations are predicated on a voluntary moral obligation amongst organizations to
consider their impact on the local and global communities within which they operate. It
would seem inconsistent and hypocritical to attempt a diversity initiative within an
25
organization without acting in complimentary manner towards society, as the company�s
undertakings effect the social system within which its stakeholders (i. e., employees and
consumers) function. It is possible that such inconsistent actions would undermine the
diversity initiative and create a milieu of mistrust among various stakeholders.
Heslin and Ochoa (2008) suggest a number of ways organizations can exhibit social
responsiveness such as through charity work and volunteerism, reducing its impact on the
environment, developing a green supply chain, or by promoting and protecting the welfare of
human and animal labour to name a few. Heslin and Ochoa concede that demonstrating
corporate responsibility can be tedious, and at times, ethical practices may conflict with each
other or with existing business practices. They suggest it is important to predict the short,
medium, and long term impacts of corporate responsibility, and coordinate organizational
initiatives with public policies and corporate regulators.
Leadership
Many would agree that leadership is paramount to effective diversity initiatives (Cox,
1991; Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998; Lieberman et al., 2004; Roosevelt, 1991). As part of the
leadership component, it is necessary to consider a leadership philosophy, buy-in, vision and
mission statements, steering and advisory groups, consultants, and strategic integration.
Leadership philosophy. As building a multicultural organization is a lengthy and
arduous process, individuals leading such initiatives should value the intended changes as
well as be prepared to commit to and allocate time and resources to the initiative. It has also
been suggested that for such organizational change to succeed, those in leadership positions
should be respected individuals who possess adequate power to allocate resources, and
overtly model diversity attitudes and behaviours (Cox, 2001; Liberman et al., 2004). These
26
attitudes and behaviors include trust and respect, communication, empowerment and
inclusion, and social responsiveness.
Roosevelt (1991) has aptly pointed out that there is a difference between management
and leadership, management typically adhering to a top-down directive style functioning
which is paternalistic and disempowering towards stakeholders, and particularly towards
employees. I would suggest that leadership is characterized by an inclusive and collaborative
approach which empowers stakeholders to get involved and take action. Roosevelt suggests
that those leading diversity initiatives should exhibit an appropriate balance between leading
and managing, and should be encouraged to reflect, rethink, and redefine the meaning of
management towards one of empowerment. The absence of the previously mentioned
conditions is likely to not only undermine the diversity initiative, but hamper the
organization�s ability to achieve buy-in.
Creating buy-in. For effective organizational change to occur, no matter what the
scale, buy-in from stakeholders is a necessary step (Simonsen, 1997). As part of this,
Lieberman et al. (2004) suggest identifying and involving all stakeholders, periodically
reviewing and updating the stakeholder list. As resistance to proposed changes is likely, it is
essential to identify and involve all stakeholders in the change process, as well as possible
resistors and reactions to change (The Harvard Business Essentials Series, 2003; Lieberman
et al.). It would seem likely that those who will resist the most are the individuals who
perceive a loss as a result of the change (The Harvard Business Essentials Series). Change is
not likely to equate to the total and utter abandonment of the past, but will likely be
representative of past successful elements, integrated with new elements necessary for
development.
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When attempting to achieve buy-in, it is paramount to explain the purpose of the
change as well as emphasize the benefits of change from the perspectives of various
stakeholders (The Harvard Business Essentials Series, 2003). Essentially, stakeholders want
to know, �what�s in it for us?� It should be noted that an individual�s experience of an
organizational change process can be highly emotive, deeply personal, and hence, very
unique (Simonsen, 1997). It is reasonable to assume that stakeholders may need time to
reflect on the changes as well as have opportunities to have their thoughts and feelings
voiced and validated. Leach et al. (1995) also suggest clearly communicating the roles,
responsibilities, and accountability of all stakeholders, and encouraging participation that is
inclusive and collaborative, such as in the development of the organization�s vision and
mission.
Vision and mission. The organization�s vision and mission statements are similarly
integral to diversity initiatives as such information identifies the purpose, goals, and values of
the organization (Sonnenschein, 1999). Simonsen (1997) further contends that values become
beacons for organizational development, and when values are shared and clarified among
stakeholders, productivity and job satisfaction increase. However, this suggests that
stakeholders must have opportunities to clarify their values in an appropriate forum.
Furthermore, Simonsen suggest having clear organizational guiding principles in the form of
a vision and mission statement will foster less resistance to change, as a clear vision and
mission reduces misinterpretation about intended direction. Simonsen states that �if people
can�t look to the past because it�s gone, and the present is in flux, they must have a vision of
the destination� (p. 54).
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Stakeholders should have opportunities to contribute to the formulation of the vision
and mission statement such as through regular meetings, or by having a cross-section of
stakeholders involved in the process. Once agreed upon, the messages should permeate
diversity, be easily accessible, and in constant view for all stakeholders n order to remind
them of their roles and responsibilities, and the organization�s direction. To prompt
stakeholders� thinking about the importance of diversity to organizational functioning, and
specifically to the vision and mission, Sonnenschein (1999) suggest the following reflective
questions:
How important is diversity in the organization? How can our diversity positively affect the organization�s mission? How do individual values lead to different notions of what being a part of an organization means? How do differences in values shape employees� acceptance of and compliance with organizational values? How do diverse values come together to form the organization�s values? What effect does the diversity of the organization have on the organization�s customer/client base? What effect does the diversity of the organization�s customer/client base have on the organization? (p. 170-171).
Once this information is generated, the task of discussing and creating an inclusive vision
and mission, with an eye on diversity, can begin.
Steering and advisory groups. Depending on the size of the organization, a steering
group or advisory group responsible for diversity related matters may be appropriate. The
purpose of the group is not to assume total responsibility for the diversity initiative, but rather
to provide leadership, stimulate discussion, encourage stakeholder participation, and ensure
follow through and accountability of individuals and tasks. Cox (2001) suggests considering
the following criteria when selecting members for such groups: respected and knowledgeable
individuals; personal interest in diversity; knowledgeable about diversity or willingness to
learn; capacity and desire to expend time and effort on the tasks; diversity of individuals
29
along various domains (e. g., gender, age, position, socioeconomic status, culture) and
representative of the organization�s stakeholders.
External consultants. In some instances, an external consultant may be contracted to
facilitate the process. It is important to contract an appropriate consultant who can offer
services based on your organization�s specific needs. Kretz (2007) argues that such
consultants need to be skilled in a variety of areas including, but not limited to, leadership,
organizational development, change management, psychology, communication and
mediation, facilitation, assessment, and measurement. When looking for a consultant, it is
important to be specific about your concerns, needs, resources, and budget. At minimum, a
proposal should be requested from the consultant detailing the approach and methodology to
be used, roles, responsibilities, and expectations of all relevant parties, a time line, relevant
fees, resources provided and required, services provided, limitations and exclusions, and
expected outcomes. As the professionals offering related services vary in training and
experience, with many operating under the auspice of various regulating bodies,
qualifications and experience of potential contractors should be explored adequately.
Sue (2008) also cautions against the dangers of using consultants who do not possess
adequate self-awareness or sufficient understanding of their worldview or those of others.
Keeping in mind the roles and responsibilities of consultants, Sue argues that �we are all
products of our cultural conditioning and have been socialized into a society in which biases
and prejudices surrounding race and gender are deeply embedded in our psyche� (p. 162).
Without a conscious examination of biases and an awareness of the worldview of self and
others, consultants risk defining organizational problems and solutions in a manner which
disempowers and invalidates the experiences of the characteristically oppressed. Ironically,
30
this preserves the status quo of an organization which consultants are attempting to change. It
is also necessary to consider that in many instances, consultants will be exposed to
organizational information that is sensitive in nature (e.g., stakeholder information,
operational practices and procedures, financials) and possibly become privy to harmful or
illegal activities (Sinclair, 2006). Sinclair suggests that once this information is acquired,
judgements regarding confidentiality and subsequent action (e.g., notification of appropriate
authorities) rest with the consultant. For those guided by professional bodies which espouse
standards and codes of conduct for its members, this decision may be somewhat guided.
However, it raises the importance of informed consent, and specifically the need to discuss
limitations of practice, including limitations of confidentiality, with the contracting parties
before work begins.
It is reasonable to request references from the consultant so that you may contact
organizations who have received similar services for similar needs. Alternatively, you may
begin your research by contacting organizations with existing diversity programs, inquiring
about the services received and recommendations. Cox (1993) also makes a noteworthy point
suggesting that due to the continuous and ongoing process of diversity change programs,
contracting consultants on a permanent or long term basis for the duration of the entire
project may not be financially feasible. As such, he suggests looking for opportunities to
build in-house diversity expertise. Although this is an important step, one must also proceed
with caution as individuals who are inadequately trained or experienced in diversity related
matters may cause harm to the change process as well as to stakeholders. As an example,
consider an individual who after some minimal training and experience attempts to facilitate
a group discussion on discrimination. As such discussions can become very controversial and
31
emotionally laden, a poorly facilitated discussion could have negative effects on the
participants� relationships with each other and the organization, undermining the intended
actions of the undertaking, or causing emotional distress to participants.
It is important to also consider the potential for conflicts of interest and general
cognitive dissonance to result from the roles and responsibilities of in house experts. Change
to a functionally effective diverse organization often requires challenges to power, privilege,
and the systematically oppressive myth of meritocracy (Sue, 2008). Those in positions of
power, or those who fear retribution from those in power, are likely to be hesitant to put forth
such challenges, or may be less likely to recognize such issues in the first place. While
cultivating in house expertise can be a rewarding and cost saving undertaking, it should be
cautioned that such experts must operate within the confines of their knowledge, skills, and
attitudes. The organization should also develop a contingency plan should in house experts
be unable to fulfill all or part of their duties due to conflicts of interest.
Strategic integration. Many would agree that an effective strategy to building diverse
organizations is to make a business case for diversity, integrating diversity into the strategic
plan (Cox, 2001; Roosevelt, 1991). As argued by Roosevelt, many organizations and
managers are reluctant to view diversity as a business issue, instead viewing it solely as a
legal, moral, or social issue. Consequently, the profound impacts of a well managed diversity
initiative are often overlooked. Roosevelt argues that it is essential for key individuals, such
as CEOs and managers, to understand how successful diversity management impacts the
viability of a given department, the business objectives, and the entire organizational
functioning.
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Although one of the more common arguments supporting diversity initiatives lies
with economic and commercial realities, Pringle, Konrad, and Prasad (2006) argue that it
should not be the only reason to support organizational diversity. They contend that
�diversity is a necessary element of the contemporary social contract that organizations have
with the societies in which they function� (p. 534). Furthermore, they point out that given the
seemingly boundaryless nature or organizational functioning, contemporary organizations
cannot ethically or pragmatically ignore the impact of diversity. Referring back to the
systems model guiding diversity initiatives, you may recall the integration of community and
global influences, and social responsiveness required for effective change to occur.
Assessment
In order to determine how to intervene, a significant amount of information needs to
be gathered so a comprehensive approach to addressing diversity issues can be crafted.
Cox (2001) emphasizes the importance of the change process being data driven, suggesting
the need to gather a comprehensive amount of relevant data from which to guide the
initiative. Three such methods of gathering data can be demonstrated through conducting a
needs analysis, cultural auditing, and benchmarking. These methods will assist the direction
of the change process by highlighting deficits and strengths in organizational functioning.
The gathered information can be subsequently integrated into the measurement plan.
Needs analysis. A needs analysis may take into consideration the organization�s
culture and its ability to accept and integrate change, as well as needs of the stakeholders
across all levels of the organization. Examining the corporate culture and its fundamental
guiding principles is important given that these principles influence the organization�s
perspective on diversity (Roosevelt, 1991). Roosevelt also contends that managers need to
33
reflect on whether or not the �culture that served you well in the past can serve you equally
well in the present and future� (p. 50).
Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) have devised a number of informal self-report
assessment tools for gathering such information including a questionnaire to assess how open
to change the existing organizational culture is. It encourages reflection across a variety of
organizational facets including �in my organization, change is viewed as a challenge and an
opportunity�there is openness to suggestions from people at all levels of the
organization�when problems emerge, there is a willingness to fix them� (p. 260). They have
also devised the diversity opinionnaire which attempts to gather information regarding staff
attitudes about diversity, and identifies willingness or resistance to dealing with diversity
related issue. Examples of statements from this tool include �diversity brings creativity and
energy to a work group�women and minorities are oversensitive to prejudice and
discrimination�some groups are more suited for or talented at certain jobs� (p. 355). The
staff diversity needs analysis, management diversity needs analysis, and the management
development diversity needs assessment checklist are also self-report assessment tools which
seek to gather information regarding learning and development needs with respect to
diversity awareness, knowledge, and skills.
Albeit more time consuming and expensive, assessment data can also be gathered
through one-on-one interviews. Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) have devised a number of
sample interview questions for leaders and policy makers, and dominant and non-dominant
group members. These tools are intended to gather information regarding attitudes,
conditions, and problems as they relate to diversity related issues. They suggest that while
these interviews can reveal rich information, caution must be exercised during
34
implementation. They contend that these interviews should ideally be conducted by skilled
individuals who can demonstrate objectivity towards the participating individuals and issues
at hand. They propose the following tips for gathering assessment data through interviews:
(a) select the most appropriate participants who will have the information you are after, (b)
introduce yourself and the purpose of the interview clarifying roles, responsibilities, and
expectations, including issues regarding anonymity and confidentiality, (c) without be overly
intrusive, use purposeful questioning to solicit the information you are after, (d) use your
questions only as a guide, exercising flexibility in the questioning and asking for clarification
or examples when appropriate, (e) be comfortable with silence and allow the participant time
for reflection, (f) note the participant�s non-verbal cues such as body language, facial
expressions, and tone of speech, (g) use effective and accurate methods for recording data
either through note taking or voice recording, being diligent to obtain necessary consents.
Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) also point out the limitations of using self-report
assessment tools. They argue that most individuals are test wise in that they are able to
deduce what is the right answer. Additionally, they contend that many are uncomfortable or
unaware of their biases and prejudices, thus limiting the utility of self-report measures. For
self-report measures to be maximized, participant honesty and some awareness of one�s
biases and prejudices, including awareness of the impact of biases, is required. This point
highlights the importance of having additional assessment means such as observation, group
discussion, role play, stakeholder feedback, and cultural auditing.
Cultural auditing. Cultural auditing is a process whereby organizational structures,
policies, and procedures are examined to determine to what degree they serve or hinder
various groups representing diverse backgrounds. As objectivity, self-awareness, and the
35
ability to challenge the status quo are required components of this process, those well served
by the existing systems may not be able to sufficiently or accurately detect such hindrances,
thereby necessitating the services of an external consultant. Arthur and Collins (2005b)
suggest a variety of prompts which may assist in the cultural auditing process such as �is
there an overriding mission statement describing how the organization values diversity?...are
staff members encouraged to incorporate diversity objectives in their learning plans and
performance appraisals?...how representative are the photos and pictures on public display?�
(p. 169).
Benchmarking. Benchmarking is an important aspect to the assessment and
evaluation of organizational information. Cox (2001) suggests three different approaches to
benchmarking, including internal benchmarking across and within departments or sectors of
an organization, and external benchmarking against other organizations. Cox argues that a
combination approach to benchmarking may be in order as each method has drawbacks. As
an example, Cox suggests that it may be difficult to obtain diversity related information from
other organizations due to the sensitive nature of such information, and it may be even more
difficult to compare information between organizations due to the range of differences. He
also cautions against blindly comparing information between organizations due to the context
in which information was gathered (e.g., layoffs, pay rises, economic crises) as this will
influence the outcomes substantially. While internal benchmarking does not address all of the
shortcoming of external benchmarking, well documented information can be easily accessed
and manipulated to provide a variety of measures and increased meaning to organizational
functioning (Cox).
36
Measurement plan. Measuring appropriate variables and using adequate measurement
tools and intervals are key steps. One should not be discouraged as some changes may take
longer than others, and some changes may seem less directly related to the overall goal. Cox
(2001) suggest that when gathering data, individual and organizational measures should be
used to illustrate that individuals and behaviours across all levels of the organization are to be
addressed in order to effectively leverage diversity. Although measures and intervals should
be unique to the needs of each organization, Cox suggests the following individual and
organizational measures which may compromise aspects of the measurement plan: amount of
perceived stereotyping, intergroup conflict, quality of intergroup communication, identity of
the organization workforce and stakeholders, organizational culture, organizational systems
and policies, turnover and absenteeism, complaints and costs associated with litigation,
successful job accommodations for individuals with disabilities.
Education
As with other organizational initiatives, education components should be relevant to
the issues impacting the organization and its attempts to leverage diversity, and should
similarly consider the information gathered during the assessment process. It is also
important to use facilitators who have the appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitudes
required to facilitate educative components which may be controversial, emotionally laden,
and highly personal. Cox (2001) also suggests maintaining manageable group sizes, setting
clear expectations and goals, delivering information which is tailored to participants, while
emphasizing that learning is contingent on stakeholder engagement and participation. To
ensure that learning has taken place, participants must also be given opportunities to
implement and demonstrate acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Some topics which
37
may be relevant across a number of organizations include diversity training, self-awareness
training, and communication.
Diversity training. As there are a plethora of topics one could include in a diversity
education initiative, it is paramount to consider the salient issues experienced by the
organization and stakeholders. As examples, issues regarding generational differences (i.e.,
differences in values, use of language and slang) or stereotypes regarding sexual orientation
or mental illness may be prevalent concerns. Information gathered from needs assessments
may assist in narrowing down possible topics. There are a variety of means through which to
educate stakeholders, including the use of videos, role plays, case analysis, small group
exercises and discussion, written and reflective exercises, or guest speakers.
Self-awareness. Worldview is a dynamic construct influenced by experiences such as
family, personal, educational, media influences, and critical incidents to name a few
(Sonnenschein, 1999). One�s worldview is constantly evolving, and thus requires continuous
reflection to determine the influence it projects. One�s worldview conveys a host of
information and is indicative of one�s values, beliefs, strengths, and biases, and determines
how one interprets a given situation. When biases, go unchecked, individuals may
unknowingly perpetuate harmful stereotypes and generalizations based on group membership
or individual characteristics (Thiederman, 2008). However, one must recognize that there is
as much difference between groups as within groups (Arthur & Collins, 2005a). Those who
do not regularly attempt to increase self-awareness may be more likely to demonstrate
selective attention, whereby information confirming existing biases is easily recalled or given
more credibility versus information which challenges one�s biases (self-fulfilling prophecy).
38
Unchecked, biases have the potential to destroy any good intentions proposed by a diversity
initiative, and serves to disempower stakeholders by invalidating alternative worldviews.
Generating increased self-awareness is an ongoing process, and an important step in
addressing harmful stereotypes and biases. Unfortunately, many have not been given
adequate encouragement or access to resources to engage in such a process (Simonsen,
1997). This is evident for marginalized community members who often lack adequate
knowledge and or access to resources necessary to facilitate this process (Henry & Lucca,
2004). Sonnenschein�s (1999) diversity self-awareness questionnaire and Gardenswartz and
Rowe�s (1998) diversity awareness continuum provide individuals with opportunities to
reflect on their self-awareness as it relates to diversity, while generating data to be used in
learning and development programs.
Communication. As organizations are seemingly becoming reliant on the effective
functioning of teams to maintain competitiveness (Simonsen, 1997), communication
becomes a central aspect to this efficiency. Much like the organization works to establish a
vision and mission, so too can teams engage in this process to ensure that team members are
working and communicating from the team�s core values, building cohesiveness.
Giving and receiving feedback may also be difficult for team members who adhere to
different values systems. As an example, while some may view constructive feedback as a
tool to develop further, some may see such an episode as shameful or a loss of face,
indicative of an inherent weakness. The appropriateness of discussing a given topic is also
culturally relevant. As an example, Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) suggest that some
cultures refrain from sharing feelings as this is seen as too personal. Additionally, while
39
Latinos typically appreciate inquiries about family, Arabs and Asians may find this topic
inappropriate to discuss with colleagues (Gardenswartz & Rowe).
Furthermore, as our communication becomes increasingly international in nature and
dependent on technology such as e-mail, chat rooms, video conferencing, and social
networking sites, miscommunication is likely, although steps can be taken to minimize the
occurrence and impact of miscommunication. Lieberman et al. (2004) suggest collaboratively
setting team norms regarding expectations around the communication tools to be used and
agreeing on common practices to address the challenges of diverse communicators. Topics
for discussion may include how to address people, greetings, how soon to respond, frequency
and length of communication, use of slang, acronyms or abbreviations, level of specificity
required (e. g., measurements, quantity, deadlines, time zones), providing phone numbers in
international formats (Lieberman et al.).
Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) also discuss the importance of non-verbal
communication which can similarly lead to misunderstandings. As examples, facial
expressions, eye contact, body language, sense of space, and touch are culturally determined
rules of communication.
Alignment of Organizational Systems
As argued by Cox (2001), organizations are systems, and in order for effective
change to occur, all of the system�s components must be modified to reflect the intended
direction. Organizational systems and practices to consider are recruitment and selection,
orientation, policies and procedures, career development practices, performance appraisals,
compensation and benefits, learning and development, the physical environment, and
marketing.
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Recruitment and selection. Recruiting and selecting employees and contractors can be
a time consuming and expensive initiative, particularly if an appropriate selection is not made
or the process is approached in a haphazard or rigid manner. It is estimated that the average
cost, direct and indirect, associated with replacing an employee is approximately 70 to 200
percent of the individual�s salary (Alberta Human Resources and Employment, 2003). Before
starting the recruitment process, it is critical to strategize the process and create a plan. This
section will discuss a general plan for recruitment and elaborate on advertising, selecting
candidates for an interview, and the interview process.
Recruitment plan. It is worthwhile to consider the following questions before
beginning: Do you know your organization in terms of it culture, values, and what it has to
offer potential candidates? Do you know what your organization already has in terms of
knowledge skills and attitudes? Do you know your hiring needs? Do you know the work
which is being offered and the knowledge, skills, and attitudes are required for the position?
Do you have a plan for evaluating these competencies? Do you know the labour market? Do
you know your talent sources? Do you know your options in terms of the recruitment
strategies available to you and the resources to support each option? How will you evaluate
and measure your outcomes? (Alberta Human Resources and Employment, 2003) Do you
know who will be involved in the process? How will you communicate and include your
stakeholders in the process?
Advertisement. If no existing employee can suitably fill the open position,
organizations must then search for appropriate candidates. Organizations who confine
themselves to advertisements through newspapers or internet postings, largely limit their
candidates to individuals who have sufficient literacy skills and access to technology. It is a
41
reality that many individuals of lower socio economic status do not have access to such
technology. To reach a wide variety of candidates, consider the following methods: internet
and print ads, using recruitment and staffing agencies, radio and television advertisements,
open house opportunities, fostering relationships with community support services (e.g.,
disability support services, immigrant support services, aboriginal support services, youth
employment centers, correctional facilities, senior services) and educational and training
institutions, engaging in work experiences and co-op placements, referrals from existing
employees, developing relationships with government agencies, career fairs, and
international recruitment.
Selecting candidates for interviews. Given the noted changes in Canada�s
demographics, and consequently its labour pool, having diverse individuals involved in the
selection process is prudent. However, it is a reality that the existing homogenous culture of
an organization or its limited resources may limit the range of diversity represented among
those involved in the recruitment and selection process. If adequate diversity among a
selection committee is difficult to achieve, those involved in this part of the process should
be familiar with some of the cultural differences as evidenced by the process. As an example,
Laroche and Rutherford (2007) point out that it is common for some individuals of Muslim
faith to close covering letters with a statement that makes reference to the role of God in
assisting the candidate to be considered for an interview. While this may seem peculiar in
mainstream North American culture, this is culturally appropriate from a Muslim perspective
due to the Islamic beliefs suggesting that God controls the future (Laroche & Rutherford).
Laroche and Rutherford also point out that criteria used to consider whether a candidate is
qualified also differs between cultures, thus reflected in resumes and cover letters. As an
42
example, they suggest that in some countries, educational requirements take precedence over
experience, with a higher qualification indicative of competency level for all positions,
whether or not the position is related to the educational qualification. They also point out that
in some instances a broad range of experience is viewed more positively than narrow, more
specialized range of experience. Software which selects resumes and cover letters on the
basis of key words may also prematurely discard qualified candidates due to different terms
used in different countries.
Additionally, some cultures which are governed by principles of harmony may
downplay accomplishment, typically highlighted in North American resumes (Laroche &
Rutherford, 2007). It is also the case that many individuals experience inconsistent or
transitional periods of employment due to a number of influences such as economic climate,
natural disaster, illness, or immigration. Laroche and Rutherford remind us of the influence
of unchecked biases which may inaccurately equate transition with personality traits. They
also point out that an unfortunate reality associated with immigration is a drop in the level of
responsibility and pay compared to previously held positions. This is not indicative of
decreased competency, but rather various systemic barriers and situational circumstances.
It should be noted that in Canada, over 40 % of the adult population experience some
difficulty with literacy (Literacy Alberta, 2008). While some employers discard applications
citing a single spelling or grammatical error, it may be more appropriate to determine part of
the necessary qualifications for the job in relation to the literacy level required for successful
task performance (Laroche & Rutherford, 2007).
Interviewing candidates. Before contacting candidates to set up an interview, it is
essential to determine the parameters of the interview and identify potential barriers qualified
43
candidates may encounter in attempting to get to interviews. As many interviews are
typically scheduled Monday to Friday during regular business hours, it is essential to
consider reasonable accommodations which can be made such as the time, place, day or use
of facilitative technology such as Skype. Examples of barriers candidates might experience
are current commitments to employment, dependent care responsibilities, lack of
transportation, or lack of interview appropriate clothes. It is also essential to consider other
barriers which could make the interview process a barrier to employment in itself. As an
example, candidates may require translators, or individuals with disabilities (anxiety,
mobility, vision impairment) may a support person or assistive technology to get to and
participate in the interview.
Preparing candidates for their interview can contribute to the success of the process
(Laroche & Rutherford, 2007). Information and expectations which can be conveyed ahead
of the interview may include the time, place and date of the interview, contact information in
case of emergency or need to reschedule, security information, including who to ask for and
procedures to follow in gaining access to the interview location, titles and names of those
who will be present and for what purpose, structure and estimated length of the interview,
items or information the candidate is required to bring, activities the client will be asked to
engage in (e.g., physical, personality test), sample interview questions with suggested
answers, and a more detailed job description.
The interview process. The interview process is perhaps one of the most dangerous
places where unchecked biases can negatively influence the selection process. As an
example, the Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) Theory posits that those in hiring
positions are likely to select candidates similar to themselves and similar to existing
44
employees; those who do not fit in are likely to become alienated and leave the organization
(Schneider & Northcraft, 2005).
While it is generally important for candidates to make a good impression in an initial
interview, such impressions are not necessarily linked to the individual�s competence and
ability to perform the tasks in question (Laroche & Rutherford, 2007). As an example, some
diverse candidates may be guided by cultural norms guiding behaviours such as eye contact,
greetings, gestures, self-promotion, and display of emotion to suggest a few (Laroche &
Rutherford). Laroche and Rutherford suggest that unless those interviewing receive training
to contextualize culturally determined behaviours, candidates demonstrating behaviours
contrary to the accepted Canadian norms will likely be rejected. As examples, Laroche and
Rutherford point out that candidates who stumble or hesitate in answering questions may be
perceived as unintelligent, yet the individual may be translating the conversation in his or her
head, searching for appropriate words. They also suggest that questions such as �do you have
any questions for us?� may seem awkward for individuals from hierarchical cultures where it
is deemed inappropriate to ask questions of those in positions of authority. Therefore, not
engaging in reciprocal interviewing may have more to do with cultural norms as opposed to
the candidate�s level of interest in the position.
It should also be noted that using methods of selection which partly rely on scores
from standardized assessments should be used and interpreted judiciously. According to
Stewart (2005), many assessment instruments, including personality and intelligence tests,
have been developed in North America and have been typically normed using white-middle
class populations. It is not to say that such tools should never be used with non-dominant
groups, but that those administering and interpreting these tests should be sufficiently
45
competent and informed as to what the implications of the test are in regards to non-
dominant groups (Stewart). For those who were unsuccessful in the interview process, or for
those who were successful but subsequently declined the position, it is important to provide
and solicit feedback to improve the recruitment and selection process.
Orientation
Once a candidate accepts a position, the process of integrating the employee into the
organization must continue with an orientation, which may vary depending on the
organizational context. Some orientation procedures implement buddy systems, so the new
employee has a designated contact for any questions or concerns within the first few months
of employment. It may be useful to compile orientation information into a handout, perhaps
guided by a checklist. Alberta Human Resources and Employment (2003) have devised a
sample orientation checklist which is divided into three sections: The organization, general
information for employees, and job-specific information. The organization information
includes areas such as history, products and services, stakeholders, vision, mission, values,
policies and procedures, organizational structure, physical layout and tour of the
organization, and names of key people. General information for employees may include
benefits, pay and pay schedule, vacation and statutory holidays, sick leave, employee training
and development opportunities, and disciplinary policies. Job-specific information may
include job location, roles and responsibilities, probation period, benefits, safety
requirements, hours of work, tools and equipment required, and who to ask for help. Not
included in this checklist but equally useful is community information, especially for those
new to the area. Information may include local services (fire, police, ambulance), health and
support services (hospitals, clinics, senior care, child care, disability and immigrant support
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services, supports for low income families) educational institutions, ethnic grocery stores,
places of worship, cultural and community centers, transit information, recreation, and
community events.
Policies and Procedures
Organizations which espouse rigid adherence to policies and procedures are unlikely
to facilitate the empowerment and inclusion necessary to propel the diversity initiative.
Given the constantly evolving arena or organizational contexts, rigidity may similarly limit
an organization�s responsiveness to change. Rigid adherence to policies and procedures can
be a major obstacle given that many more employees are reluctant to be assimilated, and
rigid adherence does not permit the flexibility necessary to respect the dignity and integrity
of individual preferences and cultures (Cox, 2001). While rigidness with respect to some
situation may be less negotiable (e.g., theft, assault, sexual harassment, fraud), the idea is to
create a structured environment that is flexible and adaptive. Policies and procedures will be
generated based on the organization�s contextual circumstances. Some ideas to consider are
open door policies to facilitate communication and regular monitoring of organizational
practices such as recruitment, promotion, compensation, and career development (Kosek,
Lobel, & Brown, 2006). In order to maintain a diverse work force, it is essential to know why
they came or did not come, why they stayed, and why they left (Alberta Human Resources
and Employment, 2003).
Career Development Practices
Although organizations that approach career development in a haphazard manner may
miss the mark, those with seemingly robust career development practices may still miss the
mark, and moreover, may be guilty of perpetuating ethnocentric practices inherent to many
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career development systems. This section will review the importance of culture and diversity
in relation to career development practices, and will make mention of two career
development practices, mentoring and expatriate assignments, common to contemporary
career development systems.
Importance of culture and diversity. Arthur and Collins (2005a) identify a number of
cultural tenets that often guide career development practices yet do not accurately reflect the
experiences of employees from diverse backgrounds, thereby imposing systemic barriers
upon those who do not reflect this reality. As an example, Arthur and Collins identify the
tenet of individualism and autonomy and the tenet of the centrality of work in one�s life.
These tenets suggest individuals make choices to shape the outcome and highlights the
pivotal role employment has in our lives in terms of identity and fulfillment. While these
tenets may resonate with a certain percentage of the population, such tenets are likely to
invalidate and disempower those who emphasize the collective responsibility in decision
making, the belief in the will of a higher power, or other roles relevant to identity formation
such as family and spirituality. Additionally, freedom of choice with respect to one�s career
is not necessarily a privilege that all cultures bestow upon its members and overlooks the
importance of serendipitous opportunities (Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz, 1999). Similar to
the myth of meritocracy as referred to previously, many career development practices are
based on the premise of equality. Arthur and Collins (2006) remind us that equal opportunity
or equal choice is not necessarily a universal privilege.
Additionally, many career development practices attempt to compartmentalize
individual experiences, separating career and personal domains. There is increased awareness
of the inherent complexity of career development and the realization that personal and career
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domains are intertwined; career development practices need to employ a holistic approach
(Hansen, 1996; Krumboltz, 1993), incorporating cultural aspects. Attention to one�s culture
is of particular significance as culture has been demonstrated to be inextricably intertwined
with an individual�s career development (Arthur & McMahon, 2005) and Organizational
career development has demonstrated to be inextricably intertwined with the success of the
business (Bernes, 2000; Simonsen, 1997).
Simonsen (1997) outlines some essential elements of an effective career development
system which is characterized by (a) an integration into organizational functioning, (b) a
philosophy of career development, (c) the integration of the organization�s needs, (d)
communication and education, (e) leadership and management involvement, (f) employee
empowerment and ownership of growth, and (g) available career development resources and
opportunities. Bernes and Magnusson (1999) also suggest the need to design career
development programs which align goals with specific interventions, subsequently evaluating
the career development services. Additionally, they make a noteworthy point highlighting the
importance of implementing career development practices that are representative of the
current context. As an example, they suggest many organizational career development
programs adhere to static and compartmentalized approaches to career development as
opposed to holistic and process oriented approaches. Redekopp (2002) also adds that
effective career development programs provide managers with appropriate training to assist
employees with career development, focus on experiential learning, offer a number of
development options, and demonstrate a culture which values and acknowledges learning.
Mentoring. Mentoring can serve a variety of purposes and assume a variety of
identities. Diverse organizations may serve as mentors to organizations currently in the
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process of leveraging diversity; cultural mentors can be used to direct culturally responsive
change within the organization and stakeholders. Employees may also participate in a
mentoring relationship either with a mentor external or internal to the organization, or
perhaps both. For non-dominant groups, mentoring can be a useful mechanism increasing a
�protégés visibility, accessibility and promotability� hence contributing to the retention of
such individuals (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998, p. 370). Gardenswartz and Rowe also
suggest that depending on the status of the mentor within the organization or community, the
mentor may also assume an advocacy role to advance the case of social justice.
Cox (2001) suggests that for some non-dominant individuals, having a mentor who
belongs to the dominant group can be as equally effective as having a mentor who shares the
protégé�s social or cultural identity. Although it is pertinent to consider the cultural identity
profile of the mentoring relationship, it is as equally important to determine what kind of
relationship and with whom, will offer the greatest outcomes for the mentor and protégé
(Cox). Given the difficulty that may arise when attempting to select the most appropriate
mentor, it is reasonable to suggest the possibility of multiple mentors for multiple purposes.
Expatriate assignments. Due to the increase number of multinational organizations
and increased dependence on foreign relationships, there are more opportunities for
employees to embark on international assignments (Simonsen, 1997). These opportunities
can contribute to an organization�s diversity agenda as such experiences offer participants
insights into other countries and cultures, as well as their own (MacDonald & Arthur, 2004).
However, in many instances, organizations approach international assignments in a
haphazard manner often with varying levels and quality of support between pre-departure,
the experience itself, and repatriation (Neault, 2005).
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The logistics of such experiences, as well as culture shock, can jeopardize the purpose
of the experience and can put the participant at risk for psychological distress (Neault, 2005).
According to Neault, sufficient pre-departure information may result in a more positive
adjustment as well as more informed career decisions. Harris and Moran (2000) also suggest
that organizations need to be diligent when selecting individuals for these experiences as it is
difficult for some to adjust and work effectively in a different context.
It should also be noted that in many instances, expatriates are accompanied by a
spouse and or children whose experiences and ability to cope with the transition may also
impact the overall experience (MacDonald & Arthur, 2005). It would seem that organizations
have a moral obligation to provide adequate support to their employees and families in order
to reduce the adverse effects of culture shock/reverse culture shock, maintain participants�
wellbeing, promote productivity, reduce costs, and maintain relations with host parties
(Harris & Morran, 2000).
MacDonald and Arthur (2005) argue that expatriate experiences, from departure to re-
entry, often have less to do with the physical change and more to do with the psychological
processes associated with cross-cultural transitions. As an example, it is not uncommon for
repatriating individuals to perceive a sense of loss of prestige and benefits, an inability to fit
in, or perceived invalidation as a consequence of the misperceptions of friends, family, and
colleagues regarding the significance of the experience (Harris & Morran, 2000). Some
suggestions to consider are pre-departure and re-entry counselling for the expat and their
accompanying family, mentors in the host and or home country (Harris & Moran), and
regular communication with the home office to minimize miscommunication and eliminate
surprises (MacDonald & Arthur). A particular focus on career counselling is warranted so
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that knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained abroad can be understood and integrated into
roles and responsibilities upon return (MacDonald & Arthur).
Performance Appraisals
Performance appraisals can be an anxiety provoking process for all parties involved
and can quickly turn into a negative experience if issues regarding diversity are not
considered. Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) argue that in order for performance appraisals to
serve their purpose, all parties need to understand the process and view it as constructive. For
this to occur, those conducting performance appraisals need to understand the relevance of
diversity to the process in order to make it a meaningful experience. As an example, cultural
values of harmony and authority may result in agreeableness and avoidance of disagreement
with the manager�s review (Gardenswartz & Rowe).
Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) also suggest that some individuals may have
difficulty separating themselves from the performance, potentially internalizing negative
feedback. They also suggest that those emphasizing the collective wellbeing or individual
wellbeing may have difficulty understanding the distinction between individual and team
performance. It can also be the case that the criteria being used to assess the performance are
discriminatory. As an example, individuals in a processing plant may have the same
minimum number of parcels to process each shift, but one of the workers� ability to achieve
this quota is impacted by a physical disability. As a consequence, this individual misses the
annual bonus which is based on the rigid quota system. It would be more reasonable to
suggest that the criteria used to evaluate performance are based on an individual�s context
including ability and strengths.
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Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) argue that organizations typically use rating scales,
forced distribution, critical incidents or performance-based criteria in the appraisal process.
They argue that while some methods may be more effective at addressing �diversity blind
spots� (p. 20), bias in the appraisal process will continue to exist so long as humans are
conducting the appraisal. They suggest performance based evaluations which outline
objectives, as well as results achieved, are the best method for reducing bias in the appraisal
process. Objectives which are characteristically positive in representation, in the process
form, in the here and now, specific, within the individual�s control, use the client�s language
(Walter & Peller, 1992) and are culturally appropriate, are likely to yields the best outcomes.
Compensation and Benefits
Given the current and continued diversification of Canadian employees, individuals
are likely to have different world views, values, and beliefs, and are likely to manifest them
in the workplace (Chen & Eastman, 1997). One could confidently suggest that different
workers are regulated by different value systems, are motivated differently, and thus, chose
to pursue different goals (Copithorne, 1999). However, many traditional compensation
systems still reward longevity, based on the obsolete concepts of the old employment
contract which emphasizes employment for life with one organization (Simonsen, 1997).
Laroche and Rutherford (2007) argue that it can be extremely difficult to create a system of
compensation which satisfies all stakeholders as schemes which satisfy stakeholders in one
area, may miss the mark in another. This also highlights the struggles of multinational
organizations, including the required diligence and knowledge of culture and diversity to
facilitate a compensation system for diverse organizations and diverse needs. While
compensation may be tied to various aspects of one�s job (e.g., sales, rate of turnover), Cox
53
(2001) suggests that particularly for management, compensation should reflect desired
behaviours and the intended direction of the organization, and specifically, the organization�s
diversity goals.
Depending on the size and variance of employee needs, orchestrating a benefit system
which appeases everyone may be next to near impossible. However, one option, although
perhaps more time consuming and possibly expensive in the short term, is to offer core
benefits (e.g., medical and dental) while allowing employees to choose another two to four
additional areas of coverage from an alternative list. For example, a single parent may elect
additional child care coverage, while another may elect additional elder care coverage. Yet,
another employee not originally from Canada may find the standard two weeks of vacation
insufficient to travel home to visit friends and family, therefore electing additional vacation
time.
It should also be pointed out that benefits do not always have to reflect a significant
cost as in the case of casual dress days, arranging staff car pools, flexible scheduling, or
providing free city library cards. There are a number of other suggestions including:
dependent care allowance, health benefits (e.g., medical, dental, eye glass, prescription,
counselling, acupuncture, massage, chiropractic) advice (financial, legal), recreation passes,
tickets to local events, laundry and dry cleaning services, onsite ATM, employee recognition
programs, pet insurance, well behaved pets in the workplace, maternity leave for new parents
including adoptive parents, bereavement leave, tuition reimbursement, financial assistance to
buy home computers, study leave, sabbaticals, employee volunteer programs, living
allowance, transit passes, free or subsidized parking, interest free loans, RRSP , RESP, and
RDSP contributions, stock options, and profit sharing, product or service discounts, personal
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or mental health days, allowances for self-development, personal training, smoking cessation,
wellness day or wellness accounts, settlement assistance, staff functions, organization
sponsored clubs and recreation teams, service awards, compressed workweek,
telecommuting, job sharing, job rotation, ergonomic assessments on employee work areas,
employee referral incentives, work exchanges (nationally or internationally) pension and
retirement plans, job coaching, same sex benefits, ESL training, accent reduction.
The above suggestions are not meant to represent an exhaustive list, but merely
possibilities of which to begin thinking about culture and diversity and their relevance to
compensation and benefits. While implementing and extending compensation and benefits
packages to employees can seem burdensome or difficult to manage, it is also useful to
reframe the purpose of the benefit system in terms of keeping staff happy, productive, and
employed while maintaining the competitiveness of the organization.
Learning and Development
Given the noted impact of globalization and unprecedented change within the
workplace, continuous learning and development are necessary in order to maintain
individual and organizational competitiveness (Cox, 2001; Perry & Parlamis, 2006;
Simonsen, 1997). The previously used term, training, has been dropped and replaced by
learning. As argued by Simonsen, organizations �can provide a full training calendar and be
neither a learning organization nor a development culture� (p. 61). She suggests that a
learning and development culture is characterized by the never there yet philosophy,
suggesting the importance of life-long learning and continuous development. She also
suggests that learning and development opportunities need to materialize from a process of
planning and needs assessment. Learning and development must subsequently be followed
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by opportunities for demonstration of acquired knowledge and measurement to determine
whether or not learning occurred.
The Physical Environment
The physical environment can similarly influence the organization�s ability to
leverage diversity. It can be relatively easy to reinforce status hierarchies by having separate
entrances, reserved parking based on position, varying quality of office furniture and supplies
based on position, and executive areas such as dining rooms and washrooms (Leach et al,
1995). Having a common area which is devoid of derogatory or suggestive literature,
pictures, or music would seem to contribute to an inclusive environment. It is also important
to consider whether relevant stakeholders are able to access the organization and its relevant
facilities, considering whether barriers such as narrow corridors impede access for
individuals with physical disabilities. It is important to consider including magazines or
newspapers in common areas that take into account literacy level, language or interests of
stakeholders. Consider the distribution and access of memos, postings of the organizational
vision or mission, values, code of conduct, instruction manuals, and relevant legislation: Do
they need to be translated into other languages or plain language, or do they need to be
explained by a translator? Are available food choices (vending machines, cafeterias, staff
events) considerate of personal beliefs and dietary restrictions (e.g., vegetarians, vegans,
allergies, ethnic variety)? Depending on employee composition, it may also be appropriate to
provide places for individuals to pray, exercise, or breastfeed.
Marketing
While there are many organizations and consultants whose role it is to piece together
effective marketing strategies for various products, services, and ideas, this discussion does
56
not seek to declare expertise in this area. Rather the purpose or this section is to highlight the
relevance of culture and diversity to organizational marketing. It is noteworthy to consider
the impact of inclusive language, images, and graphics representative of stakeholder
diversity, and various modes of presentation which are accessible, user friendly, and
meaningful to an equally diverse audience. Hence, it may not be inappropriate to suggest that
an organization have multiple marketing strategies to engage specific audiences and for
different purposes.
Recognizing the interdependence between organizational elements can be a tedious
process, however, aligning them in a fashion that supports diversity is invaluable. According
to Simonsen (1997), an absence of organizational alignment will sabotage the process and
frustrate stakeholders.
Follow-up
Cox (2001) argues that often, once new initiatives are launched, momentum and
consistency can be easily lost. Consequently, little follow-up occurs and lack of attention will
undermine the process. As part of this follow-up process, it is noteworthy to consider the
impact of accountability, evaluation, and the integration of outcomes into the system.
Accountability
One of the central components to the systems model presented earlier was inclusion,
emphasizing the participation of all stakeholders in the transition process. Depending on an
individual�s roles and responsibilities within the organization, accountability will vary.
However minimal, accountability is an essential part of the process required to integrate
learning and change, as well as to reinforce the importance of diversity. As Gardenswartz and
Rowe (1998) point out, �credibility is lost when there is no clear accountability� (p. 315).
57
They suggest that tasks, behaviours, and results need to be assigned, measured, and
integrated into performance measurement and evaluations, with leaders demonstrating the
greatest accountability. While some stakeholders may experience extrinsic rewards as a
consequence of demonstrating diversity oriented behaviours and attitudes (e.g., successful
problem solving through team communication), intrinsic rewards (e.g., financial rewards) can
also reinforce desired behaviours.
Evaluation
Without sufficient information to evaluate and measure, one cannot be certain how
successful the initiative has proven, or what could be done to streamline the process.
Information is necessary to refine goal setting and strengthen the efforts of stakeholders
(Cox, 2001). Cox contends that when individuals have tangible targets and can see evidence
of achievement, they are more likely to engage in the processes contributing to these
outcomes. In order for this to happen, communication must be part and parcel of this process.
He also reminds us that we get what we measure, and we don�t get what we don�t measure,
highlighting the significance of well defined goals and measurement plans. It should also be
noted that tools used to gather this information should be administered and interpreted by
competent professionals who have sufficient training and experience in this area of expertise.
Integration of Outcomes
Follow-up and evaluation can yield invaluable information which can be integrated
into the existing process for further refinement and goal attainment. This step may also yield
information requiring further assessment. However, information which is not critically
analyzed and simply taken at face value, may prove less useful or mislead the direction of the
change initiative.
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Similar to the other model components, follow-up is a necessary and integral step. It
is based in part on the premise of continuous improvement and life long learning. According
to Cox (2001), �the work on diversity is never done�we just keep refining it and journeying
to ever-higher levels of achievement� (p. 131).
The systems model for organizational diversity initiatives has attempted to borrow
ideas from the existing literature while integrating contemporary ideas and concepts relevant
to the current state of diversity management. Such concepts include empowerment, social
responsiveness, and systems principles. Echoing Cox�s (2001) argument, which underscores
the follow-up stage as an integral step to continuous development and refinement, so too
must individuals and organizations explore the model in order to refine and develop it
further. Doing so acknowledges that the individual, the organization, and the contexts in
which they function are not static constructs. Therefore models intended to guide change
must similarly be flexible and open to change. This model serves as a platform from which to
continue the diversity dialogue among and between professions including discussing the
potential implications of the model.
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CHAPTER IV
Synthesis and Implications
Although the benefits of a successful organizational change process are incalculable
to its stakeholders and the local and global communities, it is a process which also presents a
number of challenges, although arguably surmountable. Cultivating a productive and
efficient multicultural organization is a task that requires fortitude, leadership, patience, and
resources to say the least. It also requires a suitable and descriptive model such as that
presented in this discussion. In considering the implications of the model, it is necessary to
consider the strengths and limitations the model presents, including factors contributing to
failure. It is also necessary to address the model�s potential influence in terms of subsequent
development in the field of organizational diversity.
Strengths
The model presented provides a general framework which could be arguably tailored
to suit a variety of organizations, taking into consideration presenting circumstances such as
the size of the organization, stakeholder demographics, and salient issues. Therefore the
model could be used by various organizations (e.g., not-for-profit, profit, manufacturing,
educational institutions) to address different diversity related issues. The model attempts to
integrate general principles which can be applied to most organizations, granted unique
contextual nuances will require specific adjustments. The model offers a unique interface
between organizational functioning and global and community influences, and also integrates
relevant trends, predominantly the increased awareness of social justice. Incorporating the
systems perspective allows for a more fluid and accurate representation of individual and
organizational functioning which is constantly evolving. It underscores the rights of all
60
community members in an increasingly diverse society, yet highlights the inherent
responsibility all of us must exercise in relation to our abilities in order to realize a diversity
utopia. I would also suggest that increased awareness and exposure to positive diversity
interactions within organizational settings can be carried outside the organization and applied
to other personal interactions, reducing isms (e.g., sexism, racism) and increasing social
harmony.
A variety of individuals with diverse backgrounds, professional experience, and
qualifications profess expertise in the area of diversity management, thus resulting in varied
approaches and outcomes. This model and discussion may stimulate further refinement as to
the competencies and qualifications needed to implement organizational diversity initiatives.
It may also provide the impetus for educational institutions to offer or refine specific learning
opportunities tailored to this professional niche.
Limitations
It would seem that organizations most suited to implement the model are those
committed to the change process, having access to the resources and processes required to
facilitate this transition. Therefore, individuals and organizations looking for a quick fix may
not be well served by the information presented in this discussion. While this model presents
a general framework for diversity, specific interventions and techniques require tailoring to
meet the unique needs of each organization. The onus is on the user to locate necessary
resources and tailor the model to the specific context. Therefore, this discussion can only
serve as base from which to begin the diversity change process. Considering the implications
to stakeholders of a poorly managed intervention and the need to tailor interventions to the
61
specific needs of each organization, the information presented in this discussion is best
operationalized by competent individuals.
Given that the model emphasizes constructs such as empowerment and social justice,
this model may not be applicable to organizations or societies which adhere to ideas such as
censorship or undemocratic philosophies. It is quite possible that this model would be
difficult to implement in non-democratic organizations or cultures were employee
compensation is equal regardless of one�s contribution or where it is unacceptable to
negotiate with or challenge those in authority.
In terms of the assessment and evaluation phase, a significant amount of information
may have to be gathered from stakeholders in order to plan, evaluate, and draw conclusions
as to the model�s impact on organizational and individual functioning. For many, divulging
sensitive information raises questions of confidentiality, retention of information, and may be
perceived as a violation of privacy (Russell, 1991). This may blur professional boundaries in
the workplace by entitling access to information from other areas of an individual�s life
which some regard as personal and confidential.
This model and its constructs have yet to be operationalized, therefore, its applied
value has yet to be validated in a practical or empirical sense. Further research and
experimentation with the model is warranted in order to formulate an informed decision
regarding its utility. Research is also required to make subsequent refinements to the model.
As part of this research, a general consensus regarding the definitions of the model�s various
constructs must be achieved. As mentioned in the introductory section of this discussion,
approaches to diversity and key terms such as diversity, vary in definition and consequence.
62
Why Diversity Initiatives Fail
There are a number of reasons why implementing a diversity program may prove
unsuccessful. Cox (2001) identifies some common pitfalls, including misdiagnosis of the
problem, implementing a narrow solution, lack of consistency, inadequate resources, poor
communication or leadership, inability to be flexible and adapt the change process when
necessary, reluctance to change, not using relevant data to drive the change process, lack of
or poorly defined objectives and goals, quitting the process when progress is made or
declaring victory too soon, lack of follow through, misunderstanding of the commitment
required, and impatience. Gardenswartz and Rowe (1998) also identify the absence of a
relevant context as a contributor to failure. They suggest ignoring macroclimates factors such
as those external to the organization (i.e., community and global influences) will influence
the change initiative and must be given consideration. Perhaps before starting the change
process, conducting a SWOT analysis (identifying the organization�s strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats) and brainstorming subsequent action to minimize the impact of
potential saboteurs is necessary. Periodic SWOT analyses may be enacted to ensure the new
threats are identified and kept from derailing the diversity initiative.
I would suggest success is not exclusive of failure, however the influence to which
each sabotaging agent will have on the process will vary. As argued by Gardenswartz and
Rowe (1998) �these saboteurs, singularly or collectively, can influence the success or failure
of your initiative (p. 299). Although the above mentioned pitfalls do not represent an
exhaustive list, having a comprehensive model and the skillfull guidance of adequately
trained professionals can limit the failure and maximize the success of diversity programs.
63
The model and suggestions provided in this discussion illustrate methods through which
organizational diversity can be approached and complicating factors minimized.
The Future of Diversity
I would argue that diversity and culture are dominant forces in society, and
organizational change initiatives are likely to increase in momentum in an effort to harness
the skills and strengths of workers. Further work is required to understand the dynamics of
diversity and culture, and their impact across all levels of society, not just organizational
functioning. As diversity and culture are only but two influences in a larger systems network,
the status of these variables is likely to change, and subsequently, create new experiences and
phenomena we have yet to explore. The model presented has the capacity to act as a catalyst
furthering this discussion and development. Some key areas of potential influence are
additional research, interdisciplinary collaboration, expanding roles for career development
professionals, perspective gathering from stakeholders, and increased institutional leadership.
Additional research. It has been suggested that while much of the literature and
research on diversity originates from the United States, it cannot always be generalized with
the same accuracy to other contexts due to varying social, political, and economic climates,
and composite labour markets (Sue at al., 2006). Therefore, further research is required to
address Canada�s increasing diversity and unique needs (Arthur & Collins, 2005a).
One must also note the need to refine measurement and evaluation practices. Further
consistency and agreement of definitions and variables, such as diversity (Kossek et al.,
2006) and culture are required. Additional research is also required on sound quantitative and
qualitative measures required to gather assessment data, assess the impact of change
processes, and evaluate the effectiveness of diversity initiatives (Kossek et al.).
64
Gathering stakeholder perspectives. One of essential features of the systems model
previously presented was inclusion. Our understanding of diversity and culture cannot
proceed effectively if the voices of those impacted by diversity and culture are not given
sufficient opportunity to express their perspectives or are excluded from the information
gathering process. Pringle et al. (2006) suggest that a significant omission in much of the
existing literature is employees� experiences of diversity and culture as it relates to
organizational functioning. They suggest one explanation for this gap in the literature is the
frequent restricted access experienced by researchers. They suggest managers are hesitant to
provide unrestricted access to employees in the event that the research generated identifies
hostile or discriminatory environments for which organizations and managers are
subsequently legally liable.
Interdisciplinary collaboration. A previously presented argument suggested that in
organizations, diverse groups are apt to generate more perspectives, solve problems more
creatively, and are less susceptible to group think than are homogenous groups. It stands to
reason that our understanding of culture and diversity can benefit from this same logic. As it
is often difficult to understand a particular phenomenon from only one perspective, the
continued dialogue and collaboration between diverse fields of practice is necessary to
advance our understanding of diversity and culture (Pringle et al., 2006). There are many
worthwhile perspectives and disciplines making significant contributions to our
understanding of diversity and culture such as psychology, sociology, economics, political
science, human resource management, and education to name a few (Pringle et al.).
Expanding roles for career development professionals. As organizations attempt to
implement culturally appropriate models into their functioning, the required competency and
65
dedication of existing employees to complete this transition is often inadequate, necessitating
the need for external consultants to facilitate this process (Arthur & Collins, 2005b). The
increased recognition of the importance of diversity and the required competence to achieve
this has resulted in expanding roles for career development professionals as they attempt to
offer services to an increasingly diverse clientele (Arthur & Collins). As mentioned
previously, this might also encourage professional and educational institutions to offer
further learning and development opportunities to ensure competent practice.
Increased institutional leadership. As one of the primary requirements for effective
organizational change was adequate leadership, so too must community institutions take on
this role to advance the understanding and infusion of diversity and culture into society
across all levels. Institutions such as government (municipal, provincial, and federal),
education, healthcare, and religion have unique opportunities to role model attitudes and
behaviours that are inclusive and empowering for Canada�s multicultural mosaic.
Conclusion
The purpose of this discussion was to provide career development practitioners with a
systematic and comprehensive model to guide the implementation of organizational diversity
programs. Specifically, it was intended to assist practitioners in minimizing the challenges of
organizational diversity, while maximizing its opportunities. The model�s key components
includes the integration of systems theory, suggesting organizational components do not
function in isolation from the organization, nor does the organization function independent of
its context. While this model presents a general framework for diversity, specific
interventions and techniques require tailoring to meet the unique needs of each organization.
Therefore, this discussion can only serve as base from which to begin the diversity change
66
process. No one process of organizational change will be exactly the same as another
organization�s transition. Each instance will present its own unique advantages and
challenges thus necessitating leadership, competency, and commitment. I suspect there will
be instances when this model will fit, and instances when individuals will not be well served
by this model. However, I suspect creating a model which seeks to effectively explain a
particular phenomena in every instance would be next to impossible, and would be
cumbersome at best.
Given Canada�s multicultural society and current economic volatility, Canadian
organizations are well positioned to lead the way in organizational diversity. Organizations
must exercise these opportunities in order to sustain our economic and social viability.
Facilitating organizational diversity is also necessary in order to adhere to the formal and
informal multicultural ideologies that our country�s functioning is predicated on.
Sue et al. (1998) suggest that a truly multicultural and diverse organization is unlikely
to ever exist due to the sheer multitude of dynamics impacting this goal. While one cannot
deny the inherent complexity of such a goal, I would suggest, that if we cease to dream, we
may cease to try, and that would be a failure of catastrophic proportions for individuals and
organizations in Canada.
67
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Appendix
A Systems Model for Implementing Diversity Initiatives
Global Influences
Community Influences