association montessori internationale ami · a new world and education (1946/47) maria montessori...

AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 1

AMI Journal2013/special

December “preview”

published by Association Montessori Internationale

EDITORIAL AND CONTENTSPEACE THROUGH EDUCATIONa 1937 lecture by Maria and Mario Montessori

AMI

MONTESSORIINTERNATIONALE

ASSOCIATION


AMI Journal 2013Special December “Preview”

Contents

p 2 Contents AMI Journal 1/2 2013

p 6 Editorial Board

p 7 Editorial by David Kahn

p 19 “Peace through Education”, a 1937 lecture by Maria and Mario Montessori


AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 1

5 Editorial DavidKahn

PartIWorldWarI–Peace–WhiteCross(1917/1918)

SanDiegoLectures(1917)

9 TeachingPeaceinaTimeofWar:MariaMontessori’s1917Lectures EricaMoretti

9 PeaceLectureI,TheFirstofFourSpecialLecturesdeliveredonthe1917SanDiegoTrainingCourse,February18,1917

MariaMontessori

TheWhiteCross(1917/1918)

15 TheWhiteCross(1917) MariaMontessori

20 Nobodyleftbehind:Montessori’sworkindefenceofchildrenasvictimsofwar PaolaTrabalzini32 LetterontheWhiteCrossaddressedtoProfessorFerrari,PhysicianattheItalian

SocietàUmanitaria,ofMilan(1917) MariaMontessori

32 Montessori,theWhiteCrossandProf.Ferrari AugustoScocchera

Contents2013/1-2

them e of this double issue: education a nd peace


AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 2 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 3

PartIITheInterbellum:EducateforPeaceThePeaceCongressatCopenhagen(1937)

38 PeacethroughEducationMariaandMarioMontessori

53 TheAimsoftheSocialPartyoftheChildMariaMontessori

53 AStepforwardstowardstheFuture:TheSocialPartyoftheChild MariaMontessori

MontessoriandGandhi

38 SpeechMohandaK.GandhiatMontessoriTrainingCollege,London,October28,1931

53 FromalettertoDrMontessoriDatedNovember19,1931MahatmaGandhi

53 GandhiandMariaMontessori AlbertJoosten

PartIIIMontessori’seffortsforpeaceeducationafterWorldWarII

EducationforaNewWorld

53 ANewWorldandEducation(1946/47) MariaMontessori

53 SanRemoLecturesIV:WorldUnitythroughtheChild MariaMontessori

MontessoriandtheNobelPrizeforPeace

53 ALostOpportunityNobelPeacePrize—Some“NotesintheMargin”CamilloGrazzini

53 InSupportofMariaMontessori’scandidacyfortheNobelPeacePrizeMariaJervolino

53 MariaMontessoriwritestoherfriendGiulianaSorgeandreflectsontheNobelPrizeforPeaceMariaMontessori

PartIV

PartIVMontessoriEducationandPeaceEducationToday

38 AScienceofPeace AnnetteM.Haines

41 DevelopmentoftheChild’sMindandValuesofSolidarityAlbertoOliverio

53 Buildingpeace‘ininteriorehomine’—MontessorianpathsFrancoCambi

53 ASharpCalltothePublicConscience:MariaMontessoriandTheSocialPartyoftheChildGinniSackett

53 PeaceEducationPrimer KevinKester

53 Nature,MoralityandtheAdolescent:TowardthePursuitofHumanSolidarity LaurieEwert-Krocker

53 TowardtheUltimateGoalofPeace:HowaMontessoriEducationattheHighSchoolLevelSupportsMoralDevelopmentthroughStudyandSocialLifeElizabethA.Henke

53 EducationandPeaceReconsideredReginaFeldman

53 GuidedbyNatureNAMTA’sexhibitattheInternationalMontessoriCongressinPortland,inbookform

SpecialthankstoDavidKahnandNAMTAfordonatingtoAMIthecoloursectiononGuidedbyNatureandsponsoringitsproduction

Photographs&illustrationsinthisissuecourtesyofPaolaTrabalzini,theMontessori-PiersonPublishingCompanyandtheMariaMontessoriArchives,

heldatAssociationMontessoriInternationale.






MontessoriandGandhi












PartIV




















MontessoriandGandhi












PartIV

PartIVMontessori PeaceEducationCommentaries


















MontessoriandGandhi












PartIV














Part V: Montessori Adolescent Education, Peace, Solidarity and Morality

AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 6AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 4

EditorialBoardKayBakerPhD.,directoroftrainingattheelementarylevel(6-12),USASusanFeez,PhD,SeniorLecturer,SchoolofEducation,UniversityofNewEngland,Armidale

NSW,AustraliaAlexanderHenny,memberoftheCommunicationsBoardCommittee,theNetherlandsDrStevenHughes,DirectoroftheCenterforResearchonDevelopmentalEducation,past

presidentoftheAmericanAcademyofPediatricNeuropsychology,andChairofAMI'sGlobalResearchCommittee,USA

DavidKahn,ExecutiveDirectorNAMTAandProgrammeDirectorofAMontessoriOrientationtoAdolescentStudies,USA

ProfessorHaraldLudwig,co-chair,professoremeritusoftheMontessoriCentreattheUniversityofMünster,andamemberoftheeditorialboardoftheGermanmagazineMontessori,Germany

RitaSchaeferZenerPhD.,co-chair,directoroftrainingattheprimarylevel(3-6),AMIexaminerandconsultant,USA

PaolaTrabalzini,Montessorihistorian,lecturerattheUniversityofRome"LaSapienza"wheresheisoneofthefoundersandmemberoftheScientificCommitteeofthe"MontessoriLaboratory",Italy

EditorialstaffatAMI:CarolinaMontessori,JokeVerheul.

PublishersAssociationMontessoriInternationaleKoninginneweg1611075CNAmsterdam,NetherlandsTel:+31206798932e-mail:[email protected]

copyto:[email protected]

ISSN:2215-1249

AMIBoard

AndréRoberfroid,PresidentLynneLawrence,ExecutiveDirectorIanStockdale,Treasurer

GuadalupeBorbolla,PeterDavidson,PhilipO’Brien,MollyO’Shaughnessy,MaryCarolineParker,MariaTeresaVidales.

Editorial

ConvergingPassages:SocialReform,Peace,andMontessoriEducationforLife

introduction: the essential peace message

MariaMontessorihadawide-reachinglifeandworkthatrevealstheexampleofanevolvingpersonalvision,adeepeningbeliefandworldviewregardingthe“missionofman”1toreformbotheducationandsociety.TheprofileofeducationalsocialreformisreachedthroughpassagesorstepsthatarepresentedonseveralconcretelevelsleadingtoMontessori’sconceptofpeace.Thehis-toryofMontessori’sthoughtfollowsaninexorablelogicleadingdefinitivelytosocialreformfirstandpeacesecond;thatis,socialreformpointingtowardsanewdefi-nitionofpeace.Themission of man—whatMontessoribringstopeace—seekstofulfileducation’sfinalaimtothefullestbybene-fitingthewelfareofhumandevelopmentontheonehand,andthepreservationofnatureontheother.

ThequestforfindingtheessentialpeacemessagefromMontessori’sprimarywrit-ingspresentsamyriadoftopicstodiscussincludingreverencefortheformativelearn-ingcapacityofthechild,theardorofsocialreform,thegrandeuroftheorganicunityoflife,thehuman-builtworld(supra-nature)encroachingonthenaturalworld,andtheperspectiveofhistoryshowingusthefuture(seeappendixforafulllistingoftopicsbypagefromEducation and Peace,adefinitivecollectionoflecturesestablishingherclas-sicalframeworkforreform).

ItisevidentthatMontessori’slifeworkofsocialreformindicatesabroadreformagendathatwasshapedfromherfirstreformexperiencesasanadult,fullyexpect-ingthateducationwouldcontinuetakingontheoppressedanddowntrodden.Asweconsidertheoriginsofsocialreform,wecannotoverlookthepowerofSanLorenzoastheultimatefoundationforsocialreformandgoalforpeaceinMontessori’slife.

the san lorenzo story: the origin of montessori reform

PaolaTrabalzinipresentedanewviewpointontheopeningofthefirstCasa dei Bambini.2Shedescribedadoublereality,socialandeducational,encounteredbytheyoungMariaMontessori,aphysician,apowerfulspeakerforthecivilrightsofwomen,auni-versitylecturerinanthropology,andanewmanagerofabuildingexperimentinaneighbourhoodknownas“theshameofItaly”.3

TheyoungMontessoriwasonasocialmissiontoministertotheSanLorenzochildreninneed;butintheexperiment,almostlikeanaccidentinthelab,Montes-soriencounteredaneducationalrealitysheneverexpectedtosee.Montessoriwasnoingénuetosocialcauses.Before1907,herspeechesreachedouttothe“silencesofeducation,”tomotherswithmentallyretardedchildrenwhothemselveshadnoresourceswithwhichtounderstandoradvo-



EditorialBoardKayBakerPhD.,directoroftrainingattheelementarylevel(6-12),USASusanFeez,PhD,SeniorLecturer,SchoolofEducation,UniversityofNewEngland,Armidale

NSW,AustraliaAlexanderHenny,memberoftheCommunicationsBoardCommittee,theNetherlandsDrStevenHughes,DirectoroftheCenterforResearchonDevelopmentalEducation,past

presidentoftheAmericanAcademyofPediatricNeuropsychology,andChairofAMI'sGlobalResearchCommittee,USA

DavidKahn,ExecutiveDirectorNAMTAandProgrammeDirectorofAMontessoriOrientationtoAdolescentStudies,USA

ProfessorHaraldLudwig,co-chair,professoremeritusoftheMontessoriCentreattheUniversityofMünster,andamemberoftheeditorialboardoftheGermanmagazineMontessori,Germany

RitaSchaeferZenerPhD.,co-chair,directoroftrainingattheprimarylevel(3-6),AMIexaminerandconsultant,USA

PaolaTrabalzini,Montessorihistorian,lecturerattheUniversityofRome"LaSapienza"wheresheisoneofthefoundersandmemberoftheScientificCommitteeofthe"MontessoriLaboratory",Italy

EditorialstaffatAMI:CarolinaMontessori,JokeVerheul.

PublishersAssociationMontessoriInternationaleKoninginneweg1611075CNAmsterdam,NetherlandsTel:+31206798932e-mail:[email protected]

copyto:[email protected]

ISSN:2215-1249

AMIBoard

AndréRoberfroid,PresidentLynneLawrence,ExecutiveDirectorIanStockdale,Treasurer

GuadalupeBorbolla,PeterDavidson,PhilipO’Brien,MollyO’Shaughnessy,MaryCarolineParker,MariaTeresaVidales.

Editorial

ConvergingPassages:SocialReform,Peace,andMontessoriEducationforLife

introduction: the essential peace message

MariaMontessorihadawide-reachinglifeandworkthatrevealstheexampleofanevolvingpersonalvision,adeepeningbeliefandworldviewregardingthe“missionofman”1toreformbotheducationandsociety.TheprofileofeducationalsocialreformisreachedthroughpassagesorstepsthatarepresentedonseveralconcretelevelsleadingtoMontessori’sconceptofpeace.Thehis-toryofMontessori’sthoughtfollowsaninexorablelogicleadingdefinitivelytosocialreformfirstandpeacesecond;thatis,socialreformpointingtowardsanewdefi-nitionofpeace.Themission of man—whatMontessoribringstopeace—seekstofulfileducation’sfinalaimtothefullestbybene-fitingthewelfareofhumandevelopmentontheonehand,andthepreservationofnatureontheother.

ThequestforfindingtheessentialpeacemessagefromMontessori’sprimarywrit-ingspresentsamyriadoftopicstodiscussincludingreverencefortheformativelearn-ingcapacityofthechild,theardorofsocialreform,thegrandeuroftheorganicunityoflife,thehuman-builtworld(supra-nature)encroachingonthenaturalworld,andtheperspectiveofhistoryshowingusthefuture(seeappendixforafulllistingoftopicsbypagefromEducation and Peace,adefinitivecollectionoflecturesestablishingherclas-sicalframeworkforreform).

ItisevidentthatMontessori’slifeworkofsocialreformindicatesabroadreformagendathatwasshapedfromherfirstreformexperiencesasanadult,fullyexpect-ingthateducationwouldcontinuetakingontheoppressedanddowntrodden.Asweconsidertheoriginsofsocialreform,wecannotoverlookthepowerofSanLorenzoastheultimatefoundationforsocialreformandgoalforpeaceinMontessori’slife.

the san lorenzo story: the origin of montessori reform

PaolaTrabalzinipresentedanewviewpointontheopeningofthefirstCasa dei Bambini.2Shedescribedadoublereality,socialandeducational,encounteredbytheyoungMariaMontessori,aphysician,apowerfulspeakerforthecivilrightsofwomen,auni-versitylecturerinanthropology,andanewmanagerofabuildingexperimentinaneighbourhoodknownas“theshameofItaly”.3

TheyoungMontessoriwasonasocialmissiontoministertotheSanLorenzochildreninneed;butintheexperiment,almostlikeanaccidentinthelab,Montes-soriencounteredaneducationalrealitysheneverexpectedtosee.Montessoriwasnoingénuetosocialcauses.Before1907,herspeechesreachedouttothe“silencesofeducation,”tomotherswithmentallyretardedchildrenwhothemselveshadnoresourceswithwhichtounderstandoradvo-



devotedtotherescueandrehabilitationofchildrenwhohadsufferedfromtheGreatWar.ShebeginsacompassionatepleafortheWhiteCross:

Thereisfound,intheserefugeechildren,a

specialformofmentaldisturbance,which

constitutesarealmentalwound—alesion

thatisasserious,ifnotmoreserious,than

woundsinthephysicalbody.

Picturetheseinnumerablelittlevictims,who

aresuffering;sufferingfromhungerand

fatigue;oftenphysicallywoundedaswell;

sufferingfrominfectionsofeverykind;but

alsofromthismoreprofoundandprolonged

lesionofthenervoussystem.Weknowthat

thetreatmentofnervousdiseasescannotbe

bymedicine.Thetreatmentofthenervous

systemornervesmayproperlybecallededu-

cation.(seepage39)

TheWhiteCrosswasmeanttobeanorgani-zationof‘thosewhoseektosavethefutureofhumanityandtohealthewoundsintheheartsofthesechildren,’butitnevermateri-alized.However,thehealingintentofMon-tessorimostcertainlyseededsocialreformprojectslikeUNESCO(1950)and,afterherdeath,theHelptheChildrenFund-UnitedKingdom(1968),TibetanIndigenousRefu-gees(1969),SouthAfricanInitiativesforTownshipsandSettlements(1978),Austra-lianIndigenousgroups(2005),and,mostrecently,theCornerofHopeinNewCanaan,nearNakuru,Kenya(2007).Mon-tessoribelievedthatthebestdeterrentstowarwerethestrengtheningofcharacter,thenurturingofthespirit,andwhathascometobeknownas positive psychology.Somecon-sideredherdiscourseidealisticandherthe-oreticalapproachunrealistic,unconvincing,andnotimmediateenough.Butshebelievedinthetransformingpowerofadevelopmen-

taleducation.Childrenwerehercalltoactionandhersensitivitytothepersonalityofthechildtransformedthehouseforchil-drenintoahome.

Lecturethreeofthe1917SanDiegolec-turesformulatesapositivepsychologythatrevealsafoundationaltenetofMontessori’s"peacethrougheducation":

So,wehaveamethodofconsideringthe

humanbeingthatisdifferentfromcurrent

thought,becausetodayweknowwecaninflu-

encethe…innerlife...Andthatfutureman,

whowillbehealthier,moresaneandmore

moralthanwe,willsolveproblemsimpossi-

bletous.

InFrancoCambi'sarticleBuilding Peace in interiore homine,interiorpeaceisdistin-guishedfromthepeaceoftheouterworld,andhecreditsMontessoripedagogywithauniquereconstructionoftheself.

But,forMariaMontessori,thereisalsoa

placewherethe“secret”potentialityofchild-

hoodcanandmustcometolight:itisschool,

asaspaceofsocialization,ontheonehand,

andofhumandevelopment,ontheother.

Startingfrominfantschool,sinceitishere

thatthechildispreservedandinterpreted,

protectedanddeveloped.

Itisthusthetaskofeducationtosteerhim

[thechild]backtowardshismoreauthentic

self.…Thus,pedagogybecomestheprimary

instrumenttogiverealfinalshapetothat

taskof“everlastingpeace”whichstands

beforeus.

TheevolvingaspectsofMontessori'sper-sonalitytheoryinrelationtopeaceandedu-cationareexpressedintheconceptsofnor-malization,normality,andvalorization.Norma meansthenorm of the species,implying

catefortheirchildren.Montessoriperse-veredforthesemothers’rights,inthewordsofPaolaTrabalzini,‘therighttoeducation,training,knowledge,employment,eitherfactoryorofficework,therighttochooseone’spartner,andtherighttovote…’.4

ButTrabalzinialsopointedoutthatSanLorenzowasitsown prepared environment,anewplacewithindoorandoutdooractivitiesimplementedforthesakeofintimatefamilylife,‘airy,welllit,comfortable.’Aroundthesenewapartmentswereposted‘educa-tionalwritingsinspiredbyprinciplesoforderandpreservationofthecommongoodsuchas“Thehygieneofthehomeisthechil-dren’shealth”or“Hewhocaresforhishomecaresforhimself”’.5

Thewelfareofthebuildingwasthustranslatedintotheexercisesofpracticallifeandtheresponsibilitiesconveyedtothecommunity.ThedramaofSanLorenzoisthatcareoftheenvironmentwasasocialtaskimmersedinreality,intendedtoenactsocialreform.AsTrabalzinipointedout,bothfreedomandpeacewerelinkedtoresponsiblecommunitylife.ButwhenMon-tessoritaughttheactivitiesofpersonalandhomehygienetotheyoungchildrenthere,shediscovered‘theireducationalvalue:con-trolandcoordinationofmovements,con-centration,developmentofindependence,oftheselfandofsocialrelations’.6Firstcametheintentiontocreatesocialchange;thencamethediscoveryoftheimportanceofpracticallife,whichemergedfromobserv-ingtheimpactofcareoftheenvironmentintheframeworkoftheSanLorenzobuilding.

after san lorenzo: the 1917 san diego lectures

Thisjournalbeginswiththe1917SanDiegolecturesthatdescribedwar,pestilence,fam-ine,andtherelatedsufferingandlossof

humanlife.Theencounterwiththewar-tornlivesofchildreniswhereMontessoribeganherconsciousviewof“peacethrougheducation.”

EricaMorettiintroducestheSanDiegolecturesbydiscussingthepathologyofwarandthenreturnstohealingwiththesub-stanceofMontessori’shumanitarianintent.

Itwasonlyinher[Montessori]1917lectures

thattheeducatorbegantodescribemorespe-

cificallyhowhereducationalmethodology

couldhelpcreateamorepeacefulsociety.At

thebasisofthisideawasthenotionthather

pedagogicalapproachwouldhelpthechild

formasoundpsyche,andthatthisphysically

andmentallyhealthychildwouldconse-

quentlybecomeanadultwhocouldcontrib-

utetothecreationofaworldnotplaguedby

violentconflict.

MorettitellsusthatMontessoriobservedthesymptomsoftraumaintheFranco-Bel-giumorphansofParisafterWorldWarI.OrganizedbyanAmerican,MaryCromwell,thesechildrenmadematerialsfortheMon-tessorischoolinParis(1918)whileworkingalongsiderecuperatingwarveteransandrefugeesfromWorldWarI.BytheendofWorldWarI,Montessorisawclearlythatthenegativeconditionsofwarandpovertycre-atetrauma,whichshealsomentionedinherpeacelecturesthroughoutthethirties.ShewasstronglyinfluencedbyherexperienceswiththeSanLorenzostreetchildren(1907),thechildrenwhosurvivedtheMessinaEarthquake(1908),thesinglemothersandchildrenoftheMaternidadinBarcelona,Spain(1915),andthechildrenofwar-tornfamiliesattheHaus der KinderinVienna(1922).

n1917MariaMontessoriadvocatedforthecreationofaCroce Bianca(WhiteCross)torunparalleltotheRedCrossandtobe


AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 10AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 8 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 9

erdkinder theory into pr actice: the young adolescent approaching peace

Now,forthethirdplane,theexplorationis

evenwider,encompassingthefarmandthe

communityoftheruralarea.Itechoeswhat

thechildrenexploredatthesecondplane:civ-

ilizationandhowitcameabout.Butnowthe

explorationtakesplaceinrealitybecausethe

adolescentsareactuallydoingit.Cooperation

withtheland,cooperationincommerce,and

cooperationintheculturallifeoftherural

societytouchmateriallythethingsstudiedin

thesecondplaneandaffordtheadolescentthe

opportunitytoseehisorherplaceinsociety.7

Montessoriclearlysuggestedinherpam-phlet“TheErdkinderandFunctionsoftheUniversity”(1936)thatafarm,aboardinghostel,andastorecancreateanoptimallearningandsocialenvironmentfortheadolescent.ShelaunchedherideaofErd-kinder(ChildrenoftheEarthorLand-Chil-dren)afterhavingvisitedGermanlandschools(Landerziehungsheime)inBerlinintheearly1920s.8

Thechildundersix,theelementarychild,andtheadolescentconstructeverypartoftheMontessori“missionofman,”expand-ingintomaturity.Montessorieducationisonthethresholdofitsadultstageasitsped-agogyclimbsthedevelopmentalladderfrombirthtoadolescence,immersedinsuc-cessivepreparedenvironments.Thereareglimpsesinourexperimentalconstructthatthenewadolescentwillbetheembodimentofservicetohumanity,seekingcollabora-tivewaystoentersocietyasaconsciouscontributor.Ifonestudiestheunity,diversity,andscopeofMontessori’sthinkingabouttheplanesofeducation,thentheadolescentbecomesdefactoaMontessoriagentofchangeorof

peace—knowinghowtobeuseful,howtohelpmankind,developingasocialrealitythroughbuildingaresponsibilitytohisorherownfarmcommunity,andthenthevil-lage,andontotheworld.TheclearestembodimentofMontessoripeaceistheauthenticallyeducatedadolescent,whohasachievedthefollowing:

• thedevelopmentofapersonalmissionand

activism;

• theexerciseofvirtues,values,andskills

directedtohumanwork;

• thecommitmenttosocialreformthatdemon-

strateshowenlightenedservicecanbedone

asaseriesofprojectsandexperimentsbased

oncommunityengagement;

• theunderstandingthatpersonalspecializa-

tionisapracticalmethodofcontributingto

society,whilstatthesametimepossessinga

visionbeyondthelimitsofone’sownspecial-

izationorrole.

TheErdkinderconcept,theadolescentonthefarm,suggestsacommunityaspectofbelongingtoaplace,toasystemofeco-nomicproductionandexchange,toaninti-mateboardingexperienceofadultsworkingalongsidechildren,toconditionsoflearningwherethematerialsarethecomponentsofthefarmenvironmentleadingtoacademiccontexts.AndthisconceptiswhereMontes-soridramaticallynavigatesawayfromcon-ventionaleducationandcarefullydefinesherapproachtoreform:

Theneedthatissokeenlyfeltforareformof

secondaryschoolsconcernsnotonlyanedu-

cationalbutalsoahumanandsocialproblem.

Thiscanbesummedupinonesentence:

Schoolsastheyaretoday,areadaptedneither

totheneedsofadolescencenortothetimesin

whichwelive.Societyhasnotonlydeveloped

intoastateofutmostcomplicationand

thatthereareuniversalnaturallawsthatgoverntheself-formationofthehumanbeing.MontessoriwritesonnormalizationintheSecret of Childhood:

Theessentialthingisforthetasktoarouse

suchaninterestthatitengagesthechild’s

wholepersonality…activity,freelychosen

becomestheirregularwayofliving.Theheal-

ingoftheirdisordersisthedoorwaytothis

newkindoflife.(256)

ThenormalizationconceptisaspiritualdrivethatMontessorialsowritesaboutinThe Child and the Church:

Itsobject[theMontessoriMethod]istoinflu-

encethewholelifeofthechild:itaims,in

short,atatotaldevelopmentofthepersonal-

ity,aharmoniousgrowthofallthepotentiali-

tiesofthechild,mentalandphysical,accord-

ingtothelawsofitsbeing.

Valorizationcontributestohealingasitbringsvaluebacktothedevaluedchildofwarandbecomesasocialprocesswherethecommunityrecognizesthecontributionsofeachindividual.MarioandMariaMontes-sori'sarticle‘PeacethroughEducation’(1937)putsthelawsofdevelopmentintoasocialcontext:

Eachindividualismadetofeelthatheforms

anecessaryandimportantpartofanorgani-

zationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmost

unattainable.Byallowingthemtotakepart

officiallyinthenationalactivities,theindi-

vidualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpand

collaborationistrulynecessaryiftheseaims

aretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulse

totheformationoftheircharacter!

Montessori'svision(From Childhood to Adoles-cence,1935-pre-publication)bearsherthink-

ingabouttheimportanceofdevelopmentduringadolescence.‘PeacethroughEduca-tion’ (1937)reflectshernewlyacquiredframeworkaboutthestrengtheningoftheselfandusesthetermvalorizationtodescribethisprocessofstrengtheningandofrealizingone’sownvaluewhichoccursastheadolescentbecomesanengagedandcontributingadultinthecontextofadult-hood.TheCopenhagenCongress(1937)reflectstheconfidenceofacompletededu-cationaldevelopmentalplanwhereinMon-tessorideclaredhervisionofpeacethroughsixlecturesprimarilyabouteducationanddevelopmentasthemainpathwaytopeace.

Whenwespeakofpeace,wedonotmeana

partialtrucebetweenseparatenations,buta

permanentwayoflifeforallmankind.This

goalcannotbeattainedthroughthesigning

oftreatiesbyindividualnations.Theproblem

forusdoesnotlieinpoliticalactiontosave

onenationoranother;oureffortsmustbe

devoted,rather,tosolvingapsychological

probleminvolvingallmankind,andasacon-

sequenceacquiringaclearconceptionofthe

kindofmoralitynecessarytodefendhuman-

ityasawhole.(PeacethroughEducation,

insertpagenumberfromjournal)

LookingaheadtothecompletionofMontes-sori’seducationalexperience,theconceptofErdkinderadolescentprogrammesonthefarmreorientsMontessorithinkingtotheessentialdevelopmentalinteractionwiththenaturalworld.Rekindlingtheroleofnatureinbalancewithsupranatureisadevelop-mentalcorrelationthatisseeminglyself-evident,butnotnecessarilyrealizeduntilnowwiththerecentimplementationoftheadolescentErdkinderenvironment.TobringErdkindertheoryintoactioncreatesatotalvisionofMontessorinatureeducationandpersonalityformationacrosstheplanes.


erdkinder theory into pr actice: the young adolescent approaching peace

Now,forthethirdplane,theexplorationis

evenwider,encompassingthefarmandthe

communityoftheruralarea.Itechoeswhat

thechildrenexploredatthesecondplane:civ-

ilizationandhowitcameabout.Butnowthe

explorationtakesplaceinrealitybecausethe

adolescentsareactuallydoingit.Cooperation

withtheland,cooperationincommerce,and

cooperationintheculturallifeoftherural

societytouchmateriallythethingsstudiedin

thesecondplaneandaffordtheadolescentthe

opportunitytoseehisorherplaceinsociety.7

Montessoriclearlysuggestedinherpam-phlet“TheErdkinderandFunctionsoftheUniversity”(1936)thatafarm,aboardinghostel,andastorecancreateanoptimallearningandsocialenvironmentfortheadolescent.ShelaunchedherideaofErd-kinder(ChildrenoftheEarthorLand-Chil-dren)afterhavingvisitedGermanlandschools(Landerziehungsheime)inBerlinintheearly1920s.8

Thechildundersix,theelementarychild,andtheadolescentconstructeverypartoftheMontessori“missionofman,”expand-ingintomaturity.Montessorieducationisonthethresholdofitsadultstageasitsped-agogyclimbsthedevelopmentalladderfrombirthtoadolescence,immersedinsuc-cessivepreparedenvironments.Thereareglimpsesinourexperimentalconstructthatthenewadolescentwillbetheembodimentofservicetohumanity,seekingcollabora-tivewaystoentersocietyasaconsciouscontributor.Ifonestudiestheunity,diversity,andscopeofMontessori’sthinkingabouttheplanesofeducation,thentheadolescentbecomesdefactoaMontessoriagentofchangeorof

peace—knowinghowtobeuseful,howtohelpmankind,developingasocialrealitythroughbuildingaresponsibilitytohisorherownfarmcommunity,andthenthevil-lage,andontotheworld.TheclearestembodimentofMontessoripeaceistheauthenticallyeducatedadolescent,whohasachievedthefollowing:

• thedevelopmentofapersonalmissionand

activism;

• theexerciseofvirtues,values,andskills

directedtohumanwork;

• thecommitmenttosocialreformthatdemon-

strateshowenlightenedservicecanbedone

asaseriesofprojectsandexperimentsbased

oncommunityengagement;

• theunderstandingthatpersonalspecializa-

tionisapracticalmethodofcontributingto

society,whilstatthesametimepossessinga

visionbeyondthelimitsofone’sownspecial-

izationorrole.

TheErdkinderconcept,theadolescentonthefarm,suggestsacommunityaspectofbelongingtoaplace,toasystemofeco-nomicproductionandexchange,toaninti-mateboardingexperienceofadultsworkingalongsidechildren,toconditionsoflearningwherethematerialsarethecomponentsofthefarmenvironmentleadingtoacademiccontexts.AndthisconceptiswhereMontes-soridramaticallynavigatesawayfromcon-ventionaleducationandcarefullydefinesherapproachtoreform:

Theneedthatissokeenlyfeltforareformof

secondaryschoolsconcernsnotonlyanedu-

cationalbutalsoahumanandsocialproblem.

Thiscanbesummedupinonesentence:

Schoolsastheyaretoday,areadaptedneither

totheneedsofadolescencenortothetimesin

whichwelive.Societyhasnotonlydeveloped

intoastateofutmostcomplicationand

thatthereareuniversalnaturallawsthatgoverntheself-formationofthehumanbeing.MontessoriwritesonnormalizationintheSecret of Childhood:

Theessentialthingisforthetasktoarouse

suchaninterestthatitengagesthechild’s

wholepersonality…activity,freelychosen

becomestheirregularwayofliving.Theheal-

ingoftheirdisordersisthedoorwaytothis

newkindoflife.(256)

ThenormalizationconceptisaspiritualdrivethatMontessorialsowritesaboutinThe Child and the Church:

Itsobject[theMontessoriMethod]istoinflu-

encethewholelifeofthechild:itaims,in

short,atatotaldevelopmentofthepersonal-

ity,aharmoniousgrowthofallthepotentiali-

tiesofthechild,mentalandphysical,accord-

ingtothelawsofitsbeing.

Valorizationcontributestohealingasitbringsvaluebacktothedevaluedchildofwarandbecomesasocialprocesswherethecommunityrecognizesthecontributionsofeachindividual.MarioandMariaMontes-sori'sarticle‘PeacethroughEducation’(1937)putsthelawsofdevelopmentintoasocialcontext:

Eachindividualismadetofeelthatheforms

anecessaryandimportantpartofanorgani-

zationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmost

unattainable.Byallowingthemtotakepart

officiallyinthenationalactivities,theindi-

vidualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpand

collaborationistrulynecessaryiftheseaims

aretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulse

totheformationoftheircharacter!

Montessori'svision(From Childhood to Adoles-cence,1935-pre-publication)bearsherthink-

ingabouttheimportanceofdevelopmentduringadolescence.‘PeacethroughEduca-tion’ (1937)reflectshernewlyacquiredframeworkaboutthestrengtheningoftheselfandusesthetermvalorizationtodescribethisprocessofstrengtheningandofrealizingone’sownvaluewhichoccursastheadolescentbecomesanengagedandcontributingadultinthecontextofadult-hood.TheCopenhagenCongress(1937)reflectstheconfidenceofacompletededu-cationaldevelopmentalplanwhereinMon-tessorideclaredhervisionofpeacethroughsixlecturesprimarilyabouteducationanddevelopmentasthemainpathwaytopeace.

Whenwespeakofpeace,wedonotmeana

partialtrucebetweenseparatenations,buta

permanentwayoflifeforallmankind.This

goalcannotbeattainedthroughthesigning

oftreatiesbyindividualnations.Theproblem

forusdoesnotlieinpoliticalactiontosave

onenationoranother;oureffortsmustbe

devoted,rather,tosolvingapsychological

probleminvolvingallmankind,andasacon-

sequenceacquiringaclearconceptionofthe

kindofmoralitynecessarytodefendhuman-

ityasawhole.(PeacethroughEducation,

insertpagenumberfromjournal)

LookingaheadtothecompletionofMontes-sori’seducationalexperience,theconceptofErdkinderadolescentprogrammesonthefarmreorientsMontessorithinkingtotheessentialdevelopmentalinteractionwiththenaturalworld.Rekindlingtheroleofnatureinbalancewithsupranatureisadevelop-mentalcorrelationthatisseeminglyself-evident,butnotnecessarilyrealizeduntilnowwiththerecentimplementationoftheadolescentErdkinderenvironment.TobringErdkindertheoryintoactioncreatesatotalvisionofMontessorinatureeducationandpersonalityformationacrosstheplanes.


embodiesthe“missionofman,”ReginaFeldman,ahistoryteacherofolderadoles-centsatthehighschoollevel,seesapossiblerealizationofthepeacemissioninherteaching.

Thescienceofpeacehenceisaneducation

withoutborderstobetakenfarbeyondthe

fourwallsofaclassroomto“transformideals

intoactions,”asthesloganoftheMontessori

Peace Nowinitiativesays,forthebettermentof

society.Thehighschoolisthetraining

groundforascientia conaturalis,anexaltedtype

ofknowledgeforanewworldwhere‘the

knowerbecomestheknown,thedancer

becomesthedance,thepeaceseekerbecomes

peace.Noneedforconcepts,justadisplayed,

seamlesshabitofknowledgeandaction’

(Wyatt)thatevolveswithchangeinand

aroundus.10

the role of the natur al world

In2013thenaturalworldisemphasizedasameanstopeaceontheplanet,becauseineffectnomatterwhattheageandstageoflife,fromnewborntoseniorcitizen,naturehasaroletoplay.

Thecriticalfunctionofthenaturalworldisthatitprovidescontinuityinthepreparedenvironmentateachplaneofeducation;asthechildgetsolder,nature’sroletakesonawiderscopeasamaterialfordevelopment.Natureistheultimatepsychodiscipline—anetworkofsystemsthatintegratesknowl-edgeandtransformsthepersonalityatthesametime.ThefollowingisborrowedfromtheGuided by Nature exhibitinPortland,2013,summarizingitsintenttoshowingtheunfoldingintegrationofnatureandlearningacrosstheplanesofeducationleadingtoMontessori’sbroadestconceptofpeace.(exhibitpresentationonpage_____)

Attheprimarylevel,theabsorbentmind

reachesnaturethroughthephysicalindoor

andoutdoorspaceforenrichedexperiencein

theChildren’sHouse.

Attheelementarylevel,afternaturearouses

theimagination,classificationorganizesthe

child’sknowledge,introducingabstractprin-

ciplesthatexplainnaturalphenomena.Nature

alsoprovidesanevolutionarysequencethat

pointstoone’splaceintheworld.Realexperi-

enceinnatureisstillafundamentaland

essentialrequirement.

Attheadolescentlevel,natureisacollabora-

tor.Theadolescentproducesinpartnership

withnature.Whilecooperatingwithplants

andanimals,adolescentsalsoneedtocooper-

atewitheachother.TheErdkinderprovidesa

basisforsociallifeandcommerce,anditcre-

atesanewkindofsocialknowledgebasedon

farmexperiencesduringtheformativeyears

oftwelvetofifteen.

WhileitistheadolescentwhobringsdownthefinalcurtainonourstageofMontessoridevelopmentalreform,itisthesweepfromearlychildhoodtoadolescenceinaMontes-sorischoolthatactualizesreform.Iftheadolescentprogrammesbydesignaresmallcommunitiesinschoolandoutsideschool,eitherurbanorrural,thenwenolongerhaveplacescalledschoolsthatareanythinglikethetraditionalschoolsofthepast.Instead,theschoolreshapesitselftobecometheorganiccultureenvisionedintheutopianannalsof“HumanSolidarityinTimeandSpace”:

Thisisthegreattaskofeducation:tomake

thechildconsciousoftherealityanddepthof

humanunity.…Aboveall,wemustmakethe

childrenunderstandhowextraordinarilymov-

ingitisthatmenarenotunitedbytheirinter-

extremecontrasts,butithasnowcometoa

crisisinwhichthepeaceoftheworldandcivi-

lizationitselfarethreatened.9

NeverintheMontessoriliteraturehasthecallfor“reform”beensointenseandsovig-orouslyaimedattheproblemsofourtimesaswiththeadolescent.Theimportanceofadolescenceisthatitisasecondformativeperiod,andMontessorilookstoadolescencetogivethefinalpersonalitypiece—oreventhefinalmissingpersonalitypiece—toequiptheadolescentasafreeagentofsocialreformandpeace-buildingefforts.

Thefarmassliceofreallifeiscriticaltoearlyadolescence.Toexperiencethehardrealityofeconomics,productionandexchange,tocareforoneselfandforothers,tounderstandtheharsh,clashingrealitybetweennature’sbalancingsystemsandthehuman-builtworld—thesearesomeoftherealoutcomesofMontessorieducationontheland.TheMontessoriadolescentis“called”tobedifferent,tohaveacertainseriousnessaboutwhatone’slifeneedstoincludetobeapositiveandcontributingciti-zen.Inthisjournal,Laurie-EwertKrockerwritesaboutthesocializationoffarm-basedyoungadolescents.

Adolescentsdohaveuniversaldevelopmental

needsandcharacteristics,andthoseneeds

andcharacteristicshavemostlytodowith

socialization,socialidentity,andestablishing

socialorganizationinagroup.Thedevelop-

mentoftheindividual’spotential,freedomto

choose,independenceinskillandthought,

andindividualidentityareallimportant—but

emerge only in the context of the social group. The

qualityoftheenvironmentinwhichthis

socialbeingisnurturedandtheculturethey

adoptwithinthesocialgrouparecrucial

shapingforcesatthistimeoflife.Wecannot

supportadolescentdevelopmentwithoutseri-

ousconsiderationoftheconfigurationofthe

environmentifweareconcernedaboutthe

shapingofmorallyconscientioushuman

beingsforwhomtheinterdependentwebof

lifeisrealandnecessary.(p._____)

the montessori high school: ado-lescent becoming adult

ThefinalbridgetoagreatersocietyistheMontessorihighschool,wherethereisanintensificationofthecalltoactionimplicittobecominganadult.Sociallifemusttran-sitionfromtheelementarycooperativecos-micstudiestotheadolescentfarmcommu-nitytoanew,largercontextofalimitedbutrealcommunity.Thiscommunityissquarelyplacedinanadultworldthatisurban,sociallyandculturallydiverse,creative,andimmersedinbusinessandservicetoothers.ElizabethHenkewritesinthisjournal,

Thedevelopmentalneedsoftheadolescent,

particularlyastheyrelatetotheacademicdis-

ciplines,revolvearounddeeplyunderstanding

thetimesinwhichtheyliveanddiscovering

howtheyarecapableofpositiveactionwithin

theworld.Ihavecometobelievetheolder

adolescentinsearchofaroletoplayinsoci-

ety,seeks,atanevendeeperlevel,tounder-

standtheuniverseandhisplacewithinit.

Adolescentsareconstantlyaskingtheinternal

questions,‘WhoamIinrelationtohuman

society?WheredoIfitintothissociety?and

HowcanIserveotherswithinsociety?’(Davis,

2008).Thesequestionsareexploredthrough

theshiftinglensesoftheacademicdisciplines

andthedevelopmentofsociallifewiththe

helpofteacher-experts.(seep.145)

Theadolescentbecominganadultrevealstheessentialcharacteristicsofthekindofhumanthatwilltakeonanengagedcom-mitmentforpeace.Asthesecondaryschool


reconstructionthroughtheirMontessorischools.TheindigenouscommunityleadersthemselvestakechargeoftheMontessorischools,formingcouncilsorboards,andtheyoftenbecomeorganizersofcommunityservicesaswellasMontessorieducation.Montessorimethodsandmaterials,basedastheyareinuniversals,containnoculturalbias.Theemphasisonpracticallifespecifictotheculture;theuseofsensorymaterialsbasedoncolour,shape,smell,andtouch;thegeometricvisualizationofmathandgrammarsymbols;andthebeginningfocusofcreationtalesareallaneducationthatisaccessibletomainstreammajorityandindigenousminorityculturesalike.

In1999,emergingfromtheinspirationalcollaborationofRenildeMontessoriandCamilloGrazzini,AMIestablishedtheEdu-cateurssansFrontières(EsF):

TheEducateurssansFrontièresaretobecome

anewcorpsofworkersintheMontessori

movement,cattedraambulanteofMariaMon-

tessori'seducationalreformwithitsvisionof

adeepecologywhich,inevolutionaryterms,

issuddenlyandrapidlypermeatinghuman

consciousness.14

Theeducateur“workers”mayorganizearoundanykindofsocialchallengeandpro-videMontessoriexpertisesuchasfortheelderly,therefugee,theenvironment,etc.,withageneralfocusbeyondthatofschool-ing.Mostimportantly,theadolescentcanworkasajunioreducateuralongsidetheadult.

Boththeeducateurandadolescentexperi-mentsrequireus‘torevisitMontessoriprin-ciplesandpracticesfromtheperspectiveofsocietyatlarge’.15Bothprojectsinvolveactivitiesbeyondschoolandhome.Bothpsychologiesrepresentanaugmentedviewofahumanitywithoutborders:humanityas

awhole.Theexperienceofsocialvaloriza-tion(strongsocialvalidation)experiencedbyboththeadolescentsandtheeducateursintheirownseminarsduringandaftertheircommunityendeavours,providesa“noble”sentimenttoservethewholeofcivilization.

TheEsFinitiativecyclecomesbacktoMontessori’sdoubleconsciousnessofsocialandeducationalreformatSanLorenzo.ItpresentstotheMontessoritrainerandprac-titionerafuturelookattheintersectionbetweenMontessorieducationandsocialreality:

WhenMontessoriprinciplesareappliedinthe

widercontextofsociety,theirpossibilitiesare

vastandall-encompassing.Theycanbeof

incalculablehelptoparents,socialworkers,

child-careworkers,familycounsellors,in

short,toanypersoninvolvedwiththedevel-

opinghumanbeing;theycanbe,andhave

beenappliedwithchildrenundergoing

lengthyhospitalisation,maladjustedchildren,

physicallyimpairedchildren,childrenvictims

ofviolence,childrenabandoned,childrenat

risk.16

WecanlookatEsFasasymbolofconver-gencewhereMontessoripedagogyreturnstomattersofsocialrelevance.Academicdis-ciplinesinMontessorischoolsaretrans-formedintomaterialsfordevelopmentofspiritualaimsandworldpeace,wherethehistoryofouridealsisimmersedintheimportanceofuniversalsocialrelationshipsthroughconcretecommunityexperiencesinMontessorischools,andultimatelybeyondMontessorischools.

In2013theadolescentispoisedforaction,theMontessorieducatoriswaitingtoenterintothehighercallingofworldser-vice.TheSanLorenzopastishurtlingtowardthefuture,butthereisoneaspectofMontessorithatisunknown,anaspectthat

estsalone,butthatadeeperbondexistsatthe

veryrootoftheirbrotherhood.…

Icannotinsistenough,therefore,onthe

importanceofhistory,inanyandallits

details,ifwearetoeducatethechildrentoan

awarenessofuniversalsolidarity.11

the essential present: the montes-sori child in nature

Giventhefocusonnature’sevolutionandimpactonhumancultureatboththeele-mentaryandadolescentlevels,Montessori’semphasisontheroleofthenaturalworldintheMontessorischoolapproximatestheviewsofE.O.Wilson,whowrote,‘Biophilia,ifitexists,istheinnatelyemotionalaffilia-tionofhumanbeingstootherlivingorgan-isms’.12 Innatelymeansthatloveofnatureisafundamentalhumancharacteristicofdevelopment,integraltovariouslevelsofhowthehumanlearns,feels,bonds,under-standshisorherplace,andgrowsupinhar-monywithallofnature.Montessoridevelop-mentaltheoryimplicitlysupportsbiophilia,providingthepsychologicalbasisforwhattodayisconsideredthegreenrevolution,anotheravenueofreform.‘Itisnotenoughtostudyinbooksaboutnature;onemustencountertheforest,thetreesandalllifewhichemanatesfromthenaturalworld.’13

ThisinnerattractionhumanshavefornatureispartofwhatMontessoricalledthe“loveoftheenvironment”.Theselfispro-pelledbythispowerfuldesiretotouch,feel,smell,see,hear,andabsorbthesurroundingnaturalworld.Fortheprimarychild,thehomeandschoolgroundsofferthoseexpe-riences.Fortheelementarychild,“goingout”intonatureforshortperiodsawakensbiophilia.Finally,fortheadolescent,thefarmcommunityprovidesavarietyofnatureexperiencesforstudyandwork.Withthe

lossofemphasisontheimportanceofnatu-ralplacestochilddevelopmenthavingrecentlycometotheattentionofthemedia,thispartofMontessoriisespeciallyrelevanttooverallschoolreforminourtime.Forthefuture,ifthehuman-natureencounterdoesnotimprove,thereisofcourseanimminentcollapseoftheecosystemswedependonforlifeitself.

conclusion: educateurs sans fron-tières—a symbolic retelling of reform going from past to future

LookingatthealtruisticmotivationsofMontessori’ssocialapplicationsaswellasherinternationaloutreachprovidesinsightintoreformeffortstoonumeroustodetailinthiswriting:Montessoriforchildrenwithphysicalhandicaps,Montessoriforearth-quakeandwarorphans,Montessoriforchil-drenofunwedmothers,Montessoriforchil-drenwithmentalandemotionalhandicaps,Montessoriforthesupportofoppressedwomen,andMontessoriasachampionforpeace.Montessori’slifewasoneofsocialreformanditwaslivedasapedagogyfortheoppressed.

Therearealsotherecentprojectsoftoday’sdevelopingcommunities:MontessoriinRomania,MontessoriinChina,Montes-soriinSouthAfrica,MontessoriinTanza-nia,MontessoriinThailand,MontessoriintheTibetanChildren’sVillages,Montessoriinurbancentres,MontessorifortheruralpoorofMexico,MontessoriinNicaragua,MontessorifortheAboriginalpeoplesofAustralia,MontessoriforNativeAmericans.Theseearlychildhoodinitiativesmakesocialwavesbyempoweringthedisenfran-chised,poor,ordamagedcommunitiesoftheworld.

Manyoftheabove-mentionedprojectsdemonstrateauniversalformofcommunity


appendixReferencestopeaceandpeace-relatedtopicsinMontessori’s“EducationandPeace”

Term/Concept PageNumbers

Actuationofman’svalue,awarenessofhisowngreatness(valorization) xiii-xiv,26,54,64,68-69,99

Battlebetweenadultandchild 14-20,31,38,55

Beginnings/originsofthings 85,101

Boredom,functionof 51

Childasmessiah 14

Cultureasameans,notend 82

Desert,adolescenceasperiodof 70

Disorganizationofhumanity 29-30

Enslavementofthechild,Forgottencitizen 17,38,73

“GreatWork(s)” Xiii,17

Handicrafts,craftsmanship 70

Hygiene/health 11-13,18

Individuality 55-56,57,100-103,108

Individualsasgrainsofsand 30,38,46

Instinct(s) 90,92-93,95,96,98,105

Interest 80-81

Joy 107

Lawsofnature 16

Loveofenvironment 89-90,96

Man’sunawarenessofownnature,achievements,virtues 24,26,27,30,42,44,61-62,86,96,98,115-116

Manners 90

Missionofmankind,socialmission 24,32,38,57,66-68,70

Morality/moralvalues/moralenergies xiii-xiv,13-14,15,20,60-61

Organizationofmankind;“moralorganization” xi-xiv,32,60,102-104

PartyoftheChild 74-75

Peace,negativedefinitionof 6-8,15,29,60

Progress:social,human xi-xii,9,13,43-44,46,54,103

Reason 13-14

Reconstructionofhumanity 39,53

Rousseau 14

Science/disciplineofpeace 5-6,8,32,62

Scouting(boyscouts) 69

Singlenation,manascitizenoftheworld/universe 25-26,62-64,68,98-99,111,117

Socialconditions(existing;recentchangein) 24-25,42,44,62-64,85

Socialquestionofthechild/Socialreform;reformofhumanity xi-xiv,24,48-50,54,71,74,82

Thirddimension(conquestofskiesandspace) 22,25,42,46

Wealth,widespread;“theageoftherich” 43

War,natureofcontemporaryversushistorical 25,41-42

Wholemen 109-110

Womaninsociety(comparedtoroleofchild) 49,73

TablecompiledbyReneePendleton

onlytheghostofMontessorifutureknowsforsure.Canwemakeourreformcompleteandbestowalivingrealitytothelinesandslogansthatpointtohumansolidarity,peace,andunity?

Theseareelevatingthoughts,butatthelevelofday-to-dayreality,theyremainmorevisionthansustainableaction.Montessorireformmustbedirectlylinkedtothehighestlevelofadultcontributionfromourgradu-

atesandfuturecolleagues.Thesecontribu-tionsmustbeintheformofrealandfocusedservicetoimprovespiritual,ecologi-cal,social,andeconomicrealitiesforpres-entandfuturepeaceonearth.

David Kahn


notes

1 TheSocietàUmanitariawasacentreforwork-

ingclassfamiliesinMilan,whichprovided

modernhousingandsuchsocialservicesas

occupationaltraininginmodelworkshops,

employmentreferralandadulteducationfacil-

ities.TheSocietàalsoproducedtheMontes-

sorimaterials.In1908,theirfirstCasadei

BambiniopenedtobedirectedbyAnnaMaria

Maccheroni,wholivedonthepremises.

2 WilliamJames(1842-1910)wasanAmerican

philosopherandpsychologistwhohadtrained

asaphysician.Hewasthefirsteducatorto

offerapsychologycourseintheUnitedStates.

Jameswroteinfluentialbooksonpragmatism,

psychology,educationalpsychology,thepsy-

chologyofreligiousexperience,andmysti-

cism.HewasthebrotherofnovelistHenry

James.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_

James,accessed6June2013.

3 GiulioCesareFerrari(1867-1932)wasapsychi-

atristandoneofthemostimportantItalian

psychologistsofthelate19thandearly20th

century.Hegraduatedinmedicinein1892and

becameanassistantatthePsychiatricInsti-

tuteofReggioEmilia,atthattimethemost

famousmentalhospital.Heobtainedagrant

tostudyattheSorbonneinParisinthelabof

AlfredBinet,butreturnedtoItalyuponthe

deathofhisfatherandwentontobecomethe

directorofthementalhospital,wherehehad

previouslyworkedasanassistant.In1898he

cameintocontactwithWilliamJames,and

wasresponsibleforhavinghisPrinciples of Psy-

chologytranslatedandpublishedintoItalian.

Untilhisdeathhewasamemberoftheexecu-

tiveboardoftheLegaMondialediIgiene

Mentale,whichhehadhelpedfound.Ferrari

taughtpsychologyonMontessoricourses

organizedbyUmanitariainMilan.

4 On4February1918,AugustoOsimo,President

ofUmanitaria,publishedthearticle"Salviamo

ibambini"inLa Coltura Popolare,amagazine

publishedbyUmanitaria.Thearticlegavenew

impetustoMontessori'sappealfortheWhite

Cross.Theappealwassupportedbymany

Italiannamesofrepute—physicianssuchas

GiulioCesarini,anexpertonsanitaryeduca-

tion;LorenzoEllero,psychiatrist;Camillo

Hajech,paediatrician;GiuseppeSergi,anthro-

pologist;andsupportersoftheMontessori

methodsuchasthemarchionessMariaMara-

iniGuerrieriGonzagaandthewriterGemma

MuggianiGriffini.

PeacethroughEducation

Two years before the outbreak of World War II, in 1937, the Sixth International Montessori Congress on Peace was held in Copenhagen. During one of the lectures the Congress participants were addressed by Maria and Mario Montessori who pleaded that humankind must come to terms with themselves and the environment. They recognized that increasing efforts were being made all over the world to understand the elusive concept of peace, as more and more groups of people were organizing peace efforts in their communities.

Inorganizingits6thInternationalCon-gress—onthetheme Educate for Peace—theAssociationMontessoriInternationaledidnotintendtodepartfromitsaimofprotect-ingandillustratingthepersonalityofthechild,joininginsteadthepoliticalstruggle.Onthecontrary,manysocietiesarefightinginthefieldofpoliticstostemtheimmediatedangerofanoverwhelmingandgeneralcon-flict.Butwewanttodrawattentionawayfromtheblindingandpassion-raisingactu-alitiesandtofixitupontheneedforacon-structiveeffort,showingwhatcontributionsthechildandeducationcanbringtothiseffort.

Theeffortforpeacemustnotbelimitedtolast-minuteendeavourstoremedypoliti-calerrors,norcanpeacebesecuredbyjustlyorunjustlyblamingoneoranotherformofgovernment.Eveniftheseareconsideredtobethecauseofthepresentdanger,theblamecannotbelaiduponthembutratheruponSocietywhichallowedconditionstodevelopthatmadetheseformsofgovern-mentnecessary.Peaceisacomplex,many-sidedconstructionthathasneveryetexisted.Atpresent,itsnamemerelyimpliestheces-sationofwar.Inordertoattainpeacesome-thingmustbedonebesidespreachingvagueidealisms.

Todeterminetheconditionsforestablish-ingpeaceintheworld,indirectandcomplex

factorsmustbestudiedandorganizedintoastructuredscience.Themostimportantofthesefactorsisthehumanone.Peaceisessentiallyahumanproblem.Therefore,thehumanelementshouldbeourfirstconsider-ation.Todate,itisgivenalmostnoattentionatall.

InManadualpersonalityexists:thefar-sightedconqueroroftheexternalenviron-mentandtheblindslave,ignorantofhisowninnerenergies.ManhassolvedmanyoftheriddlesoftheUniverse.Mankindhasbecomeunitedbymaterialandintellectualintereststoformonenation.Manhascon-queredhiddenforcesandherulestheearth,yet,thisruleroftheouterworldhasnotsuc-ceededinconqueringhisowninnerener-gies.Amongtheinnumerableideasdeter-miningtheconceptofpeace,theseenergiesremainconspicuouslyabsent.

Theplaceeducationholdsinthegreatinterestsofhumanityissecondary—itisconsideredaluxuryratherthananecessity.Intimesofstress,ifanycutsaretobemade,itisthebudgetforeducationwhichusuallysuffers.Thisisbecause,especiallyindemo-craticcountries,educationplaysthemini-malroleofimpartinginanabstractwaycer-tainideascontainedinastandardsyllabus.

Theroleofeducationshouldbeaverydif-ferentone.Itshouldholdfirstplaceamonghumaninterestsand,evenifitretainsthe



samename,itsscopemustbemuchwider.Itmustplacethehumanpersonalityatitsverycentre.Increatingitsprogrammesitmustbeguidedbythelawsofpsychicdevelop-ment.Thesehaveneveryetbeenconsideredineducation.Norhasthefactbeentakenintoconsiderationthatifanadultisstrongorweakincharacter,ifheisbalancedorunbalanced,itisduetotheconditionshemetwithduringhispsychicgrowth.ThestructureofeducationshouldnotonlyhaveasitsbasistheprotectionofManduringhisphysicaldevelopmentandtheresponsetothevitalneedsofthegrowingchildbutalsotheknowledgeandvalorizationofthemoralattributesinherentinMan.

MuchissaidtodayagainstunitaryformsofgovernmentwhicharecriticizedforrestrictingthelibertiesandtherightsofMan.Few,however,realizethat,nomatterhowhardtheirdisciplinemaybetowardstheadult,theunitariansvalorizebyeverymeansthepersonalityofManintheprocessofdevelopment.Althoughthisvalorizationisbuiltaroundtheidealsoftheirrespectiveregime,itisneverthelessavalorizationanditstartsfromaveryearlyage.Eachindivid-ualismadetofeelthatheformsanecessaryandimportantpartofanorganizationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmostunattain-able.Byallowingthemtotakepartofficiallyinthenationalactivities,theindividualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpandcollabora-

tionistrulynecessaryiftheseaimsaretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulsetotheformationoftheircharacter!Whatatremen-dousenhancementofthedignity,oftheinnervaluesoftheindividual,tofeeltheimportanceofbeingaconstructiveunitinadisciplinedorganizationwithaltruisticaimsandtohavethisimportancerecognizedoffi-cially,evenatfouryearsofage,whenpass-inginfrontofaGeneralthelatterrendershimthesamemilitarysalutewiththesamedignityasherenderstotheadultsoldier.Isittobemarvelledatthat,inindividualssovalorized,constructiveenthusiasmformspartofthepsychicconstitution,sacrificeappearsasapleasantmeanstoachieveanaimanddisciplineandobediencearesoughtwithjoy?

No,norisittobemarvelledatthatalleffortsofdemocraciestoinfuseaspiritofpeaceintheiryouthmeetwithalukewarmresponse.Itisnot—asmanybelieve—thathumannatureisbadorwarlike,farfromit.Itisonlythatdemocracytreatsitsyouthinabenightedfashion.

Democraciesvalorizeindividualitywhenithasreachedtheadultstagebuttheadultswhohavehadnoactivepreparationtowardsanydefiniteaimaredividedintoclassesgroupswhichareinastateofcontinuousconflict.Theseoftendestroy—andalwayshinder—themethodofprogressadvancedorelaboratedbyaclasswithviewsdifferent

Montessori Congress Denmark, from a Danish newspaper clipping

fromtheirown.Yet,democraciesvalorizefreedomoftheindividual'spersonalvaluesnomatterwhatclasshebelongstonortowhatrace.Democraciesprotectandcultivateindividualityandpersonalityfortheirownsakes.Bylaw,anycitizenbornintheUnitedStatescanbecomePresident.Anyattackon,orattempttorestrict,personallibertyisstronglyresentedindividuallyandcollec-tively.Sothedemocraticstateisconsideredbythemajorityasthebest,astheonemostcorrespondingtoourcivilization,asthecarefulprotectorandcultivatoroftheinde-pendenthumanpersonality.Andsoitis.Butonlyforthoseindividualswhohavereachedtheadultstage.ForManinthecourseofdevelopment,democracieshaveadictatorialregime,worsethananywitnessedinthepastorInthepresent,amongadults.Thedevelopingindividualisnotgivenanycon-siderationwhatsoever.Hisneeds,thenatu-rallawsgoverningthegrowthofhisintelli-genceandofspiritualandmoralvalues,arenotevenremotelytakenintoaccount.Theonlyrealinterestineducationisthedevelop-mentofprogrammesintheschoolsandthe-oreticalinculcationofmoralorreligiousprinciplesoutsidetheschools.Thusisimposedonthedevelopingindividualalifeinwhich,hourbyhour,hedepends—bothinactionandinthought—entirelyontheactionsandthethoughtsoftheadultfromwhoseauthorityhehasnoappeal.Thisweakensthewilloftheindividualwhoremainsapathetic,depressed,unconsciouslyhumiliated,dissatisfiedandunabletoactwithoutcontinualguidance.So,onreachingadulthood,inordertoliveandtotakepartinthelifeofthenation,hethrowshimselfintothegroupwhichseemstoembodyideasthatexpresshisinnerdissatisfactions.Isitawonderthattheseyoungpeoplewillrespondwithlittleenthusiasmtothetheoriesofpeacewhichdemandfromthemstillfurther

passivity,stillgreaterresignationtovio-lence?Isitnotmuchmorenaturaltorebel,tofindexpressionintheoriesandtheprac-ticeofmeasuringstrengthagainststrength?

AmongthemeansadvocatedforattainingthePsychology of Peacetheonesmorefre-quentlymentionedarethereformofteach-inghistory,theteachingoftheCovenantoftheLeagueofNationsandtheteachingofacommonlanguage.Thateducationoughttobereformed,ifwewishtoachieveamental-ityofpeace,isself-evident.Everypeacemovementisconvincedofthisandhasaneducationalcommission.Butwemustbeverycarefulastothepathwetakeforthewrongpathwillbringwrongresultsand,throughthese,discouragementandthecon-victionthathumannatureisnotmadeforpeace.

Ifeducationforpeaceistobeattained,anotherpathmustbetaken.Theproposedreformswouldleaveunalteredallthecondi-tionswhichlowerandoftendestroytheval-uesofthegrowingindividualbutthecrush-ingtyrannywouldremainunchanged.Theonlydifferencewouldbethatcertainsub-jects,insteadofothers,wouldbeimposeduponmindsoftenrebellious.Thefutilityofthesereformsbythemselvesisshownbythefollowingfacts.Inlearninghistory,nothingissotiringtothepupilashavingtoremem-beraseriesofdatesandnamesofwarsorbattles.Itiscertainlynotthisboredomwhichwillevokeenthusiasmforwarinthepupil,ratherthecontrary.Theuseofacom-monlanguageisrecommendedundertheillusionthat,ifonlyonelanguagewereused,humanitywouldreachauniversalunder-standingandsolveconflictsbydiscussioninsteadofviolence.ButdotheynotspeakthesamelanguageinSpain?(Thiswaswrit-tenduringtheSpanishCivilWar).DidtheynotspeakthesamelanguageinSouthAmer-icaduringtheParaguayan-Bolivianwar?


Theseareonlytwoofthehundredsofcasesthatmightbementioned.AsforteachingtheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations,iftheoreticalteachingweresufficienttopro-moteamoralconstructionwhichwouldrespondtotheaimwearetryingtoachieve,allwarswouldhaveceasedinChristiannationssome2000yearsago.TheGospelissomethingmuchmoreinspiring,muchmoreprofoundanddivinethananyCove-nantsince,accordingtoChristianbelief,Godisitsauthor.Itistaughtminutelyandprofoundlytopeopleofallages.Yet,ifwelookbackuponhistory,weseethatevenChristians'warsdidnotcease.Educationalreformcannotbeachievedwithouttakingintoaccountthelawsofpsychicgrowth.

Longexperiencehasshowntheextentofthechild'scontributiontosolvingtheprob-lemofachievingpeace.Thechildhasrevealedthelawsofhumangrowthandtheneedspeculiartoeachofitsdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Theinnatetendencyofhumannatureistoachieveanincreasinglyrefinedformofindependencegrowingfrombasicfunctionalindependencetomentalabstractionandsocialacquisitions.Thesedifferentacquisitionsareconqueredindif-ferentepochsoflifethroughaspecialsensi-bilityplacedbynatureintoeachindividual,asensibilitythatlastsonlythroughthetimeinwhichtheacquisitionismadeleavingtheperfectedmechanismfortheindividualtousethroughtheexerciseofhiswill.

Usuallynoconsiderationwhateverisgiventothevitalneedsofthedevelopinghumanbeing:thebasisofeducationisacul-turalandmoralprogrammewhichtheexpe-rienceofcenturieshasdictatedasnecessary:thisisimposedandtothistheindividualmustadapthimself.Humannaturerebels,notagainsttheprogramme,butagainstthewayitisimposed.Theimpulsesofgrowthcompeltheindividualinonedirection,the

impositionoftheadultsforcehimintoanotherpath.Thusworkbecomeshateful,andanaturaldefencearisesintheindivid-ual.Theresultisapermanentconflictbothinthehomeandtheschoolwhere‘thehealthyhatebetweenpupilandteacher’,asamodernwriterhasexpressedit,hasbecomehistorical.Tocurbrebellionandencouragechildrentowardsthepath,indicatedbytheadult,punishmentsandprizesareused.Col-lectivedisciplineisachievedbutonlyexternaldiscipline,whichlastsaslongasfearlasts,butwhichturnsintothewildestdisorderassoonastherestraininghandistakenaway.Resentment,hateofwork,cruelty,loveofpossession,competitionandfacilitytobeinfluencedbysuggestionbecomepartofthepersonality.Andthisissoprevalent,andsogeneralastobeconsiderednaturaltoman-kind.

Childrenintheirschoolcommunities—intheoldsystemsofeducation—gaveapic-ture,inminiature,ofthemasseswhichformsociety.Ifateacherlefttheclasspandemo-niumbrokelooseassoonashisstepsdiedaway.Objectswerethrown,inkwassplat-teredabout,thewallsoftheroomweresoiledwithballsofchewedpaper,childrenscreamedatthetopoftheirlungs.When,forsomereason,thegovernmentandthecom-mandersofthearmylosecontrolthesamephenomenon—butwithmoretragicconse-quences—happensinthecountry.Arsonandmurderarecommitted,conventsareburned,priestsandinnocentcitizensaretorturedbypeoplewho,untilsomedaysbefore,hadledpeacefulandrespectfullives.

Themastercomesbacktomeetwithsul-lenanddefiantlytriumphantsilenceonthepartofthepupilstowhichherespondswithscathingwords,punishmentandsharpeneddiscipline.Repression,punishmentandsterndisciplinaryactionaretheresultsofanyoutbreakintheadultworld:‘foronly

disciplinewillkeepanarchyaway,theworldcannotfunctionwithoutlawandorder’.

True,verytrue!Evenanarchy,whentri-umphant,mustanddoesresorttolawandorder.Butthereisagoodandbetterworld!Anarchyneednotexistandimposeddisci-plinemaybecomeunnecessary.Whenchil-drenweregivenwhatcorrespondedtotheirneedstheyshowedsomethingfundamen-tal—therealnatureofMan—heretoforehid-denunderthecloakofpsychologicaldefences.Theynotonlyadaptedtothemoralandculturalprogrammeconsideredneces-sarybyourcivilizationbuttheysoughtitwithenthusiasmandaspontaneousdisci-plinedeveloped.Itwasacalminnerdisci-plinecausedbyactivityandcollaboration.Also,suchaloveforworkdevelopedastoclearlyprovethatinchildhoodworkisanat-uralnecessity.Possessivenessdisappearedbecauseobjectswereonlymeanstoanendandhadnoothervalueinthemselves.Thechildrenshowedlovefortheircompanionsandfortheirteachers.Theywentoutoftheirwaytoassistthosewhoneededhelpandtheydiditwithsimplicityandenthusiasm,notasasacrifice,butasapleasure.

Thechildren,undertheoldconditions,reflectedthemasspsychologyofsocietyevenasitexiststoday.Letusprovidenewconditionsthatwillallowthemtogiveusatruepictureofthesocietyofthefuture.

Maria MontessoriMario M. Montessori

© 1937, Montessori-Pierson Publishing Companypreviously published in Communications,

1986/2-3

A poster symbolizing women of the world protecting life against the aggressions of war.

association montessori internationale ami · a new world and education (1946/47) maria montessori...

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