Wally H. Santos Grade 9 - Gold

Takdang Aralin sa Araling Panlipunan:

A. IBA'T-IBANG IDEOLOHIYANG UMIRAL SA DAIGDIG

1. Kapitalismo

Tumutukoy ito sa isang sistemang pangkabuhayan kung saan ang

produksiyon, distribusyon, at kalakalan ay kontrolado ng mga pribadong

mangangalakal hanggang sa maging maliit na lamang ang papel ng pamahalaan

sa mga patakarang pangkabuhayan.

2. Demokrasya

Ang kapangyarihan ng pamahalaan ay nasa kamay ng mga tao. Sa

demokrasya, maaaring makilahok ang mga mamamayan nang tuwiran o di-

tuwiran. Ito ay tinatawag na direct o tuwirang demokrasya kung ibinoboto ng

mamamayan ang gusto nilang mamuno sa pamahalaan. Karaniwang pumipili

ang mga tao, sa pamamagitan ng halalan, ng mga kinatawan na siyang hahawak

sa kapangyarihan o pamahalaan sa ngalan nila. Tinatawag ang pamamaraang

ito na representative o kinatawang demokrasya. Maaari rin namang di-tuwiran

ang demokrasya kung ang ibinoboto ng mamamayan ay mga kinatawan nila sa

pamahalaan na siya namang pipili ng mga pinuno sa pamahalaan. Mayroon ding

uri ng demokrasya na nagiging diktadura. Ito ay nagaganap kapag ang inatasan

ng mga tao upang mamuno ay magsimulang mangamkam ng kapangyarihan at

isawalang- bahala ang kagustuhan ng mga tao. Ang diktador ay namumuno

batay sa kaniyang sariling kagustuhan at hindi sa kagustuhan ng mga tao.

3. Awtoritaryanismo

Isang uri ito ng pamahalaan na kung saan ang namumuno ay may lubos

na kapangyarihan. Makikita ito sa pamahalaan ng Iran, kung saan ang

namumuno ay siya ring puno ng relihiyon ng estado, ang Islam. May

napakalawak na kapangyarihan na sinusunod ng mga mamamayan ang

namumuno. Mayroon ding tinatawag na konstitusyonal na awtoritaryanismo kung

saan ang kapangyarihan ng namumuno ay itinakda ng Saligang-Batas. Ito ang

tawag ng dating Pangulong Marcos sa kaniyang pamamahala sa ilalim ng Batas

Militar noong 1972 hanggang sa mapatalsik siya noong Pebrero 1986.

4. Totalitaryanismo

Ang pamahalaang totalitaryan ay karaniwang pinamumunuan ng isang

diktador o grupo ng taong makapangyarihan. Sa ilalim ng ganitong pamahalaan,

may ideolohiyang pinaniniwalaan at may partidong nagpapatupad nito. Limitado

ang karapatan ng mga mamamayan sa malayang pagkilos, pagsasalita, at

pagtutol sa pamahalaan. Pati ang pagpapahayag ng relihiyon ay hindi lubusang

sinasang-ayunan, ngunit hindi rin naman tahasang ipinagbabawal. Lahat ng

desisyon tungkol sa pamamahala at kabuhayan ay nasa kamay din ng isang

grupo o ng diktador. Nasa kamay ng pamahalaan ang pag-aari ng mga lupain,

kayamanan ng bansa, at mga industriya. Halimbawa nito ang pamahalaan ni

Hitler sa Germany at ni Mussolini sa Italy bago at habang nagaganap ang

Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig. Isang uri ng pamahalaang totalitaryan ang

sistemang diktatoryal. Unang ginamit ang sistemang ito noong sinaunang

panahon tuwing may mga kagipitan o labanan at may pangangailangang

magtakda ng isang punong militar na may kapangyarihang diktatoryal.

Subalit, matapos ang kagipitan, ay umalis ang ganitong katungkulan. Sa

sinaunang panahon, maraming bansa ang yumakap sa sistemang ito, na ang

pinuno ay isang diktador. Naging palasak ito sa mga bansa sa Timog Amerika at

iba pang lugar sa Asya at Africa ngunit higit na makapangyarihan kaysa

sinaunang mga diktador ang makabagong diktadurya. Napananatili ang

kapangyarihan sa diktador sa pamamagitan ng pagkontrol sa pamahalaan,

ekonomiya, mass media o mga uri ng pamamahayag, simbahan, at pati kaisipan

ng mga mamamayan.

5. Sosyalismo

Isang doktrina ito na nakabatay sa patakarang pang-ekonomiya na kung

saan ang pamamalakad ng pamahalaan ay nasa kamay ng isang grupo ng tao.

Ang grupong ito ang nagtatakda sa pagmamay-ari at sa pangangasiwa ng lupa,

kapital, at mekanismo ng produksyon. Ang mga industriya at lahat ng mga

kailangan sa pagpapabuti ng kalagayan ng mga mamamayan ay nasa kamay rin

ng pamahalaan. Hangad ng sosyalismo ang pagkakamit ng perpektong lipunan

sa pamamagitan ng pantay na distribusyon ng produksyon ng bansa.

Binibigyang-diin nito ang pagtutulungan habang ang mahahalagang industriya ay

pag-aari ng pamahalaan. Halimbawa ng ganitong pamahalaan ang namayani sa

Tsina at ang dating Unyong Sobyet, kung saan ang teorya ni Karl Marx ay

sinubukang bigyang katuparan.

6. Komunismo

Ideolohiyang nagsusulong ng pagkakapantay-pantay ng mga

mamamayan sa lipunan.

7. Facism

Ideolohiyang ipinalaganap ni Benito Mussolini, na tumututol sa anumang

uri ng oposisyon sa pamahalaan.

8. Nazi

Under the leadership of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), the National Socialist

German Workers Party, or Nazi Party, grew into a mass movement and ruled

Germany through totalitarian means from 1933 to 1945. Founded in 1919 as the

German Workers Party, the group promoted German pride and anti-Semitism,

and expressed dissatisfaction with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the 1919

peace settlement that ended World War I (1914-1918) and required Germany to

make numerous concessions and reparations. Hitler joined the party the year it

was founded and became its leader in 1921. In 1933, he became chancellor of

Germany and his Nazi government soon assumed dictatorial powers. After

Germanys defeat in World War II (1939-45), the Nazi Party was outlawed and

many of its top officials were convicted of war crimes related to the murder of

some 6 million European Jews during the Nazis reign.

In 1919, army veteran Adolf Hitler, frustrated by Germanys defeat in World

War, which had left the nation economically depressed and politically unstable,

joined a fledgling political organization called the German Workers Party.

Founded earlier that same year by a small group of men including locksmith

Anton Drexler (1884-1942) and journalist Karl Harrer (1890-1926), the party

promoted German nationalism and anti-Semitism, and felt that the Treaty of

Versailles, the peace settlement that ended the war, was extremely unjust to

Germany by burdening it with reparations it could never pay. Hitler soon emerged

as a charismatic public speaker and began attracting new members with

speeches blaming Jews and Marxists for Germanys problems and espousing

extreme nationalism and the concept of an Aryan master race. In July 1921, he

assumed leadership of the organization, which by then had been renamed the

Nationalist Socialist German Workers (Nazi) Party.

source: http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/nazi-party

B. MGA NAMUNO SA PAGKAKAMPI-KAMPIHAN NG MGA BANSA

1. Benito Mussolini

Born in 1883 in Dovia di Predappio, Forl, Italy, Benito Mussolini was an

ardent socialist as a youth, following in his father's political footsteps, but was

expelled by the party for his support of World War I. In 1919, he created the

Fascist Party, eventually making himself dictator and holding all the power in

Italy. He overextended his forces during World War II and was eventually killed

by his own people, on April 28, 1945, in Mezzegra, Italy.

In 1902, Benito Mussolini moved to Switzerland to promote socialism, and

quickly gained a reputation for his magnetism and remarkable rhetorical talents.

While engaging in political demonstrations, he caught the attention of Swiss

authorities and was eventually expelled from the country. In 1904, Mussolini

returned to Italy and continued promoting a socialist agenda. He was briefly

imprisoned and, upon release, became editor of the organization's newspaper,

Avanti (meaning "Forward"), which gave him a larger megaphone and expanded

his influence.

Mussolini initially condemned Italy's entry into World War I, but soon saw

the war as an opportunity for his country to become a great power. His change in

attitude broke ties with fellow socialists, however, and he was expelled from the

organization. He joined the Italian army in 1915 and fought on the front lines,

reaching the rank of corporal before being wounded and discharged from the

military.

After the war, Mussolini resumed his political activities, criticizing the

Italian government for weakness at the Treaty of Versailles. He organized several

right-wing groups into a single force and, in March 1919, formed the Fascist

Partythe movement proclaimed opposition to social class discrimination and

supported nationalist sentiments, hoping to raise Italy to levels of its great Roman

past.

Capitalizing on public discontent, Mussolini organized a para-military unit

known as the "Black Shirts," who terrorized political opponents and helped

increase Fascist influence. By 1922, as Italy slipped into political chaos,

Mussolini declared that only he could restore order and was given the authority.

He gradually dismantled all democratic institutions, and by 1925, had made

himself dictator, taking the title "Il Duce" ("the Leader"). To his credit, Mussolini

carried out an extensive public works program and reduced unemployment,

making him very popular with the people.

In 1935, determined to show the strength of his regime, Benito Mussolini

invaded Ethiopia. The ill-equipped Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern

tanks and airplanes, and the capital, Addis Ababa, was quickly captured.

Mussolini incorporated Ethiopia into the new Italian Empire. In 1939, he sent

support to Fascists in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, hoping to expand his

influence.

Impressed with Italy's early military successes, German dictator Adolf

Hitler sought to establish a relationship with Benito Mussolini; he was flattered by

Hitler's overtures and interpreted the recent diplomatic and military victories as

proof of his genius. By 1939, the two countries had signed a military alliance

known as the "Pact of Steel." Influenced by Hitler, Mussolini instituted

discrimination policies against the Jews in Italy. In 1940, Italy invaded Greece

with some initial success.

With Italy's resources stretched to capacity, many Italians believed the

alliance with Germany would provide time to regroup. But Hitler's invasion of

Poland and declaration of war with Britain and France forced Italy into war, and

exposed weaknesses in its military. Greece and North Africa soon fell, and only

German military intervention in early 1941 saved Mussolini from a military coup.

In 1942, at the Casablanca Conference, Winston Churchill and Franklin D.

Roosevelt devised a plan to take Italy out of the war and force Germany to move

its troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union. Allied forces secured a

beachhead in Sicily and began marching up the Italian peninsula. With pressure

mounting, Mussolini was forced to resign and arrested; German commandos

later rescued him. Mussolini then moved his government to northern Italy, hoping

to regain his influence. On June 4, 1944, Rome was liberated by Allied forces,

who marched on to take control of Italy.

Mussolini and his mistress, Claretta Petacci, attempted to escape to

Switzerland, but were captured by the Italian underground on April 27, 1945.

They were executed the following day, on April 28, 1945, in Mezzegra (near

Dongo), Italy, and their bodies were hung on display in a Milan plaza. The Italian

masses greeted Mussolini's death without regret. Mussolini had promised his

people Roman glory, but his megalomania had overcome his common sense,

bringing them only war and misery.

source: http://www.biography.com/people/benito-mussolini-9419443#related-

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2. Adolf Hitler

Born in Austria in 1889, Adolf Hitler rose to power in German politics as

leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, also known as the Nazi

Party. Hitler was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and served as

dictator from 1934 to 1945. His policies precipitated World War II and the

Holocaust. Hitler committed suicide with wife Eva Braun on April 30, 1945, in his

Berlin bunker.

At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler applied to serve in the German army.

He was accepted in August 1914, though he was still an Austrian citizen.

Although he spent much of his time away from the front lines, Hitler was present

at a number of significant battles and was wounded at the Somme. He was

decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross First Class and the Black Wound

Badge.

Hitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort. The

experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism, and he was shocked by

Germany's surrender in 1918. Like other German nationalists, he believed that

the German army had been betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists. He found

the Treaty of Versailles degrading, particularly the demilitarization of the

Rhineland and the stipulation that Germany accept responsibility for starting the

war.

After World War I, Hitler returned to Munich and continued to work for the

military as an intelligence officer. While monitoring the activities of the German

Workers Party (DAP), Hitler adopted many of the anti-Semitic, nationalist and

anti-Marxist ideas of DAP founder Anton Drexler. Drexler invited Hitler to join the

DAP, which he did in 1919.

To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the

Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP). Hitler personally

designed the party banner, featuring a swastika in a white circle on a red

background. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his vitriolic speeches against the

Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, Marxists and Jews. In 1921, Hitler replaced

Drexler as NSDAP party chairman.

Hitler's vitriolic beer-hall speeches began attracting regular audiences.

Early followers included army captain Ernst Rohm, the head of the Nazi

paramilitary organization, the Sturmabteilung (SA), which protected meetings and

frequently attacked political opponents.

On November 8, 1923, Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of

3,000 people at a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler announced that the national

revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government. After a

short struggle including 20 deaths, the coup, known as the "Beer Hall Putsch,"

failed.

Hitler was arrested three days later and tried for high treason. He served a

year in prison, during which time he dictated most of the first volume of Mein

Kampf ("My Struggle") to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book laid out Hitler's plans

for transforming German society into one based on race.

The Great Depression in Germany provided a political opportunity for

Hitler. Germans were ambivalent to the parliamentary republic and increasingly

open to extremist options. In 1932, Hitler ran against Paul von Hindenburg for the

presidency. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more

than 35 percent of the vote in the final election. The election established Hitler as

a strong force in German politics. Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler

as chancellor in order to promote political balance.

Hitler used his position as chancellor to form a de facto legal dictatorship.

The Reichstag Fire Decree, announced after a suspicious fire at the Reichstag,

suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Hitler also engineered

the passage of the Enabling Act, which gave his cabinet full legislative powers for

a period of four years and allowed deviations from the constitution.

Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of

government, Hitler and his political allies embarked on a systematic suppression

of the remaining political opposition. By the end of June, the other parties had

been intimidated into disbanding. On July 14, 1933, Hitler's Nazi Party was

declared the only legal political party in Germany.

Military opposition was also punished. The demands of the SA for more

political and military power led to the Night of the Long Knives, which took place

from June 30 to July 2, 1934. Ernst Rhm and other SA leaders, along with a

number of Hitler's political enemies, were rounded up and shot.

The day before Hindenburg's death in August 1934, the cabinet had

enacted a law abolishing the office of president and combining its powers with

those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of

government, and was formally named as leader and chancellor. As head of state,

Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces. He began to mobilize

for war. Germany withdrew from the League of Nations, and Hitler announced a

massive expansion of Germanys armed forces.

The Nazi regime also included social reform measures. Hitler promoted

anti-smoking campaigns across the country. These campaigns stemmed from

Hitler's self-imposed dietary restrictions, which included abstinence from alcohol

and meat. At dinners, Hitler sometimes told graphic stories about the slaughter of

animals in an effort to shame his fellow diners. He encouraged all Germans to

keep their bodies pure of any intoxicating or unclean substance.

A main Nazi concept was the notion of racial hygiene. New laws banned

marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and deprived "non-Aryans"

of the benefits of German citizenship. Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted

children with physical and developmental disabilities, and later authorized a

euthanasia program for disabled adults.

The Holocaust was also conducted under the auspices of racial hygiene.

Between 1939 and 1945, Nazis and their collaborators were responsible for the

deaths of 11 million to 14 million people, including about 6 million Jews,

representing two-thirds of the Jewish population in Europe. Deaths took place in

concentration and extermination camps and through mass executions. Other

persecuted groups included Poles, communists, homosexuals, Jehovah's

Witnesses and trade unionists, among others. Hitler probably never visited the

concentration camps and did not speak publicly about the killings.

In 1938, Hitler, along with several other European leaders, signed the

Munich Agreement. The treaty ceded the Sudetenland districts to Germany,

reversing part of the Versailles Treaty. As a result of the summit, Hitler was

named Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938. This diplomatic win only

whetted his appetite for a renewed German dominance. On September 1,

Germany invaded Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on

Germany.

Hitler escalated his activities in 1940, invading Scandinavia as well as

France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Belgium. Hitler ordered bombing raids

on the United Kingdom, with the goal of invasion. Germanys formal alliance with

Japan and Italy, known collectively as the Axis powers, was signed to deter the

United States from supporting and protecting the British.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler violated a non-aggression pact with Joseph

Stalin, sending 3 million German troops into the Soviet Union. The invading force

seized a huge area before the German advance was stopped outside Moscow in

December 1941.

On December 7, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Hitler was now at

war against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (Britain), the

world's greatest financial power (the U.S.) and the world's largest army (the

Soviet Union).

Facing these odds, Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic.

Germany's military and economic position deteriorated along with Hitler's health.

Germany and the Axis could not sustain Hitler's aggressive and expansive war. In

late 1942, German forces failed to seize the Suez Canal. The German army also

suffered defeats at the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Kursk. On June 6,

1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France. As a result of these

significant setbacks, many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable

and that Hitler's denial would result in the destruction of the country.

By early 1945, Hitler realized that Germany was going to lose the war. The

Soviets had driven the German army back into Western Europe, and the Allies

were advancing into Germany. On April 29, 1945, Hitler married his girlfriend,

Eva Braun, in a small civil ceremony in his Berlin bunker. Around this time, Hitler

was informed of the assassination of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Afraid of

falling into the hands of enemy troops, Hitler and Braun committed suicide the

day after their wedding, on April 30, 1945. Their bodies were carried to the

bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were burned.

Berlin fell on May 2, 1945. Five days later, on May 7, 1945, Germany

surrendered unconditionally to the Allies.

Hitler's political program had brought about a world war, leaving behind a

devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe, including Germany.

His policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale and resulted in

the death of an estimated 40 million people, including about 27 million in the

Soviet Union. Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history

dominated by Germany, and the defeat of fascism. A new ideological global

conflict, the Cold War, emerged in the aftermath of World War II.

source: http://www.biography.com/people/adolf-hitler-9340144#death-and-legacy

3. Vladimir Lenin

Lenin was one of the leading political figures and revolutionary thinkers of

the 20th century, who masterminded the Bolshevik take-over of power in Russia

in 1917, and was the architect and first head of the USSR.

Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov was born in Simbirsk on the Volga River on 22 April

1870 into a well-educated family. He excelled at school and went on to study law.

At university, he was exposed to radical thinking, and his views were also

influenced by the execution of his elder brother, a member of a revolutionary

group.

Expelled from university for his radical policies, Lenin completed his law

degree as an external student in 1891. He moved to St Petersburg and became

a professional revolutionary. Like many of his contemporaries, he was arrested

and exiled to Siberia, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his Siberian

exile, Lenin - the pseudonym he adopted in 1901 - spent most of the subsequent

decade and a half in western Europe, where he emerged as a prominent figure in

the international revolutionary movement and became the leader of the

'Bolshevik' faction of the Russian Social Democratic Worker's Party.

In 1917, exhausted by World War One, Russia was ripe for change.

Assisted by the Germans, who hoped that he would undermine the Russian war

effort, Lenin returned home and started working against the provisional

government that had overthrown the tsarist regime. He eventually led what was

soon to be known as the October Revolution, but was effectively a coup d'etat.

Almost three years of civil war followed. The Bolsheviks were victorious and

assumed total control of the country. During this period of revolution, war and

famine, Lenin demonstrated a chilling disregard for the sufferings of his fellow

countrymen and mercilessly crushed any opposition.

Although Lenin was ruthless he was also pragmatic. When his efforts to

transform the Russian economy to a socialist model stalled, he introduced the

New Economic Policy, where a measure of private enterprise was again

permitted, a policy that continued for several years after his death. In 1918, Lenin

narrowly survived an assassination attempt, but was severely wounded. His long

term health was affected, and in 1922 he suffered a stroke from which he never

fully recovered. In his declining years, he worried about the bureaucratisation of

the regime and also expressed concern over the increasing power of his eventual

successor Joseph Stalin. Lenin died on 24 January 1924. His corpse was

embalmed and placed in a mausoleum on Moscow's Red Square.

source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/lenin_vladimir.shtml

4. Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin (1878-1953) was the dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics (USSR) from 1929 to 1953. Under Stalin, the Soviet Union was

transformed from a peasant society into an industrial and military superpower.

However, he ruled by terror, and millions of his own citizens died during his brutal

reign. Born into poverty, Stalin became involved in revolutionary politics, as well

as criminal activities, as a young man. After Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin

(1870-1924) died, Stalin outmaneuvered his rivals for control of the party. Once

in power, he collectivized farming and had potential enemies executed or sent to

forced labor camps. Stalin aligned with the United States and Britain in World

War II (1939-1945) but afterward engaged in an increasingly tense relationship

with the West known as the Cold War (1946-1991). After his death, the Soviets

initiated a de-Stalinization process.

After leaving school, Stalin became an underground political agitator,

taking part in labor demonstrations and strikes. He adopted the name Koba, after

a fictional Georgian outlaw-hero, and joined the more militant wing of the Marxist

Social Democratic movement, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin. Stalin also

became involved in various criminal activities, including bank heists, the

proceeds from which were used to help fund the Bolshevik Party. He was

arrested multiple times between 1902 and 1913, and subjected to imprisonment

and exile in Siberia.

In 1906, Stalin married Ekaterina Kato Svanidze (1885-1907), a

seamstress. The couple had one son, Yakov (1907-1943), who died as a prisoner

in Germany during World War II. Ekaterina perished from typhus when her son

was an infant. In 1918 (some sources cite 1919), Stalin married his second wife,

Nadezhda Nadya Alliluyeva (1901-1932), the daughter of a Russian

revolutionary. They had two children, a boy and a girl. Nadezhda committed

suicide in her early 30s. Stalin also fathered several children out of wedlock.

In 1912, Lenin, then in exile in Switzerland, appointed Joseph Stalin to

serve on the first Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party. Three years later, in

November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia. The Soviet Union was

founded in 1922, with Lenin as its first leader. During these years, Stalin had

continued to move up the party ladder, and in 1922 he became secretary general

of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a role that enabled him to

appoint his allies to government jobs and grow a base of political support.

After Lenin died in 1924, Stalin eventually outmaneuvered his rivals and

won the power struggle for control of the Communist Party. By the late 1920s, he

had become dictator of the Soviet Union.

In 1939, on the eve of World War II, Joseph Stalin and German dictator

Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) signed a nonaggression pact. Stalin then proceeded to

annex parts of Poland and Romania, as well as the Baltic states of Estonia,

Latvia and Lithuania. He also launched an invasion of Finland. Then, in June

1941, Germany broke the Nazi-Soviet pact and invaded the USSR, making

significant early inroads. (Stalin had ignored warnings from the Americans and

the British, as well as his own intelligence agents, about a potential invasion, and

the Soviets were not prepared for war.) As German troops approached the Soviet

capital of Moscow, Stalin remained there and directed a scorched earth

defensive policy, destroying any supplies or infrastructure that might benefit the

enemy. The tide turned for the Soviets with the Battle of Stalingrad, from August

1942 to February 1943, during which the Red Army defeated the Germans and

eventually drove them from Russia.

As the war progressed, Stalin participated in the major Allied conferences,

including those in Tehran (1943) and Yalta (1945). His iron will and deft political

skills enabled him to play the loyal ally while never abandoning his vision of an

expanded postwar Soviet empire.

Joseph Stalin did not mellow with age: He prosecuted a reign of terror,

purges, executions, exiles to labor camps and persecution in the postwar USSR,

suppressing all dissent and anything that smacked of foreignespecially

Westerninfluence. He established communist governments throughout Eastern

Europe, and in 1949 led the Soviets into the nuclear age by exploding an atomic

bomb. In 1950, he gave North Koreas communist leader Kim Il Sung (1912-

1994) permission to invade United States-supported South Korea, an event that

triggered the Korean War.

Stalin, who grew increasingly paranoid in his later years, died on March 5,

1953, at age 74, after suffering a stroke. His body was embalmed and preserved

in Lenins mausoleum in Moscows Red Square until 1961, when it was removed

and buried near the Kremlin walls as part of the de-Stalinization process initiated

by Stalins successor Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971).

By some estimates, he was responsible for the deaths of 20 million people

during his brutal rule.

source: http://www.history.com/topics/joseph-stalin

5. Leo Trosky

Born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein on November 7, 1879, Leon Trotsky's

revolutionary activity as a young man spurred his first of several ordered exiles to

Siberia. He waged Russia's 1917 revolution alongside Vladimir Lenin. As

commissar of war in the new Soviet government, he helped defeat forces

opposed to Bolshevik control. As the Soviet government developed, he engaged

in a power struggle against Joseph Stalin, which he lost, leading to his exile

again and, eventually, his murder.

Leon Trotsky was born Lev Davidovich Bronstein in Yanovka, Ukrainein

the Russian Empireon November 7, 1879. His parents, David and Anna

Bronstein, were prosperous Jewish farmers. When he was 8 years old, Trotksy

went to school in Odessa, then moved in 1896 to Nikolayev, Ukraine, for his final

year in school. While there, he became enthralled with Marxism.

In 1897, Trotsky helped found the South Russian Workers' Union. He was

arrested within a year and spent two years in prison before being tried, convicted

and sent to Siberia for a four-year sentence. While in prison, he met and married

Alexandra Lvovna, a co- revolutionary who had also been sentenced to Siberia.

While there, they had two daughters.

During the early years of the Social Democratic Party, there were often

disputes among the party's leadership over its form and strategy. Vladimir Lenin

argued for a small party of professional revolutionaries who would lead a large

contingent of non-party supporters. Julius Martov advocated for a larger, more

democratic organization of supporters. Leon Trotsky tried to reconcile the two

factions, resulting in numerous clashes with both groups' leaders. Many of the

Social Democrats, including the ambitious Joseph Stalin, sided with Lenin.

Trotsky's neutrality was seen as disloyal.

On January 22, 1905, unarmed demonstrators marching against the

Russian Tsar were killed by the Imperial Guard. When word reached Leon

Trotsky, he returned to Russia to support the uprisings. By the end of 1905, he

had become a leader of the movement. In December, the rebellion was crushed,

and Trotsky was arrested and once again sent to Siberia. At his trial, he put on a

spirited defense and increased his popularity among the party's elite. In January

1907, Trotsky escaped prison and traveled to Europe, where he spent 10 years

in exile in various cities, including Vienna, Zurich, Paris and New York, spending

much of the time writing for Russian revolutionary journals, including Pravda, and

advocating an anti-war policy.

After the overthrow of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, in February 1917, Trotsky

set out for Russia from New York. However, Okhrana (the Tsar's secret police)

persuaded British authorities to have him detained at Halifax, Canada. He was

held there for a month, before the Russian provisional government demanded his

release. After he arrived in Russia in May 1917, he quickly addressed some of

the problems forming in post-revolutionary Russia. He disapproved of the

provisional government because he felt it was ineffectual. The new prime

minister, Alexander Kerensky, saw Trotsky as a major threat and had him

arrested. While in jail, Trotsky was admitted to the Bolshevik Party and released

soon after. He was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, a strong hold of

dissent against the provisional government.

In November 1917, the provisional government was overthrown and the

Soviet Council of People's Commissars was formed, with Vladimir Lenin elected

chairman. Leon Trotskys first role in the new government was serving as

commissar for foreign affairs and making peace with the Germans. Talks began

in January 1918, and Germany had a long list of demands for territory and

reparations. Trotsky wanted to wait out the German government, in hopes that it

would be defeated by the Allies or suffer internal insurrection. However, Lenin felt

that peace with Germany needed to be made so they could concentrate on

building a communist government in Russia. Trotsky disagreed and resigned

from this post.

After the Bolsheviks took control of the Soviet government, Lenin ordered

the formation of the Red Army and appointed Leon Trotsky its leader. The army's

first orders were to neutralize the White Army (Socialist revolutionaries opposed

to Bolshevik control) during the Russian Civil War. Trotsky proved to be an

outstanding military leader, as he led the army of 3 million to victory. The task

was difficult, as Trotsky directed a war effort that was at times on 16 different

fronts. It also didn't help that some members of the Soviet leadership, including

Lenin, became involved in military strategy, redirecting the Red Army's efforts

and countermanding some of Trotsky's orders. In late 1920, the Bolsheviks finally

won the Civil War, ensuring Bolshevik control of the Soviet government. After the

White Army surrendered, Trotsky was elected a member of the Communist Party

central committee. He was clearly positioned as the Soviet Union's number-two

man, next to Lenin.

During the winter of 1920-21, as the Soviet government moved from war

to peace-time operations, an increasingly acrimonious debate grew over the role

of trade unions. Believing that the workers should have nothing to fear from the

government, Leon Trotsky advocated the state control the trade unions. He

reasoned that this would give officials a tighter control over labor and facilitate a

greater integration between government and the proletariat. Lenin criticized

Trotsky, accusing him of harassing the unions and abandoning his support for the

proletariat. A breach between the two developed and other officials, including

Joseph Stalin, took advantage, siding with Lenin to gain favor. As Trotsky dug in

and refused to modify his position, the dissention grew and Lenin feared the

conflict would splinter the party. At a meeting at the Tenth Party Congress in

March 1921, the issue came to a head when several of Trotsky's supporters were

replaced by Lenin's lieutenants. Trotsky finally dropped his opposition and, to

show his allegiance to Lenin, ordered the suppression of the Kronstadt Rebellion

(an uprising of sailors and longshoremen protesting heavy-handed Bolshevik

tactics). But the damage was done, and Trotsky had lost much of his political

influence over the dispute.

By 1922, the pressures of revolution and injuries from an earlier

assassination attempt had taken their toll on Vladimir Lenin. In May, he suffered

his first stroke and questions arose over who would succeed him. Leon Trotsky

had a stellar record as a military leader and administrator and seemed the

obvious choice among the rank and file membership of the Communist Party. But

he had offended many in the Politburo (the Communist Party's executive

committee), and a group of Politburo members, led by Joseph Stalin, joined

forces to oppose him. The previous month, Lenin had appointed Stalin to the new

post of Central Committee General Secretary. Though not a significant post at

the time, it gave Stalin control over all party-member appointments. He quickly

consolidated his power and started lining up allies against Trotsky.

Between 1922 and 1924, Vladimir Lenin tried to counter some of Stalin's

influence and support Trotsky on several occasions. However, a third stroke

virtually silenced Lenin and Stalin was free to completely push Trotsky out of

power. Lenin died on January 21, 1924, and Trotsky was isolated and alone,

outmaneuvered by Stalin. From that point on, Trotsky was steadily pushed out of

important roles on Soviet government and, eventually, pushed out of the country.

Between 1925 and 1928, Trotsky was gradually pushed from power and

influence by Stalin and his allies, who discredited Trotsky's role in the Russian

Revolution and his military record. In October 1927, Trotsky was expelled from

the Central Committee and exiled the following January to the very remote Alma-

Ata, located in present-day Kazakhstan. Apparently, that was not far enough for

Stalin, so in February, 1929, Trotsky was banished entirely from the Soviet

Union. Over the next seven years, he lived in Turkey, France and Norway, before

arriving in Mexico City.

Trotsky continued to write and criticize Joseph Stalin and the Soviet

government. During the 1930s, Stalin conducted political purges and named

Trotsky, in absentia, a major conspirator and enemy of the people. In August

1936, 16 of Trotsky's allies were charged with aiding Trotsky in treason. All 16

were found guilty and executed. Stalin then set out to assassinate Trotsky. In

1937, Trotsky moved to Mexico, eventually settling in Mexico City, where he

continued to criticize Soviet leadership.

source: http://www.biography.com/people/leon-trotsky-9510793#death-and-

legacy

6. Hedeki Tojo

Wartime leader of Japans government, General Tj Hideki (1884-1948),

with his close-cropped hair, mustache, and round spectacles, became for Allied

propagandists one of the most commonly caricatured members of Japans

military dictatorship throughout the Pacific war. Shrewd at bureaucratic infighting

and fiercely partisan in presenting the armys perspective while army minister, he

was surprisingly indecisive as national leader.

Known within the army as Razor Tj both for his bureaucratic efficiency

and for his strict, uncompromising attention to detail, he climbed the command

ladders, in close association with the army faction seeking to upgrade and

improve Japans fighting capabilities despite tight budgets and civilian

interference. Tj built up a personal power base and used his position as head

of the military police of Japans garrison force in Manchuria to rein in their

influence before he became the Kwantung Armys chief of staff in 1937. He

played a key role in opening hostilities against China in July. Tj had his only

combat experience later that year, leading two brigades on operations in Inner

Mongolia.

Seeing the military occupation of Chinese territory as necessary to force

the Nationalist Chinese government to collaborate with Japan, he continued to

advocate expansion of the conflict in China when he returned to Tokyo in 1938 as

army vice minister, rising to army minister in July 1940. He pushed for alliance

with Germany (where he had served in 1920-1922) and Italy, and he supported

the formation of a broad political front of national unity. In October 1941 he

became prime minister.

Although Tj supported last-minute diplomatic efforts, he gave final

approval to the attacks on the United States, Great Britain, and the Dutch East

Indies in December 1941. Japans early victories greatly strengthened his

personal prestige and his assertion that there were times when statesmen had to

have faith in Victory.

When the war intensified, Japans losses mounted, and its fragile

industrial foundations threatened to collapse. Tj characteristically sought to

gather administrative levers into his own hands. Serving as both prime minister

and army minister, at various times he also held the portfolios of home affairs

(giving him control of the dreaded thought police), education, munitions,

commerce and industry, and foreign affairs. In February 1944, he even assumed

direct command of army operations as chief of the Army General Staff. Yet

despite all his posts, Tj was never able to establish a dictatorship on a par with

those wielded by Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. He served constitutionally at the

behest of the emperor, without support of a mass party, while crucial power

centers, such as the industrial combines (known as zaibatsu), the navy, and the

court, remained beyond his control. After the island of Saipan fell to American

forces in July 1944, he was forced from power, despite arguments raised by

some officials close to the throne that Tj should be left in office to the end to

accept responsibility for the loss of the war so that a court official could step in

to deliver peace.

After Japans surrender the next year, Tj attempted suicide when

threatened with arrest by occupation authorities, but he was tried and hanged as

a war criminal on December 23, 1948. At his trial, he asserted his personal

responsibility for the war and attempted to deflect attention from the emperor. In

1978, despite the protest of many citizens opposed to honoring the man they felt

had brought disaster on Japan, Tjs name, along with those of thirteen other

class A war criminals, was commemorated at Yasukuni, the shrine in Tokyo

dedicated to the memory of warriors fallen in service to the imperial family.

source: http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/tojo-hideki

7. Cory Aquino

Corazon Aquino was the 11th president (and first female president) of the

Philippines. She restored democracy after the long dictatorship of Ferdinand

Marcos.

Maria Corazon Aquino was born January 25, 1933, in Tarlac, Philippines.

Her husband had been an opponent of Ferdinand Marcos and was assassinated

upon returning from exile. When Marcos unexpectedly called for elections in

1986, Corazon Aquino became the unified opposition's presidential candidate.

She took office after Marcos fled the country, and served as president, with mixed

results, until 1992.

Maria Corazon Sumulong Cojuangco was born January 25, 1933, in the

Tarlac Province to a wealthy political and banking family. She attended school in

Manila until the age of 13, then finished her education in the United States, first in

Philadelphia and later in New York City. She graduated from the College of

Mount St. Vincent in New York in 1953, with a bachelor's degree in both French

and mathematics.

Upon returning to the Philippines, she enrolled in law school in Manila,

where she met Benigno Aquino, Jr., an ambitious young journalist who also came

from a family with considerable wealth. The couple married in 1954, and would

go on to have five children together: one son and four daughters.

Benigno soon abandoned a career in journalism for politics. With Corazon

at his side, he quickly established himself as one of the country's brightest young

leaders. Over the span of just two decades, he was elected mayor, then governor

and, finally, senator. Along the way, he challenged the rule of the country's

president, Ferdinand Marcos.

Elected to the presidency in 1965, Marcos' administration was marred by

corruption, human rights violations and political repression. In 1972 Marcos

declared martial law, effectively stripping his citizens of their democratic rights

and arresting key opposition leaders, including Benigno Aquino, who spent seven

years in jail before being permitted to relocate with his family to the United States

in 1980.

Corazon Aquino stood by her husband's side, playing the role of the

supportive wife. During his time in prison, Aquino served as the bridge between

Benigno and the outside world, keeping his profile alive and passing his notes on

to the press.

After three years in exile, Benigno Aquino returned to the Philippines on

August 21, 1983, when he was killed by two soldiers soon after arriving. Marcos

was presumed to be behind the killing, and Benigno's assassination set off a

wave of protests against Marcos' administration. The opposition coalesced

around Corazon Aquino. While she gracefully dealt with her husband's death,

Aquino evolved into a national symbol of reform.

With international pressure bearing down on his administration, Marcos

unexpectedly called for presidential elections in February 1986. Marcos'

opposition chose Aquino as their candidate. When she narrowly lost the election,

Aquino and her supporters challenged the results. Quickly, Marco's fortunes

began to turn. The army, and then the defense minister, soon declared support

for Aquino, prompting Marcos to seek exile in Hawaii. Aquino was sworn into

office on February 25, 1986, becoming the first female president of the

Philippines. That same year, she was named TIME magazine's Woman of the

Year.

During her six years as the country's president, Aquino fended off coup

attempts by Marcos supporters, and struggled to address her country's economic

problems. In 1992 she left office, and was succeeded by her former defense

secretary, Fidel Ramos.

Aquino did not go quietly into retirement. Instead, she ran a think tank on

non-violence and periodically helped lead street protests against the policies of

endorsed by her successors.

In 2008, she learned she had colon cancer. She passed on August 1, 2009.

source: http://www.biography.com/people/corazon-aquino-9187250#final-years

8. Ferdinand Marcos

Known for running a corrupt, undemocratic regime, Ferdinand Marcos was

the president of the Philippines from 1966 to 1986.

A lawyer, a member of the Philippine House of Representatives (1949-

1959) and a member of the Philippine Senate (1959-1965), Ferdinand Marcos

became the president of the Philippines in 1966, a post he held until 1986, when

his people rose against his dictatorial rule and he fled.

Ferdinand Marcos went to school in Manila and later attended law school

at the University of the Philippines. His father, Mariano Marcos, was a Filipino

politician, and on September 20, 1935, the day after Julio Nalundasan defeated

Mariano Marcos for a seat in the National Assembly (for the second time),

Nalundasan was shot and killed in his home. Ferdinand, Mariano and

Ferdinands brother and brother-in-law were tried for the assassination, and

Ferdinand and his brother-in-law were found guilty of the murder. Ferdinand

argued their case on appeal to the Philippine Supreme Court and won acquittal a

year later.

Remarkably, while Marcos was preparing his case, he was studying for the

bar exam and became a trial lawyer in Manila subsequent to the acquittal.

During World War II, Ferdinand Marcos served as an officer with the

Philippine armed forces, later claiming that he had been a leader in the Filipino

guerrilla resistance movement. These claims were a principal element in his

subsequent political success, but it was revealed in U.S. government archives

that he actually played little or no part in anti-Japanese activities during World

War II.

At the end of the war, when the American government granted the

Philippines independence on July 4, 1946, the Philippine Congress was created.

Marcos ran and was twice elected as representative to his district and served

from 1949 to 1959. In 1959, Marcos took a seat in the Philippine Senate, a

position he would hold until he ran for and won the presidency in 1965.

source: http://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand-marcos-9398625#state-of-

the-regime-and-downfall

9. Karl Marx

German philosopher and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx published The

Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, anticapitalist works that form the basis of

Marxism.

Born in Prussia on May 5, 1818, Karl Marx began exploring sociopolitical

theories at university among the Young Hegelians. He became a journalist, and

his socialist writings would get him expelled from Germany and France. In 1848,

he published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels and was exiled to

London, where he wrote the first volume of Das Kapital and lived the remainder

of his life.

Karl Heinrich Marx was one of nine children born to Heinrich and Henrietta

Marx in Trier, Prussia. His father was a successful lawyer who revered Kant and

Voltaire, and was a passionate activist for Prussian reform. Although both parents

were Jewish with rabbinical ancestry, Karls father converted to Christianity in

1816 at the age of 35.

This was likely a professional concession in response to an 1815 law

banning Jews from high society. He was baptized a Lutheran, rather than a

Catholic, which was the predominant faith in Trier, because he equated

Protestantism with intellectual freedom. When he was 6, Karl was baptized

along with the other children, but his mother waited until 1825, after her father

died.

Marx was an average student. He was educated at home until he was 12

and spent five years, from 1830 to 1835, at the Jesuit high school in Trier, at that

time known as the Friedrich-Wilhelm Gymnasium. The schools principal, a friend

of Marxs father, was a liberal and a Kantian and was respected by the people of

Rhineland but suspect to authorities. The school was under surveillance and was

raided in 1832.

In October of 1835, Marx began studying at the University of Bonn. It had

a lively and rebellious culture, and Marx enthusiastically took part in student life.

In his two semesters there, he was imprisoned for drunkenness and disturbing

the peace, incurred debts and participated in a duel. At the end of the year,

Marxs father insisted he enroll in the more serious University of Berlin.

In Berlin, he studied law and philosophy and was introduced to the

philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel, who had been a professor at Berlin until his death in

1831. Marx was not initially enamored with Hegel, but he soon became involved

with the Young Hegelians, a radical group of students including Bruno Bauer and

Ludwig Feuerbach, who criticized the political and religious establishments of the

day.

In 1836, as he was becoming more politically zealous, Marx was secretly

engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, a sought-after woman from a respected

family in Trier who was four years his senior. This, along with his increasing

radicalism, caused his father angst. In a series of letters, Marxs father expressed

concerns about what he saw as his sons demons, and admonished him for not

taking the responsibilities of marriage seriously enough, particularly when his

wife-to-be came from a higher class.

Marx did not settle down. He received his doctorate from the University of

Jena in 1841, but his radical politics prevented him from procuring a teaching

position. He began to work as a journalist, and in 1842, he became the editor of

Rheinische Zeitung, a liberal newspaper in Cologne. Just one year later, the

government ordered the newspapers suppression, effective April 1, 1843. Marx

resigned on March 18th. Three months later, in June, he finally married Jenny

von Westphalen, and in October, they moved to Paris.

source: http://www.biography.com/people/karl-marx-9401219#education

10. Douglas MacArthur

Douglas MacArthur was an American general best known for his

command of Allied forces in the Pacific Theater during World War II.

Douglas MacArthur was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, on January 26,

1880. After graduating from West Point in 1903, he fought in World War I, and in

World War II was the commander of Allied forces in the Pacific. When he

criticized President Harry Truman's handling of the Korean War, he was relieved

of his command. MacArthur died on April 5, 1964, and was buried in Norfolk,

Virginia.

Douglas MacArthur was born on an Army base in Little Rock, Arkansas,

on January 26, 1880, into a family with a strong military history. His father, Arthur,

was a captain at the time of Douglas birth, and had been decorated for his

service in the Union Army during the Civil War. Douglas mother, Mary, was from

Virginia, and her brothers had fought for the South during the Civil War. The base

where Douglas was born was just the first of several military posts on which he

would live during his youth.

In 1893 his family moved to San Antonio, Texas, and MacArthur attended

the West Texas Military Academy, where he began to show academic promise.

He was also a member of several of the schools sports teams. After high school,

MacArthur enrolled in the military academy at West Point, where he excelled,

and in 1903 he graduated with honors.

Following graduation, MacArthur was commissioned as a junior officer in

the Army Corps of Engineers and spent the next decade fulfilling a variety of

duties. This early period in his military career was marked by frequent promotions

and led to posts in countries around the world, including the Philippines, Japan,

Mexico and, in 1914, France.

Douglas MacArthur was born on an Army base in Little Rock, Arkansas,

on January 26, 1880, into a family with a strong military history. His father, Arthur,

was a captain at the time of Douglas birth, and had been decorated for his

service in the Union Army during the Civil War. Douglas mother, Mary, was from

Virginia, and her brothers had fought for the South during the Civil War. The base

where Douglas was born was just the first of several military posts on which he

would live during his youth.

In 1893 his family moved to San Antonio, Texas, and MacArthur attended

the West Texas Military Academy, where he began to show academic promise.

He was also a member of several of the schools sports teams. After high school,

MacArthur enrolled in the military academy at West Point, where he excelled,

and in 1903 he graduated with honors.

Following graduation, MacArthur was commissioned as a junior officer in

the Army Corps of Engineers and spent the next decade fulfilling a variety of

duties. This early period in his military career was marked by frequent promotions

and led to posts in countries around the world, including the Philippines, Japan,

Mexico and, in 1914, France.

In July 1941, MacArthur was recalled to active duty and became

commander of U.S. forces in the Pacific. A Japanese invasion of the Philippines

that same year drove MacArthurs forces from the country, but in the years that

followed, MacArthur launched a number of successful offensive operations

against the Japanese military in the region. During this time, he was frequently

and openly critical of his superiors decision to focus military resources on the

war in Europe rather than in the Pacific.

In 1945, at the end of the war, President Harry S. Truman appointed

MacArthur supreme Allied commander. MacArthur was placed in charge of the

formal surrender of Tokyo, and for the next six years, he remained in Japan to

command the occupation forces there and to oversee the rebuilding of the

country.

When the North Korean army invaded South Korea in 1950, MacArthur

was placed in command of the newly created United Nations forces and quickly

drove back the attack. However, he failed to anticipate impending attacks by

Chinese forces and was soon forced to retreat. In the aftermath of this defeat,

MacArthur was vocal about his belief that the war should be expanded to include

China, despite warnings from President Truman that he should keep his opinions

to himself. Exasperated by MacArthurs refusal to do so, Truman finally relieved

him of his command in April 1951.

MacArthur returned to the United States and settled in Washington, D.C.

The American public welcomed him back as a hero, but Truman continued to be

openly critical of his actions. MacArthur devoted much of his time to defending

his actions in Korea and criticizing Trumans inaction, accusing him of having

allowed Communism to run rampant in the region. He was also considered as a

potential Republican presidential candidate, though none of these exploratory

campaigns ever developed further. In 1952, MacArthur met with Dwight

Eisenhower, who had just been elected president, and advised him on how to

end the Korean War. His decidedly extreme strategy, which included the use of

atomic weapons, was rejected.

Around this time, MacArthur and his wife moved to New York City, and he

was elected chairman of the board for Remington Rand, a manufacturer of

typewriters and early computers. Besides the duties that came with this post,

MacArthur devoted his time to writing his memoirs, which would later be

published as Reminiscences and serialized in Life magazine. He would also

meet with presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to advise them on

military matters.

Douglas MacArthur died in Washington, D.C., on April 5, 1964, at the age

of 84. He was honored with a state funeral and was buried in the Douglas

MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, Virginia. The memorial is not only the resting

place of MacArthur and his wife Jean, but also home to a museum collection

documenting his life and military service.

C. MGA PANDAIGDIGANG ORGANISASYON

1. Europian Union (EU)

Ang Unyong Europeo ay isang pang-ekonomiko at pampolotikal na unyon

ng 27 malalayang bansa. Ito ang pinakamalaking kompederasyon ng mga

malalayang estado na itinatag sa ilalim ng pangalang iyon noong 1992. Ang mga

aktibidad ng Unyong Europeo ay sumasakop sa patakarang publiko, patakarang

ekonomika sa ugnayang panlabas, tanggulan, pagsasaka at kalakalan.

2. Organization of American States (OAS)

Ang Samahan ng mga Estadong Amerikano ay isang pandaigdigang

samahang nakabase sa Washington, D.C., Estados Unidos. Mayroon itong

tatlumpu't limang kasaping nagsasariling estado ng Amerika. Layunin nitong

makamit ang kapayapaan at hustisya, itaguyod ang pagkakaisa ng mga

estadong kasapi, patatagin ang kanilang pagtutulungan, pangalagaan ang

kanilang awtonomiya, ang kanilang teritoryo, at ang kanilang kalayaan.

3. Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

Ang OIC ay isang internasyunal na organisasyon ng 57 estado. Ito ay

samahan ng mga bansang Muslim na naglalayong siguraduhin at protektahan

ang interes mula sa pamamagitan ng pagsusulong ng kapayapaang pandaigdig

at pagkakaunawaan.

4. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Ang Kapisanan ng mga Bansa sa Timog-Silangang Asya o kilala bilang

ASEAN ay isang organisasyong heopolitikal, ekonomikal, at pangkultura ng mga

bansa sa Timog-Silangang Asya. Ang mga layunin ng samahang ito ay

maitaguyod ang paglago ng ekonomiya, kaunlarang panlipunan, pagsulong ng

mga kultura ng bawat kasapi, at pagpapalaganap ng kapayapaang panrehiyon.

5. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, or APEC, was established in

1989. It started as an informal ministerial level dialogue group with 12 members

comprising of Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea,

Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Canada, and the

United States. The APEC was initiated as an annual meeting of foreign and trade

ministers to sustain the momentum of market opening and economic cooperation

which are vital to the growth and prosperity of the Asia-Pacific region.

The primary reason and purpose behind APECs establishment is the

desire to have a forum that caters to the enhancement of economic conditions of

states. This would entail the facilitation of economic growth, promotion of

cooperation among states, liberalization of trade, and creation of opportunities for

investments in the Asia-Pacific community.

source: http://apec2015.ph/about-apec/primer/

6. World Bank

Ang World Bank ay isang pandaigdigang bangko na nagbibigay ng tulong-

pananalapi at teknikal sa mga bansang umuunlad para sa mga programang

pangkaunlaran tulad ng mga tulay, kalsada, paaralan at iba pa na may layunin ng

pagpapababa ng antas ng kahirapan.

7. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Ang International Monetary Fund ay isang organisasyong internasyunal na

pinagkatiwalaang mamahala sa pandaigdigang sistema sa pananalapi sa

pamamagitan ng pagmasid sa mga halaga ng palitan at balanse ng mga

kabayaran, gayon din ang pag-alok ng teknikal at pinansyal na tulong kapag

hiningi.

8. World Trade Organization (WTO)

Ang World Trade Organization ay isang organisasyong pandaigdig na

itinatag upang mapamahalaan at magbigay ng kalayaan sa kalakalang pang-

internasyunal. Ang WTO ay nabuo noong Enero 1, 1995 kahalili ng

Pangkalahatang Kasunduan sa mga Taripa at Kalakalan (GATT).

9. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a

permanent, intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference

on September 1014, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.

The five Founding Members were later joined by nine other Members: Qatar

(1961); Indonesia (1962) suspended its membership from January 2009-

December 2015; Libya (1962); United Arab Emirates (1967); Algeria (1969);

Nigeria (1971); Ecuador (1973) suspended its membership from December

1992-October 2007; Angola (2007) and Gabon (19751994). OPEC had its

headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, in the first five years of its existence. This

was moved to Vienna, Austria, on September 1, 1965.

OPEC's objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among

Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum

producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming

nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry.

source: http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm

10. World Health Organization (WHO)

The World Health Organization (WHO) was founded in 1948 with an

ambitious objective the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level

of health. Its constitution defined 22 wide-ranging functions, of which the first

was to act as the directing and co-ordinating authority on international health

work. Since 1948 many things have changed in the world of global health, in

particular the large number of new initiatives and institutions created that

challenge WHOs role as a directing and coordinating authority. Examples include

the entry of the World Bank into healthsector lending on a large scale in the

1980s; the creation of new organizations such as UNAIDS, the GAVI Alliance

(formerly the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation), the Global Fund to

Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (The Global Fund) and UNITAID,

developed to tackle specific disease problems; and new public-private

partnerships for product development such as the Medicines for Malaria Venture

or Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative. Meanwhile WHOs secure funding

from governments has stagnated and it has become reliant on voluntary

contributions from governments and other actors usually earmarked for particular

activities favoured by the donor. In recent years, the Bill & Melinda Gates

Foundation has become one of the biggest voluntary contributors to WHO. As a

result of the acute funding pressures, Director-General Margaret Chan initiated in

2010 the launch of what became a fresh effort to reform how the organization

functions. There are many questions about how WHO should locate itself in

relation to this new and crowded institutional environment. How should it interpret

or reinterpret its constitutional role? As an intergovernmental organization, how

can it effectively engage with these new actors, including NGOs, charitable

foundations and the private sector? Is WHO principally a normative, standard-

setting institution, a knowledge broker and provider of information and evidence,

and advocate for global health? Or is it principally a provider of technical

assistance to governments in various health-related spheres? In addition, should

it be an implementer of projects usually funded through earmarked voluntary

contributions from funders? What is the best balance between these functions?

Do they conflict? What does this imply for the organization of WHO with its

unique structure of semi-autonomous regional offices? This paper reviews the

history of previous efforts at reform in WHO and the key issues that arise in

defining WHOs role in the international global health system as it has now

evolved and what this might mean for its own governance, organization,

management and financing.

source:

https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/Global

%20Health/0213_who.pdf

D. IBA PANG MAY KAUGNAYAN SA UNA AT IKALAWANG DIGMAANG PANDAIGDIG

1. Marxism

Teoryang politikal at ekonomiko ni Karl Marx na nagsasaad na ang kilos

ng tao ay bunga ng kapaligiran at uri ng kanyang kinabibilangan.

2. Allied Powers

Mga bansang nagsanib-sanib upang labanan ang Axis Powers. Kabilang

dito ang United States, Great Britain at Soviet Union.

3. Axis Powers

Mga bansang nagsanib upang kalabanin ang Allies noong Ikalawang

Digmaang Pandaigdig. Kabilang dito ang Germany, Italy at Japan.

4. Hiroshima and Nagasaki

On August 6, 1945, during World War II (1939-45), an American B-29

bomber dropped the worlds first deployed atomic bomb over the Japanese city

of Hiroshima. The explosion wiped out 90 percent of the city and immediately

killed 80,000 people; tens of thousands more would later die of radiation

exposure. Three days later, a second B-29 dropped another A-bomb on

Nagasaki, killing an estimated 40,000 people. Japans Emperor Hirohito

announced his countrys unconditional surrender in World War II in a radio

address on August 15, citing the devastating power of a new and most cruel

bomb.

Even before the outbreak of war in 1939, a group of American scientists

many of them refugees from fascist regimes in Europebecame concerned with

nuclear weapons research being conducted in Nazi Germany. In 1940, the U.S.

government began funding its own atomic weapons development program, which

came under the joint responsibility of the Office of Scientific Research and

Development and the War Department after the U.S. entry into World War II. The

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was tasked with spearheading the construction of

the vast facilities necessary for the top-secret program, codenamed The

Manhattan Project (for the engineering corps Manhattan district).

After World War II, most of Hiroshima would be rebuilt, though one

destroyed section was set aside as a reminder of the effects of the atomic bomb.

Each August 6, thousands of people gather at Peace Memorial Park to join in

interfaith religious services commemorating the anniversary of the bombing.

Over the next several years, the programs scientists worked on producing

the key materials for nuclear fissionuranium-235 and plutonium (Pu-239). They

sent them to Los Alamos, New Mexico, where a team led by J. Robert

Oppenheimer worked to turn these materials into a workable atomic bomb. Early

on the morning of July 16, 1945, the Manhattan Project held its first successful

test of an atomic devicea plutonium bombat the Trinity test site at Alamogordo,

New Mexico.

By the time of the Trinity test, the Allied powers had already defeated

Germany in Europe. Japan, however, vowed to fight to the bitter end in the

Pacific, despite clear indications (as early as 1944) that they had little chance of

winning. In fact, between mid-April 1945 (when President Harry Truman took

office) and mid-July, Japanese forces inflicted Allied casualties totaling nearly half

those suffered in three full years of war in the Pacific, proving that Japan had

become even more deadly when faced with defeat. In late July, Japans militarist

government rejected the Allied demand for surrender put forth in the Potsdam

Declaration, which threatened the Japanese with prompt and utter destruction if

they refused.

General Douglas MacArthur and other top military commanders favored

continuing the conventional bombing of Japan already in effect and following up

with a massive invasion, codenamed Operation Downfall. They advised Truman

that such an invasion would result in U.S. casualties of up to 1 million. In order to

avoid such a high casualty rate, Truman decidedover the moral reservations of

Secretary of War Henry Stimson, General Dwight Eisenhower and a number of

the Manhattan Project scientiststo use the atomic bomb in the hopes of bringing

the war to a quick end. Proponents of the A-bombsuch as James Byrnes,

Trumans secretary of statebelieved that its devastating power would not only

end the war, but also put the U.S. in a dominant position to determine the course

of the postwar world.

Hiroshima, a manufacturing center of some 350,000 people located about

500 miles from Tokyo, was selected as the first target. After arriving at the U.S.

base on the Pacific island of Tinian, the more than 9,000-pound uranium-235

bomb was loaded aboard a modified B-29 bomber christened Enola Gay (after

the mother of its pilot, Colonel Paul Tibbets). The plane dropped the bomb

known as Little Boyby parachute at 8:15 in the morning, and it exploded 2,000

feet above Hiroshima in a blast equal to 12-15,000 tons of TNT, destroying five

square miles of the city.

Hiroshimas devastation failed to elicit immediate Japanese surrender,

however, and on August 9 Major Charles Sweeney flew another B-29 bomber,

Bockscar, from Tinian. Thick clouds over the primary target, the city of Kokura,

drove Sweeney to a secondary target, Nagasaki, where the plutonium bomb Fat

Man was dropped at 11:02 that morning. More powerful than the one used at

Hiroshima, the bomb weighed nearly 10,000 pounds and was built to produce a

22-kiloton blast. The topography of Nagasaki, which was nestled in narrow

valleys between mountains, reduced the bombs effect, limiting the destruction to

2.6 square miles.

At noon on August 15, 1945 (Japanese time), Emperor Hirohito

announced his countrys surrender in a radio broadcast. The news spread

quickly, and Victory in Japan or V-J Day celebrations broke out across the

United States and other Allied nations. The formal surrender agreement was

signed on September 2, aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri, anchored in Tokyo

Bay.