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CHAPTER 7

ASSESSMENT OF SEAWATER INTRUSION AND THE EFFECT ON

AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES IN COASTAL ISLAND AREA

Mohamad Faizal Tajul Baharuddin1* and Mohd Idrus Mohd Masirin

2

1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering,

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

2Research Center for Soft Soils, Office of Research, Innovation, Commercialization and Consultancy,

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Abstract

The suitability of groundwater for agriculture in coastal island area is based on the

closed proximity to ocean area which may easily be influenced by seawater intrusion.

.However, other factors that determines the tolerances of agriculture plants for

groundwater salinity are the difference in elevation height and land cover obtained

along coastal area. In addition, the effect on sea level increase in coastal regions

requires particular attention because it directly threatens the integrity of groundwater

quality and oil palm activities. Thus, the current effect of seawater intrusion on

groundwater systems and the deterioration of these systems as a result of salinity

should be examined with respect to socioeconomic planning.

Keywords—; groundwater, coastal; agriculture, salinity

1. Introduction

Seawater intrusion is a landward migration of seawater into freshwater coastal aquifers [1]. Seawater

intrusion can be caused by natural and human-induced factors such as excessive groundwater

extraction, groundwater recharge variations, sea-level rise and tide effects [2, 3, 4]. Seawater

intrusion can have an impact on coastal area activities such as agriculture, groundwater supply and

aquaculture [5]. Among the two critical socioeconomic activities of coastal area that may likely be

affected by seawater intrusion are groundwater supply and agriculture. Fresh groundwater either at

small islands and mainland of coastal area can be contaminated with saline groundwater through

seawater intrusion from the daily tidal activities. These require special attention in fresh groundwater

planning and management [6]. The occurrence of saline groundwater several places of coastal area in

Malaysia has been reported in the literature. The saline groundwater may come from seawater

intruded into the groundwater aquifer due to daily tidal activities accelerated by the effect of excessive

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pumping of the aquifer. Most of the studies in the literature focused on the assessment of seawater

intrusion to the groundwater condition in their area. The focus of previous studies was salinity

mapping of the groundwater aquifers [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. However, there is still a research gap

regarding the impact of seawater intrusion and current groundwater status towards the

socioeconomics activities such as agriculture of coastal area in Malaysia.

2. Agriculture Activities in Coastal area of Malaysia

Malaysia has over 4,800 km of coastline across the Straits of Malacca, South China Sea, and Sulu

Sea. The coastline of the Straits of Malacca and South China Sea is approximately 1972 km, whereas

that of Sabah and Sarawak crossing South China Sea until Sulu Sea is 2837 km. The breakdown of

the coastline of Peninsular Malaysia is 1386 km for the west coast and 586 km for the east coast.

Coastal areas contribute approximately 13% of the total land mass in Malaysia, with an area of 4.43

million ha [13].

With the long coastline and huge area, the coastal zone of Malaysia has a special socio-economic

and environmental significance, supporting 70% of Malaysia’s population. In addition, the Malaysian

coastal zone is also the center of economic activities encompassing urbanization, agriculture,

fisheries, aquaculture, oil and gas exploitation, transportation, communication, and recreation. Among

the coastal regions in Malaysia, the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia is the most developed socio-

economically, with 57% of its coastline utilized for agricultural activities and 21% utilized for housing,

transportation, and recreational facilities [13].

3. Salinity Effects on Plant at Coastal Area

Salinity is a major environmental factor that causes reduction to plant growth and productivity in

coastal area around the world [14]. It was estimated that more than 100 million has of food producing

areas in the world were affected by salinity. Approximately, 20% of world’s cultivated area and about

half of world’s irrigated coastal lands were reported to be seriously affected by salinity and water

logging [15, 16]. In general, high salinity causes reduction in water absorption potential which leads to

the reduction of freshwater availability to plant. As a result of this trend, there are difficulties for plant

to obtain water and nutrients for growth and survival. Consequently, rapid reduction in growth rate and

productivity is observed in plants [17, 18; 19]. Eleven millions of coastal area faced salinity problems

in South Asia region [20, 21]. The land became unsuitable for cultivation due to the increase in the

salinity levels of soil and subsequently causing great loss in the yield of crops [22]. The increasing

level of salinity was caused by seawater intrusion into agriculture irrigations. Crop production during

dry seasons was limited due to serious saline irrigation water [23].

In Malaysia for instance, the coastal plains in certain places were unsuitable for plant growth due to

salinity problems [24]. Several factors can be attributed to the salinity in the coastal area of Malaysia

where the most significant factors includes seawater intrusion to low elevation coastal landform. Other

factors that also influenced salinity problems were tidal inundation, groundwater seepage and over-



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drainage of adjacent area. Various studies showed plants such as oil palm, rice and turf grass had

been affected by salinity problem in coastal area in Malaysia [25, 26, 27]. The plant most affected by

salinity problem in coastal area of Malaysia is oil palm [24].

The study on salinity problem in relation to oil palm plantation in coastal area of Carey Island,

Selangor was conducted. The study area covered about 2000 ha that has been developed for oil palm

plantation [28]. Before the remedy action on salinity in this area was carried out, the conductivity

values of soil was observed in the range of 0.5 to 2.4 S/m. After irrigation improvement and sufficient

agronomic inputs were conducted, the conductivity values were reduced to about 0.1 or less than 0.1

S/m. As a result of remedy action taken, the yield of fresh oil palm fruit bunches in the fifth year of

harvest for different fields increased from 14 ton/ha/yr to 27 ton/ha/yr. However, some effect of salinity

was still observed in Carey Island through differences in yield between different locations. Areas that

were adjacent to the coastal bund remain relatively more saline through seepage of saline water

compared to other distant sites.

Previous studies focused on salinity problem in order to define suitability of agricultural activities in

spite of the challenge of salinity. However, there was limited study on the effect of seawater intrusion

into groundwater aquifer that relates to agricultural activities at coastal area. Groundwater for

agriculture used in coastal areas can be affected by sea level rise in the 21st century due to climate

change [29]. Climate change is expected to worsen the existing environmental problems along coastal

areas. Future sea-level rise near coastal aquifers may lead to a change in the present hydrogeological

boundary. Saline groundwater is thicker than before and inclined to shifts more to the landward

coastal area in the future [5, 30]. When the effect of sea-level rise combines with huge amount of

water requirements for agriculture, the problem becomes very serious. This phenomenon requires

practical measures to detect the present status of seawater intrusion to groundwater system,

especially in coastal area extensively involved in agricultural activities.

In Malaysia, one of the most important agriculture activities to generate income for the country is oil

palm. Palm oil industry is one of major contribution to Malaysia economy. It is timely to investigate the

saline groundwater status and its impact on oil palm plantation at coastal area.

4. Overview of Oil Palm Plantation of Coastal area in Malaysia

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the major source of oils and fats traded worldwide. It contributes

to 55.7% of total exports, followed by soybean oil at 14.7% [31]. Southeast Asia is currently the

leading region for oil palm production, with Malaysia being the second largest producer and exporter

in the world after Indonesia [31, 32]. Palm oil industry is the primary sources of income and the major

source of socio-economic growth in Malaysia. The palm oil industry alone provides job opportunities

and livelihood for over half a million people. This number is estimated to increase to 702,000 people

by 2020 [33]. Palm oil industry contributed 7.5% (USD 15,853 million) of the nation’s Gross Domestic

Product in 2009 [34]. The total area planted with oil palm in Malaysia was approximately 4,853,766 ha



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in 2010. The income from oil palm industry provides a lucrative monthly income to small-scale farmers

from MYR 1,200 to MYR 1,800 ha-1. The lucrative income from palm oil production had encouraged

the small-scale farmers, estate plantation, and the government to increase the area for oil palm

plantation in Malaysia. The total area planted with oil palms in Malaysia increased by 3.5% to 4.85

million ha in 2010 compared to the 4.69 million ha in 2009. In Peninsular Malaysia, the total area

planted with oil palms is approximately 2.52 million ha. The concentration of oil palm plantation in

Peninsular is more focused in the West Peninsular Malaysia rather than in the Eastern part. The area

planted with oil palms in the West Peninsular Malaysia is about 1.54 million ha compared to that in

East Peninsular Malaysia with 0.99 million ha [31].

In Peninsular Malaysia, coastal plains with relatively fertile alluvial soils are found on the west coast.

Alluvial soils are also present in some parts of the east coast. Based on the topography factor, areas

with greater than 20° slopes are unsuitable for oil palm plantations. Hence, only 42% of the 33 million

ha of land in Malaysia is suitable for agricultural activity for oil palm [35], and most of these locations

are in coastal areas.

5. Oil Palm Physiography and Salinity Tolerance

In general, the oil palm requires warm tropical climate and high rainfall. Hence, the cultivation of this

plant is at present confined to low lying areas of the global humid equatorial regions. The apparent

best mean temperature range is 24 °C to 28 °C. The ideal rainfall pattern is 2,000 mm year-1 to 3500

mm year-1, evenly distributed throughout the year with a minimum of 100 mm month-1

[36]. The oil

palm has an adventitious root system with four orders; namely, primary, secondary, tertiary, and

quaternary (Figure 1). The length of the primary roots system varies by approximately 3 to 6m,

whereas the second roots can penetrate below 1.5 m [37; 38]. This secondary root can possibly reach

the high groundwater table. The amount of available water held in soil (unsaturated zone) is very

important for the tertiary and quaternary root systems that cannot extend deeper in the soil. The total

length for all root systems is estimated to be approximately 9000 km ha-1

at usual planting densities

[39]. The root system plays an important role for extracting nutrients and water for the growth of oil

palm. All the facts regarding physiography discussed above can cause a significant impact on the

hydrology and hydrogeology of oil palm cultivation. Among the hydrological and hydrogeological

parameters that influence the oil palm plantations at the coastal area are recharge,

evapotranspiration, and salinity tolerance. Salinity tolerance is the most important factor in

determining the impact of soil salinity to plant suitability and sustainability to grow at coastal area.

Plant tolerance limit based on salinity was introduced for Peninsular Malaysia as listed in Table 1 [40].

The tolerance limit is considered as a limitation to crop growth, together with 13 other soil factors. The

tolerance limits of crops commonly grown in Malaysia were proposed based on electrical conductivity

(EC) of soil in the root zone. Another salinity tolerance limit was proposed as listed in Table 1 [24]. To

distinguish between degrees of salinity, the EC of the soil in a mixture with water at a ratio of 1:5 at 25

°C was used. The limit proposed for the different degrees of salinity on the basis of the EC of soil–



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water mixture in the ratio of 1:5. These limits are almost the same as those used in the to develop

plant tolerance limit [40]. As the system was based on crop tolerance under Malaysian conditions, the

limits proposed [40] should be acceptable for broader use [24]. The suitability of oil palm towards

salinity at 0.5 m of soil depth was proposed as listed in Table 1 [41]. Comparisons of the different

degree of salinity, plant tolerance and oil palm tolerance for various electrical conductivity range

conducted by previous studies [24, 40, 41] is indicated in Table 1.

Few studies have been conducted in Malaysia to classify plant tolerance towards soil salinity as

shown in Table 1.The limit for the classification in Table 1 is very similar to that in the study conducted

by previous studies [24, 40]. The soil salinity and oil palm tolerance suggested [41] can be widely

used under Malaysian condition whether for saturated or unsaturated condition. When the EC limit

exceeds 0.4 S m-1

, the oil palm will not be able to tolerate the salinity, eventually leading to the death

of the plant [41].

Carey Island is one of the islands in Malaysia with major oil palm plantation that generate income of

about RM 120 million per year [42]. A big part of the island is facing Straits of Malacca and has high

potential to the exposure of seawater intrusion. Carey Island was chosen as the study area to

determine the status of seawater intrusion into groundwater system. The assessment of current

seawater intrusion to Carey Island would predict the limitation on the groundwater salinity towards oil

palm plantation activity.

Figure 1: Diagram of the oil palm root system [37]

Table 1: Different degree of salinity, plant tolerance and oil palm tolerance for various electrical

conductivity ranges

EC value

(S/m)

Degree of

salinity

[40]

Plant tolerance

[24]

Oil palm plant

tolerance

[41]

> 0.4

Severely

saline

very serious

limitation

Not suitable



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0.2 – 0.4

Moderately

saline

serious

limitation

Moderately suitable

< 0.2

Non-saline moderate

limitation

Suitable

6. Effect of Salinity on Agriculture Activities

The effects of groundwater salinity due to seawater intrusion for the two types of land cover at Carey

Island revealed that saline water can be found at a depth of 10 m at the east of unconfined aquifer

(the coastal area experiencing severe erosion). Compared to the west area, the saline groundwater

affected by seawater intrusion was found at 21 m from the ground surface [43, 44, 45, 46]. This

situation has resulted in different limitations of the suitability of groundwater based on salinity

tolerances for oil palm.

The west area has thicker (31 m) suitable water for oil palm compared with the east (14 m). The

prediction on the sea-level rise in the twenty-first century around the world [5] stated that the sea level

rise will cause an increase in the seawater intrusion to the groundwater system at coastal areas. The

study of the prediction of the local scenario sea-level rise showed that the mean sea-level rise rates

at Port Klang (24 km away from Carey Island) using Special Report on Emissions Scenarios B1, A1B

and A2 scenarios is 0.387 m. The prediction is based on the predicted slope from 2001 to 2100 [47].

The unconfined aquifer facing the severe erosion area showed that the groundwater level measured

from the mean sea level is with the value of 0 to 0.3 m with TDS value of 12,000 mg/L (salinity

condition that can kill the oil palm) at the depth of 14 m from ground surface. Based on the Ghyben–

Herzberg assumption, a 0.5 m increase in the sea level will cause a 20 m reduction in the thickness of

the freshwater storage. The assumption predicted that this area will become unsuitable for oil palm

plantation much earlier than the area on the north-west which still has mangrove forest. Furthermore,

the root zone system of the oil palm can reach down to 1 to 6 m where this zone is in the water

saturated condition with the high groundwater table between 0.738 m and 1.560 m from ground level

data. The current phenomenon in the unconfined groundwater aquifer system at the severely eroded

area summarized in Figure 2.



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Figure 2: Diagram shows the interaction between severe erosion, mangrove and oil palm in costal

island

7. Limitations and Advantages of Suitability of Oil Palm towards Salinity

This chapter presented the current limitations and suitability of oil palm towards salinity. This issue is

critical especially at the unconfined aquifer that faces the severely eroded coastal area. The factors

that determines the tolerance of oil palm for groundwater salinity are different surface characteristics

between the west and east area as well as the finding of the salinity distribution of groundwater.

8. Conclusions

Groundwater contamination is a serious issue because it depletes fresh groundwater resources.

Groundwater resources in coastal areas are exposed to seawater intrusion because coastal areas are

nearby to the sea. Seawater intrusion can induce groundwater salinity, which could affect

groundwater resources and socioeconomic activities such as agriculture along the coastal areas. This

situation becomes more severe in island coastal areas as the primary water resources are mainly

from freshwater lenses. Other factors that determines the tolerance of water supply and oil palm for

groundwater salinity are different elevation height and land cover between the west and east area as

well as the finding of the salinity distribution of groundwater. The east area has a low surface

elevation and no mangroves covered by the the coastal area. Compared with the west area, surface

characteristics in the east area naturally provides a more conducive environment for seawater

intrusion into the groundwater system.

Mangrove Salinity Tolerance, TDS < 19,000 mg/L to 43,000 mg/

Oil Palm Salinity Tolerance, TDS < 12,000 mg/L

Severe erosion

Seawater Salinity, TDS = 39,000 mg/L

Vertical roots length ~3-6m

Freshwater and Brackish water

Below 15m depth, TDS more than 12,000 mg/L (Saline Water)

Water table ~0.5-1.0 above mean sea level



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The middle area between east and west has a high topography which prevents the migration of

salinity from the east to the west. The middle area also showed the dominance of brackish water as a

result of the seepage of saline water from the main canal that is located in this area. The variations in

the hydrogeology conditions, such as terrain effects, vegetation pattern and sea level rise, are among

the factors that can contribute to groundwater salinity. In this study, the terrain effect and land cover

were considered significant to seawater intrusion due to high variations (1.3-2.3m) in the elevation

and land cover of the study area. These might have a major influence on the wider saline-brackish

water distribution in the south-east where the semi-confined aquifer was located and showed low

elevation and no mangrove covered compared to the west area. According to the Ghyben-Herzberg

assumption, a 0.5 m increase in the sea level will reduce the thickness of freshwater storage by 20 m.

The predicted sea level rise in the 21st century will increase seawater intrusion in the area. Based on

the predicted slope from 2001 to 2010 by a prediction study of sea level rise, which used the B1, A1B,

and A2 scenarios from the special report on emissions scenarios, the rate of the mean sea level rise

at Port Klang is 0.387 m. Based on the Ghyben-Herzberg assumption and local scenario sea-level

rise prediction, the east area will become unsuitable for water supply and oil palm plantation much

sooner than the west area, which still has a mangrove forest.

Acknowledgment

The authors gratefully acknowledge the editor and reviewers for their effort in organizing and

formatting the material for this book. The project has been made possible by a research grant

provided by the Institute of Ocean and Earth Science (IOES) University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia.

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