assessment of educational ability: survey battery, diagnostic, readiness, & cognitive ability...

Assessment of Educational Ability: Survey Battery, Diagnostic, Readiness, & Cognitive Ability Tests

Uses:1. To determine how well a student is learning

2. To assess how well a class, grade, school, school system, or state is

learning content knowledge

3. As a method of detecting learning problems

4. As a method of identifying giftedness

5. To help determine if a child is ready to move to the next grade level

6. To assess teacher effectiveness

7. To help determine readiness or placement in college, graduate

school, or professional schools

8. To determine if an individual has mastered content knowledge for

professional advancement (e.g., credentialing exams)

Survey Battery Achievement Testing

“No Child Left Behind” (NCLB): States must show that adequate yearly progress is being made. Survey Batteries are used to document this goal.

Survey Battery Achievement TestsThrough profile reports, these tests help students,

parents, and teachers identify strengths & weaknesses & develop strategies for working on weak academic areas

Profile reports at the classroom, school, or school system level can show how students are doing and point out to teachers and others where and how to provide needed resources in areas where students are struggling


National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): Uses achievement testing to assess how each state is doing

compared to other states• Stanford Achievement Tests

• Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS)

• Metropolitan Achievement Test

NAEP samples students from all states & compares them on a variety of subjects

Results are not provided for specific students, classes, or schools

States cannot use NAEP to show that adequate progress has been made toward No Child Left Behind

Survey Battery Achievement TestingNational Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP):

All states are required to participate in NAEP assessment in math & reading (occurs every 2 years)

Most states also participate in periodic testing in writing & science

Testing for NAEP occurs at the 4th- and 8th-grade levels• Each state selects a representative sample of 3000 students from 100

public schools

• For national data, a sample of between 10,000 and 20,000 public and nonpublic school students are ware 9, 13, & 17 years old are assessed in math and reading

– Results are given as a percentage of students who scored “above basic,” “proficient,” or “advanced”

– Results can also be sorted by subject area, gender, ethnicity, & eligibility for national school lunch programs


Stanford Achievement Test: One of the oldest survey battery achievement tests

Introduced in 1923 The Stanford Achievement Test (SAT10) is given to students in grades K-12

Has been normed against hundreds of thousands of students Offers full-length and abbreviated versions as well as content modules

(tests for specific subjects, i.e., reading, language, spelling, math, science, social studies, & writing)

Has sections that can be completed in open-ended format (requires students to fill in the blank, respond with short answers, or write an essay that is scored by the classroom teacher according to a criterion)

Offers interpretive reports (Individual Profile Sheets, Class Grouping Sheets, Grade Grouping Sheets, & School System Grouping Sheets)

Survey Battery Achievement TestingIowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS)

Oldest & best known achievement test• Developed in 1935, it has gone through many changes

• Emphasizes the basic skills necessary to make satisfactory progress through school

• Purpose is:

– to obtain information that can support instructional decisions made by teachers in the classroom,

– to provide information to students & their parents for monitoring the student’s growth from grade to grade,

– to examine yearly progress of grade groups as the pass through the school’s curriculum

• Versions include Form A, Form B, & Form C

– For K through 8

– Include numerous subtests (language, reading comprehension, vocabulary, listening, word analysis, math, social studies, science)

– Time ranges from 30 minutes for a single test to 6 hours (+) for total battery


Metropolitan Achievement Test: Popular paper-and-pencil test designed to test students in

grades K-12 for knowledge in a broad range of subjects (reading, language arts, math, science, & social studies

Has 13 test levels (K-12) Can be given in short form (90 minutes) or complete form

(5 hours) Multiple choice questions (graded correct or incorrect) Open-ended items (scored as 0-3) Some have suggested that samples may be too heavily

weighted for rural classrooms and under represent urban classrooms

Diagnostic Testing Public Law 94-142 (1975) and the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Improvement Act require that anyone between 3 and 21 years of age who were found to have a learning disability be assured the right to an education within the least restrictive environment possible

Further, these laws require that anyone who is suspected of having a disability that interferes with learning has a right to be tested at the school’s expense

Any student who has a learning disability must be given an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) describing services that should be offered to assist with his/her learning problem

Diagnostic tests commonly used to identify learning problems include:

Wide Range Achievement Test 4 (WRAT4) Key Math Diagnostic Arithmetic Test Peabody Individual Achievement Test

Diagnostic TestingWide Range Achievement Test 4:

Assesses basic learning problems in reading, spelling, math, & sentence comprehension. Intended for use by professionals who need a quick,

simple, psychometrically sound assessment of important fundamental academic skills

Called, “wide range,” because it can be used for populations from ages 5 to 94

Administered individually because some sections are read aloud by the examinee

Two equivalent forms called, “Blue” and “Green”

Diagnostic Testing

Wide Range Achievement Test 4 (WRAT4): Attempts to ensure that the test is assessing the fundamentals

of reading, spelling, & arithmetic Simple to administer: Examinee is asked to “read”

(pronounce) words, to spell words, to figure out a number of math problems, & to provide a missing word or words to simple sentences to show that he/she understands the meaning of the sentence

Includes original 3 subsets (Word Reading, Spelling, & Math computation) as well as the new, 4th subset called, “Sentence Comprehension”

Diagnostic Testing

Key Math-3 Diagnostic Arithmetic Test: Comprehensive test to assess learning disabilities in math

Has been described as “one of the very best test batteries for assessing a student’s knowledge and understanding of basic mathematics and providing useful diagnostic information to teachers.”

Often used as a follow-up when there is a suspected learning disability in math

Has 10 subtests grouped under 3 broad math content areas:

• Basic Concepts (conceptual knowledge)

• Operations (computational knowledge)

• Applications (problem solving) Appropriate for children in kindergarten through ninth grade or for those

between the ages of 4½ and 21 The test is not timed but generally takes between 30 to 90 minutes

Diagnostic Testing

Peabody Individual Achievement Test:Academic screening for children in grades K-12

Covers 6 content areas (General Information, Reading Recognition, Reading Comprehension, Math, Spelling, & Written Expression)

Test is multiple choice except for General Information and Written Expression

Individually administered Takes approximately 1 hour to complete

Other Diagnostic Tests

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-2nd Ed. Individually administered Ages 4 to 85 years Provides composite scores in 4 domains: reading,

math, written language, & oral language Aids in identifying disparities between ability and

achievement Takes between 45 minutes and 2 hours to complete,

depending on age level• Abbreviated version can be given in 15-30 minutes

Other Diagnostic TestsWoodcock-Johnson® III

Designed to assess cognitive abilities, skills, and academic knowledge most recognized as comprising human intelligence and routinely encountered in school and other settings

Generally used for student around the age of 10 years

Consists of two batteries: • Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement

– Examines academic strengths

• Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities– Looks at specific and general cognitive abilities

Readiness TestingThe Educate America Act: “All children in America will start

school ready to learn.” (Goals 2000, 1996, paragraph 1)

Readiness Tests: Assesses readiness for kindergarten or first grade.

Classified as either measurements of ability (reading or math achievement) or those that assess developmental level (psychomotor ability, language ability, & social maturity)

Readiness testing has always been a questionable practice due to the fact that children change so rapidly at these ages and because predictive ability of these tests tend to be weak

Due to cultural and language biases, children from low-income families, minority groups, & homes where English is not the first language will often obtain lower scores than their true ability

Tests need to be administered with care, if at all

Two categories of readiness testing: Ability level Developmental level

Readiness TestingKindergarten Readiness Test:

Assesses broad range of cognitive & sensory motor skills Purpose is to determine if a child is ready to begin

kindergarten Individually administered Takes 15-20 minutes to complete Assesses reasoning, language, auditory & visual attention,

numbers, fine motor skills, and several other cognitive & sensory-perception areas

For ages 4-6 May be useful in determining whether a student is ready to

begin kindergarten if the user believes that the content of the test matches the curriculum of the school the child will attend

Readiness TestingMetropolitan Readiness Test:

• Assesses literacy development, reading, & math

• Designed to assess beginning educational skills in preschoolers, kindergartners, and first graders

• Level 1 of the test is administered individually– Assesses literacy development of preschoolers & beginning

kindergartners

• Level 2 of the test is usually given in group setting– Assesses reading & math development of kindergartners through

beginning of first graders

• Test takes 80 to 100 minutes to administer

• Results are often used as a aid in determining whether a student should be placed in first or second grade

Readiness TestingGesell School Readiness Test, Fifth Ed.:

Designed to assess personal & social skills, neurological & motor growth, language development, & overall adaptive behavior, or the ability of the child to adapt to new situations

Administered in non-threatening & comfortable environment by highly trained examiner who observes the child’s developmental maturity to assess the child’s readiness to excel in different settings

Overall, the test is weak in providing adequate informaiton about its validity and reliability

Sometimes used because it offers a view of readiness that is different from those that are based strictly on achievement in a content area

Cognitive Ability TestsCognitive ability tests are aptitude tests that measure

what one is capable of doing and are often used to assess a student’s potential to succeed in grades K-12, college, or graduate school

Cognitive ability tests include: Otis-Lennon School Ability Test Cognitive Ability Test American College Testing Assessment (ACT) SAT Reasoning Test (SAT) Graduate Record Exam (GRE) Law School Admission Test (LSAT) Medical College Admission Test (MCAT)

Cognitive Ability Tests Otis-Lennon School Ability Test-8th Ed.:

Assesses students’ abstract thinking and reasoning skills via verbal and nonverbal sections

Provides educators with information about what to expect of students and why they may have challenges in certain subject areas

Given in large group format For students K-12 Assesses different clusters in the verbal & non-verbal realms

• Two clusters of verbal ability include verbal comprehension and verbal reasoning

• Three clusters for nonverbal ability include pictorial reasoning, figural reasoning, and quantitative reasoning

• Different grade levels are given different clusters

– Each cluster has different subtests

• Completed in 60-75 minutes An Achievement/Ability Comparison (AAC) score can be obtained to give teachers

insights into how students are actually doing in school compared to their potential• Significantly higher scores on a cognitive ability test compared to an achievement test

could be an indication of a learning disability

Cognitive Ability TestsThe Cognitive Ability Test (CogAT):

Designed to assess cognitive skills of children from kindergarten through 12th grade

Purpose is threefold: • Help a teacher understand the ability of each child so

he/she can optimize instruction for each child

• Provide a different means of measuring cognitive ability than traditional achievement tests

• To identify students who might have large discrepancies between their cognitive ability testing and their achievement testing (can be an indication of learning problems, lack of motivation, problems at home, problems at school, or self-esteem issues)

Cognitive Ability TestsThe Cognitive Ability Test (CogAT):

Measures 3 broad areas of ability: verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal

Cognitive ability tests should never be viewed as substitutes for individual intelligence tests because the manner in which they are created & administered is vastly different from that of intelligence tests

Tend to focus primarily on traditional knowledge as obtained in school, particularly verbal & math ability

2-3 hours to completed Can be given in multiple administrations, depending on the

age range Cognitive ability tests, in general, have a difficult time

establishing content validity

Cognitive Ability Tests

College & Graduate School Admission Exams:Used to predict achievement in college and

graduate school Research supports their use and indicates that such

tests predict performance in undergraduate & graduate school about as well as - or better than - other indicators and are especially useful when combined with grade predictors

Cognitive Ability TestsAmerican College Testing Assessment (ACT):

Assesses educational development and ability to complete college work

Most widely used admission exam at the undergraduate level

Covers 4 skill areas: English, Math, Reading, and Science

Contains 215 multiple-choice questions 3½ hours to complete Combining ACT scores with high school GPA

increased the predictive validity of the predictive validity of the test


SAT Reasoning Test (SAT): Assesses reading, math, and writing - predicts mildly

well for college grades Measures critical thinking & problem-solving skills

in 3 areas: reading, math, and a writing section that has multiple-choice questions as well as a writing sample

Student earn a score that ranges between 200 and 800 in each of the 3 sections

Cognitive Ability TestsGraduate Record Exam (GRE) - General Test:

A Cognitive ability test frequently required by U.S. graduate schools

Contains 3 sections: verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and analytical writing

Graduate Record Exam (GRE) - Subject Tests: There are a number of subject tests that are provided

for those graduate programs that wish to assess more specific ability

• Biochemistry, cell and molecular biology, biology, chemistry, computer science, literature in English, mathematics, physics, and psychology


Miller Analogies Test (MAT): Used for admission to graduate school Measures ability to recognize relationships between

ideas, fluency in the English language, and general knowledge of the humanities, natural sciences, math, and social sciences

Includes 120 analogies Can be taken on computer or paper and pencil Takes one hour to complete

Cognitive Ability TestsLaw School Admissions Test (LSAT):

Assesses acquired reading and verbal reasoning skills; predicts grades in law school

Test requires a half a day to complete Consists of 4 sections:

• Three multiple-choice sections (reading comprehension, analytical reasoning, & logical reasoning)

• The 4th section asks for a writing sample that is not scored but is sent directly to the law schools to which the student is applying

• A 5th section is not scored and is used to pretest new questions


Medical College Admission Test (MCAT): Assesses knowledge of physical biological science,

verbal reasoning, and writing skills; predicts grades in medical school

Consists of 4 sections: physical sciences, biological sciences, verbal reasoning, and a writing sample

Helpers and Their RoleThose who play a vital role in assessing

educational ability: School counselors, school psychologists, learning

disabilities specialists, & school social workers• Often work together as a team to assess eligibility for

assessment of learning disabilities and to help determine a child’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

Licensed professionals in private practice need to know about the assessment of educational ability when working with children who are having problems at school

Intellectual & Cognitive Functioning: Intelligence Testing &

Neuropsychological Assessment

Defining Intelligence Testing Intelligence testing is a subset of intellectual and

cognitive functioning. Intelligence testing assesses a broad range of cognitive capabilities that generally result in an “IQ” score

Intelligence testing measures aptitude, or what one is capable of doing

Intelligence tests are used for a variety of purposes:• To assist in determining giftedness

• To assess for mental retardation

• To identify certain types of learning disabilities

• To assess intellectual ability following an accident, the onset of dementia, substance abuse, disease processes, and trauma to the brain

• As part of the admissions process to certain private schools

• As part of a personality assessment battery to aid in understanding the whole person

Models of Intelligence

Theoretical models that have influenced intelligence tests: Spearman’s Two-Factor Approach Thurstone’s Multifactor Approach Vernon’s Hierarchical Model of Intelligence Guilford’s Multifactor/Multi-Dimensional Model Cattell’s Fluid and Crystal Intelligence Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence


Spearman’s Two-Factor Approach: Spearman is known for his g and s factors of intelligence Spearman felt that Binet had lumped a number of different

factors together in a spurious fashion Believed in two-factor approach to intelligence that

included a general factor (g) and a specific factor (s) Believed the importance of “weight’ of g varied as a

function of what was being measured Many still adhere to the concept that there is a g factor that

mediates general intelligence and s factors that speak to a variety of specific talents

Models of IntelligenceThurstone’s Multifactor Approach:

Developed a model that included seven primary factors or mental abilities

Thurstone did not rule out Spearman’s g factor The seven primary mental abilities he recognized

were the following:• Verbal meaning

• Number ability

• Word fluency

• Perception speed

• Spatial ability

• Reasoning and memory


Vernon’s Hierarchical Model of Intelligence Vernon believed that subcomponents of intelligence could

be added in a hierarchical manner to obtain a cumulative (g) factor score

Vernon’s model comprised 4 levels with factors from each lower level contributing to the next level on the hierarchy

• Top level was similar to Spearman’s general factor (g) and was considered to have the most variance of any of the factors

• Level 2 had two major factors: v:ed, which stands for verbal and educational abilities

• Level 3 is composed of what was called minor group factors

• Level 4 is made of what was identified as specific factors Still used in most tests today


Guilford’s Multifactor/Multi-Dimensional Model Guilford developed 180 factors in model of

intelligence Three dimensional model is represented as a cube

• Includes 3 kinds of cognitive ability: operations (general intellectual processes we use in understanding); content (what we use to perform our thinking process); and products (how we apply our operations to our content)

• Different mental abilities will require different combinations of processes, contents, and products

Models of IntelligenceCattell’s Fluid and Crystal Intelligence

After attempting to remove cultural bias from intelligence tests, Cattell observed marked changes from the original test scores and suggested that there were two “general factors” made up intelligence:

• Fluid: Culture-free portion of intelligence that is inborn and unaffected by new learning

– Estimated that heritability variance within families for fluid intelligence was about.92, which means if your parents have it, you are likely to have it

– Memory and spatial capability are aspects of fluid intelligence

– Tends to decline slightly as we age

– Many theorists believe that overall intelligence (g) maintains evenly across lifespan

• Crystallized: Acquired intelligence as we learn. Is affected by our experiences, schooling, culture, and motivation

– Will generally increase with age

Models of Intelligence Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Approached intelligence from a developmental perspective rather than factors approach

Developed the four stages of cognitive development• Sensorimotor

• Preoperational

• Concrete Operational

• Formal Operational Believed that cognitive development is adaptive: as new information is

presented, we are innately programmed to take it in and make sense of it in some manner in order to maintain a sense of order and equilibrium in our lives

Believed that we adapt our mental structures to maintain equilibrium through two methods:

• Assimilation: Incorporating new stimuli or information into existing cognitive structures

• Accommodation: Creating new cognitive structures and/or behaviors based on new stimuli


Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Gardner believes that intelligence is too vast and

complex to be measured accurately by our current methods

Based on his research of brain-damaged individuals, as well as literature in the areas of the brain, evolution, genetics, psychology, and anthropology, Gardner developed his Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

Models of IntelligenceGardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Mathematical-Logical Intelligence Musical Intelligence Visual-Spatial Intelligence Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal Intelligence Naturalist Intelligence Existential Intelligence

Intelligence TestingTheories of intelligence are the basis for

intelligence testsMany tests have been developed to measure

general intelligence (g), specific intelligence (s), fluid and crystal intelligence, and other factors traditionally seen to be related to intellectual ability

The Stanford-Binet and the three Wechsler Scales of Intelligence are the most widely used intelligence tests today

Intelligence Testing

Stanford-Binet 5th Ed.: Uses routing test, basal and ceiling levels to determine start

and stop points; measures verbal and nonverbal intelligence across 5 factors

Takes 45 to 60 minutes to complete For ages 2 through 90 years of age Uses a vocabulary routing test (almost a pretest) to determine

where an individual should begin A basal level is determined (highest point where the

examinee is able to get all the questions right on two consecutive age levels)

Ceiling level is reached when examinee misses 75% of the questions on two consecutive age levels


Stanford-Binet 5th Ed.: Measures verbal and nonverbal intelligence across 5

factors:• Fluid Reasoning

• Knowledge

• Quantitative Reasoning

• Visual-spatial Processing

• Working Memory– There are 10 subtests

– Discrepancies among scores on the subtests as well as between scores on the verbal and nonverbal factors can be an indication of a learning disability


Wechsler Scales: The 3 Wechsler scales are the most widely used intelligence

tests today Each Wechsler test measures a select age group

• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-3rd Ed. assesses children between the ages of 2 years, 6 months, and 7 years, 3 months

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-4th Ed. assesses children between 6 and 16 years of age

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-4th Ed. assesses adults aged 16 through 90

All three versions are useful in assessing general cognitive functioning, in helping to determine mental retardation and giftedness, and in assessing probable learning problems


Wechsler Scales WISC-IV provides a Full-Scale IQ as well as four additional

composite score indexes in areas called, “Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI); Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI); Working Memory Index (WMI); and Processing Speed Index (PSI)

The four composite score indexes provide important information concerning the child being tested, including identifying strengths and weaknesses, as well as helping to identify a possible learning disability

Wechsler Scales offer a comprehensive picture of the cognitive functioning of the individual


Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-2nd Ed. An individually administered test of cognitive ability for

children between the ages of 3 and 18 Test times vary from 25 to 70 minutes, according to the age

of the child Subtests and scoring allow for a choice between two

theoretical models (one is Cattell’s model of fluid and crystallized intelligence)

• Both methods examine visual processing, fluid reasoning, and short-term and long-term memory

Scores are age-based


Nonverbal Intelligence Tests: These tests rely on little to no verbal expression For children who may be disadvantaged by

traditional verbal and language-based measures Assess intelligence for children with autism,

specific language-based learning disabilities, poor expressive abilities, hearing impairments, differences in cultural background, and certain psychiatric disorders


Nonverbal Intelligence Tests: Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI)

• Designed to measure intellectual functioning from ages 6 years, 0 months, to 18 years, 11 months

• Composed of 6 subtests that measure different nonverbal abilities: pictorial analogies, geometric analogies, pictorial categories, geometric categories, pictorial sequences, geometric sequences

Universal Intelligence Test (UNIT)• Designed to measure intelligence of children ages 5 to 17 years

• Composed of 6 subtests: symbolic memory, cube design, spatial memory, analogic reasoning, object memory, and reasoning

• Unique in that it relies entirely on nonverbal test administration and response style


Neuropsychological assessment is a new field compared to intelligence testing and offers a broad array of ways to examine the cognitive functioning of individuals


Brief History: Neuropsychological assessment is a domain of psychology that examines

brain behavior Interest in brain injury was piqued during WWI because significant

numbers of soldiers suffered brain trauma

• Screening and diagnostic measures were created at this time

• Early research on war-damaged veterans is said to be the catalyst for the birth of clinical neuropsychology

In the 1950s, brain injury was found to be unique among people with traumatic injuries in the sense that it could lead to a wide variety of behavioral patterns

The invention of diagnostic scanning techniques (MRI & PET) makes many of the former neuropsychological assessments unnecessary

The most sensitive measure of brain capacity is behavior, which is not measured by these scanning devices

Neuropsychological AssessmentDefining Neuropsychological Assessment

A domain of psychology that examines brain-behavior relationships

• A subdiscipline is clinical neuropsychology, which includes both the assessment of the central nervous system and interventions that may result from an assessment

Assessments generally follow a traumatic brain injury, an illness that affects brain function, or because of suspected changes in brain function from the aging process

Assessments can measure a number of domains related to brain-behavior: memory, intelligence, language, visuo-perception, visual-spatial thinking, psychosensory and motor abilities, academic achievement, personality, and psychological functioning

• Results can be used to identify the root of a condition and the extent of the brain damage, to measure a change in an individuals functioning, to compare changes in cognitive or functional status to others within the normative sample, to provide specific rehabilitation treatment and planning guidelines for individuals and families, to provide specific guidelines for educational planning

Neuropsychological Assessments:Methods

Current assessment practices utilize a continuum of approaches, from a fixed battery approach to a flexible battery approach

Fixed Battery Approach and the Halsted-Reitan: Fixed batter involves the rigid and standardized administration of a

uniform group of instruments

• All individuals receive the same set of tests

• Fixed batteries have cutoff scores that reflect the degree of severity of the impairment and also differentiate between impaired and unimpaired individuals

Two common fixed batteries are the Halsted-Reitan and the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery

Neuropsychological AssessmentsHalsted-Reitan:

Developed by Ward Halstead in the 1950s

• Modified by Halstead’s graduate student, Ralph Reitan Two children’s versions: the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5 to 8)

and the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) Provides a cutoff score (index of impairment), which discriminates brain-damaged from

normal functioning individuals Information about specific areas of the brain that are damaged and information about the

severity of the damage can be obtained Takes approximately 5-6 hours to complete Consists of 8 core tests:

• Category Test

• Tactual Performance Test

• Trail Marking Test

• Finger Tapping Test

• Rhythm Test

• Speech Sounds Perception Test

• Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test

• Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination

Neuropsychological AssessmentsFlexible Battery Approach:

Uses a combination of tests, dictated by the referral questions and the unique needs and behaviors of the client

Series of tests is chosen that may evaluated different areas of neuropsychological functioning

• Boston Process Approach is an example of the flexible battery approach

– Requires careful observation of the test-taker during test administration

» Srong emphasis on garnering qualitative data

– Requires a great deal of training specific to neuropsychology

assessment of educational ability: survey battery, diagnostic, readiness, & cognitive ability...

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