aspecte teoretice si metodologice aplicabile in cadrul ... · curs practic de rezolvare de subiecte...
TRANSCRIPT
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Aspecte teoretice si
metodologice
aplicabile in cadrul
lecțiilor
de limba engleza
prof. Ana-Alina Ichim
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CUPRINS
I. Planificarea – anuală și calendaristică
II. Unitatea de invățare
III. Ce este o lecție?
IV. Proiectul didactic
V. Teaching vocabulary
VI. Teaching grammar
VII. Teaching skills:
VII.1. Teaching reading
VII.2. Teaching listening
VII.3. Teaching speaking
VII.4. Teaching writing
VIII. Learning assessement
IX. Curs practic de rezolvare de subiecte model
X. Evaluarea cursanților
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I. Planificarea – anuală și calendaristică
-
Unitatea de învăţământ
Colegiul National “Stefan cel Mare” Tg. Neamţ Vizat: _________________
PROFESOR: Ana-Alina Ichim
Manualul folosit: Click On 2
PLANIFICARE CALENDARISTICĂ PENTRU CLASA a VII-a A,
LIMBA 1, 2ore/sapt
Nr. Unit Conţinuturi
Tema
Elemente de construcţie a comunicării
Funcţii comunicative ale limbii
Competenţe specifice
vizate
Nr. ore
alocate
Saptămâna Observatii
(amendamente)
1. WHAT DO YOU DO?
Domeniul personal - Relaţii interumane
Modalitaţi de exprimare a prezentului si trecutului;
adverbe de frecvenţă şi timp, verbe statice; phrasal verbs:
break, build.
A solicita informaţii; a cere permisiunea; a face o
invitaţie; a sugera.
1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.3
3.1
4.3
9 22.09
23.09.
26.09
29.09
30.09
03.10
06.10
08.10
10.10
În primele trei ore se
realizează testarea
iniţială, discutarea
rezultatelor şi
recapitularea
cunoştinţelor din anii
trecuţi.
2. THEN AND NOW
Domeniul personal - Viaţă personală (activităţi de timp
liber)
Future tenses; conditionals type 0&1; the definite article;
phrasal verbs: call, check.
A exprima şi a solicita o opinie; e exprima emoţii.
1.3
2.1, 2.2
3.1
4.3
8 13.10
14.10
17.10
20.10
21.10
24.10
27.10
28.10
Self-assessment module
I
Individual assessment
2 ore
31.10
03.11
3. HAVE YOU EVER?
Domeniul personal- Relaţii
interumane
Past tenses; used to – would; phrasal verbs: bring, carry.
A oferi şi solicita informaţii de ordin personal; a descrie
persoane; exprimarea opiniei; exprimarea (dez)acordului
1.3, 1.5
2.1
3.1
4.2
9 04.11
07.11
10.11
11.11
14.11
17.11
18.11
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faţă de opiniile altora; a şti să exprimi o critică in mod
diplomatic.
21.11
24.11
4. WHAT A DAY!
Domeniul personal - Universul adolescenţei (sport)
Modals; past and perfect modals; making deductions;
question tags; phrasal verbs: come, die.
A descoperi şi exprima emoţii; a exprima planul unei
acţiuni.
1.3
2.1
3.1, 3.2
8 25.11
28.11
02.12
05.12
08.12
09.12
12.12
15.12
Self-assessment module
II
Individual assessment
2 ore
16.12
19.12
5. I’M GOING TO BE…
Domeniul educaţional - Texte din literatura britanică
Comparisons; too – enough; -ing form/infinitives; phrasal
verbs: do, draw.
Formularea de comparaţii; a oferi informaţii de ordin
personal.
1.2, 1.3
2.5
3.1
4.2
9 05.01
06.01
09.01
12.01
13.01
16.01
19.01
20.01
23.01
REVIEW 1
Vor fi trecute în revistă şi evaluate conţinuturile parcurse
in lecţiile 1-7: adverbul de frecvenţă; modalităţi de
exprimare a viitorului; timpurile verbale; propoziţia
subordonată relativă; pronumele relativ.
1.3
2.2, 2.3, 2.5
3.2
4 26.01
27.01
30.01
Progress test
6. FOOD AND FESTIVITIES
Domeniul ocupaţional - Activităţi din viaţa cotidiană
Order of adjectives; the passive; relative clauses; relative
pronouns/adverbs; phrasal verbs: give, go.
A face urari cu o anumita ocazie; a şti să dai un răspuns
adecvat într-o anumită situaţie de comunicare.
1.2, 1.3, 1.4
2.3, 2.5
3.1, 3.2, 3.3
10 09.02
10.02
13.02
16.02
17.02
20.02
23.02
24.01
27.01
02.03
Self-assessment module
III
Individual assessment
2 ore
7. YOU’D BETTER…
9 03.03
06.03
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Domeniul public- Aspecte din viaţa contemporană
(festivaluri, petreceri)
Reported speech I; causative form; phrasal verbs: fall,
feel.
A accepta şi a refuza o invitaţie; a convinge, a determina
cursul unei acţiuni.
1.2, 1.3
2.2, 2.4
3.1, 3.2
09.03
10.03
13.03
16.03
17.03
20.03
23.03
8. WHAT ARE THE RULES?
Domeniul educaţional - Viaţa culturală şi lumea artelor
Countable/uncountable nouns; quantifiers (some, any, no,
a lot of, much, many, (a) little, (a) few; reported speech –
special introductory verbs; phrasal verb: get.
A prezice; a şti să dai răspunsuri adecvate în anumite
situaţii comunicative.
1.1, 1.2, 1.3
2.2, 2.3, 2.5
3.1, 3.2
4.3
10 24.03
27.03
30.03
31.03
03.04
20.04
21.04
24.04
27.04
28.04
Self-assessment module
IV
Individual assessment
2 ore
9. MAN-MADE WONDERS
Domeniul ocupaţional - Aspecte legate de profesuni şi
de viitorul profesional
Conditionals type 2&3; wishes; would rather; phrasal
verbs: hit, hold.
Exprimarea (dez)acordului faţă de opiniile altora;
comentarea părerilor.
1.3
2.4
3.1, 3.2
4.1, 4.3
9 04.05
05.05
08.05
11.05
12.05
15.05
18.05
19.05
22.05
10. CHARACTERS
Domeniul educaţional - Texte din literaturile britanică
şi americană
Future perfect simple & continuous; linking words &
phrases, quantifiers (both, neither, all, none, either, Each,
every); phrasal verbs: keep, knock, look.
Exprimarea de condiţii; exprimarea a diverse grade de
(in)certitudine.
1.3
2.3
3.1
10 25.05
26.05
29.05
01.06
02.06
05.06
09.06
09.06
12.06
15.06
Self-assessment module
V
Individual assessment
2 ore
REVIEW 2 2 16.06
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Vor fi trecute în revistă şi evaluate conţinuturile parcurse
în lecţiile 9-15: vorbirea directă şi indirectă; propozitia
subordonată condiţională ; corespondenţa timpurilor;
verbe modale.
1.1, 1.3
2.3
3.1
19.06 Final evaluation
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Unitatea de învăţământ
Colegiul National “Stefan cel Mare” Tg. Neamţ Vizat: _________________
PROFESOR: Ana-Alina Ichim
Manualul folosit: Click On 3
PLANIFICARE CALENDARISTICĂ PENTRU CLASA a VIII-a A,
LIMBA 1, 2ore/sapt
Nr. Unit Conţinuturi
Tema
Elemente de construcţie a comunicării
Funcţii comunicative ale limbii
Competenţe specifice
vizate
Nr. ore
alocate
Saptămâna Observatii
(amendamente)
1. BUSY DAYS
Domeniul personal - Relaţii interumane
Modalitaţi de exprimare a prezentului si trecutului;
adverbe de frecvenţă şi timp, verbe statice; phrasal verbs:
break, build.
A solicita informaţii; a cere permisiunea; a face o
invitaţie; a sugera.
1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.3
3.1
4.3
În primele trei ore se
realizează testarea
iniţială, discutarea
rezultatelor şi
recapitularea
cunoştinţelor din anii
trecuţi.
2. WHAT A STORY!
Domeniul personal - Viaţă personală (activităţi de timp
liber)
Future tenses; conditionals type 0&1; the definite article;
phrasal verbs: call, check.
A exprima şi a solicita o opinie; e exprima emoţii.
1.3
2.1, 2.2
3.1
4.3
Self-assessment module
I
Individual assessment
2 ore
31.10
03.11
3. ON THE MOVE
Domeniul personal- Relaţii
interumane
Past tenses; used to – would; phrasal verbs: bring, carry.
A oferi şi solicita informaţii de ordin personal; a descrie
persoane; exprimarea opiniei; exprimarea (dez)acordului
1.3, 1.5
2.1
3.1
4.2
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faţă de opiniile altora; a şti să exprimi o critică in mod
diplomatic.
4. OUT AND ABOUT
Domeniul personal - Universul adolescenţei (sport)
Modals; past and perfect modals; making deductions;
question tags; phrasal verbs: come, die.
A descoperi şi exprima emoţii; a exprima planul unei
acţiuni.
1.3
2.1
3.1, 3.2
Self-assessment module
II
Individual assessment
2 ore
16.12
19.12
5. TASTY TREATS
Domeniul educaţional - Texte din literatura britanică
Comparisons; too – enough; -ing form/infinitives; phrasal
verbs: do, draw.
Formularea de comparaţii; a oferi informaţii de ordin
personal.
1.2, 1.3
2.5
3.1
4.2
REVIEW 1
Vor fi trecute în revistă şi evaluate conţinuturile parcurse
in lecţiile 1-7: adverbul de frecvenţă; modalităţi de
exprimare a viitorului; timpurile verbale; propoziţia
subordonată relativă; pronumele relativ.
1.3
2.2, 2.3, 2.5
3.2
Progress test
6. ALL WORK AND NO PLAY
Domeniul ocupaţional - Activităţi din viaţa cotidiană
Order of adjectives; the passive; relative clauses; relative
pronouns/adverbs; phrasal verbs: give, go.
A face urari cu o anumita ocazie; a şti să dai un răspuns
adecvat într-o anumită situaţie de comunicare.
1.2, 1.3, 1.4
2.3, 2.5
3.1, 3.2, 3.3
Self-assessment module
III
Individual assessment
2 ore
7. NATURE’S WARNING
Domeniul public- Aspecte din viaţa contemporană
(festivaluri, petreceri)
1.2, 1.3
2.2, 2.4
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Reported speech I; causative form; phrasal verbs: fall,
feel.
A accepta şi a refuza o invitaţie; a convinge, a determina
cursul unei acţiuni.
3.1, 3.2
8. ONE GOOD TURN DESERVES ANOTHER
Domeniul educaţional - Viaţa culturală şi lumea artelor
Countable/uncountable nouns; quantifiers (some, any, no,
a lot of, much, many, (a) little, (a) few; reported speech –
special introductory verbs; phrasal verb: get.
A prezice; a şti să dai răspunsuri adecvate în anumite
situaţii comunicative.
1.1, 1.2, 1.3
2.2, 2.3, 2.5
3.1, 3.2
4.3
Self-assessment module
IV
Individual assessment
2 ore
9. A HEALTHY MIND IN A HEALTHY BODY
Domeniul ocupaţional - Aspecte legate de profesuni şi
de viitorul profesional
Conditionals type 2&3; wishes; would rather; phrasal
verbs: hit, hold.
Exprimarea (dez)acordului faţă de opiniile altora;
comentarea părerilor.
1.3
2.4
3.1, 3.2
4.1, 4.3
10. OUR CHANGING WORLD
Domeniul educaţional - Texte din literaturile britanică
şi americană
Future perfect simple & continuous; linking words &
phrases, quantifiers (both, neither, all, none, either, Each,
every); phrasal verbs: keep, knock, look.
Exprimarea de condiţii; exprimarea a diverse grade de
(in)certitudine.
1.3
2.3
3.1
Self-assessment module
V
Individual assessment
2 ore
REVIEW 2
Vor fi trecute în revistă şi evaluate conţinuturile parcurse
în lecţiile 9-15: vorbirea directă şi indirectă; propozitia
1.1, 1.3
2.3
3.1
Final evaluation
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subordonată condiţională ; corespondenţa timpurilor;
verbe modale.
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II. Unitatea de invățare
Unitatea de învăţare: 4 OUT AND ABOUT Clasa: a VII-a
Număr de ore: 8 Manual: Click On 3
Detalieri de conţinut O.R. Activităţi de învăţare Org. Resurse Evaluare
Teme:
Town and country
Accidents
Holiday experiences
Sights
Functii comunicative
ale limbii:
Adjectives – degrees of
comparison
Past perfect Simple and
Continuous
Phrasal verb: Turn
1.3
2.1
3.1,
3.2
Lesson 1
Lead-in: Look at the pictures of York and
New York and use the given adjectives to
describe and compare the two cities.(1,2/44)
Pre-listening: Listen and repeat the sentences,
then close your books and try to remember as
many as possible.(3/44)
While-listening: Listen and identify the
person who says the sentences(4/44);
Listen and anser the questions. (5/44)
Post-listening: Read the dialogues in pairs
(role-play) and practice them with the books
closed – improvise when necessary!
Vocabulary: make sentences with the words
in bold and find synonyms for the highlighted
words. (homework)
Lesson 2
Vocabulary: Scenery and Sights: ex. 6,7/46
Speaking: Suggest places to visit, shops, food
to a friend visiting your area;
PW
Frontal
T-Ss
PW
Frontal
(Ind)
T-Ss
PW,
Student’s
Book
Tablet with
MP3
recordings
Notare
individuala si
aprecieri
verbale in
functie de
corectitudinea
gramaticala a
exprimarii,
fluentei
coerentei si
vitezei
exprimarii;
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Elemente de
constructie a
comunicarii:
Giving apologies
Ordering room service
Booking a hotel room
Making decisions
Talking about past experiences
Comparing places
Expressing preferences
Intonation in questions of
choice
1.3
2.1
3.1,
3.2
Describe the pictures in ex. 6/46, saying the
pros and cons of living in each place.
Listening: Holiday Experiences – Listen and
match the people to the holiday problems (ex.
10a/46)
Rephrase the sentences according to the
information you have just listened to. (10b/46
and 11b/46)
Lesson 3
Grammar: adjectives – comparatives –
superlatives and irregular adjectives (12, 13,
www.englisch-hilfen.de/adjectives )
Listening: filling in the missing information
(14/47)
Lesson 4
Grammar: past perfect simple: 15, 16, 17,
18/48, www.englisch-hilfen.de/adjectives
Lesson 5
Grammar: past perfect continuous: 19, 20, 21,
22/49, www.englisch-hilfen.de/adjectives
Pronunciation: intonation in questions of
choice
Lesson 6
Reading and listening: read and listen to four
texts about different cities around the world;
Reading and listening comprehension
exercises: 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31/50-51
S-Ss
PW
Ind.
Frontal
T-Ss
S-Ss
T-Ss
S-Ss
Ind.
Student’s
Book
Tablet with
MP3
recordings
Internet
connected
PCs
Online
exercises
Internet
connected
PCs
Online
exercises
Student’s
book
Notare
individuala si
aprecieri
verbale in
functie de
corectitudinea
gramaticala a
exprimarii,
fluentei
coerentei si
vitezei
exprimarii;
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/adjectiveshttp://www.englisch-hilfen.de/adjectiveshttp://www.englisch-hilfen.de/adjectives
-
1.3
2.1
3.1,
3.2
Vocabulary: word formation – compound
nouns (32/51)
Lesson 7
Writing : a letter to a friend about a visit to a
place: 24, 35, 36, 37, 38/53
HW: 39/53
Oral presentation development: “What’s in a
word?” – 2 minute presentation on given
topic.
Lesson 8
Pre-reading: look at the pictures and choose
the correct answer.
Listening and reading: Episode 4 of “The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”
Post-listening - comprehension exercises: 2,
3/55
Grammar: Clauses of purpose: 4, 5/55,
Grammar Way 4
T-Ss
S-Ss
Frontal
Ind.
Frontal
Ind.
Frontal
Tablet with
MP3
recordings
Student’s
book
Grammar
book
Notare
individuala si
aprecieri
verbale in
functie de
corectitudinea
gramaticala a
exprimarii,
fluentei
coerentei si
vitezei
exprimarii;
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III. Ce este o lecție?
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IV. Proiectul didactic – Lesson plan
LESSON PLAN
Teacher’s name: Ana-Alina Ichim
Date: the 21st of May 2020
Class: VII B
Level: Pre-intermediate (A2)
Type of lesson: revising cultural aspects of English speaking world
Topic: In search of a new life (Australia and The USA)
Objectives:
a) Cognitive objectives:
- to associate words and definitions;
- to listen for specific information;
- to use correctly the required verbal tenses (present simple, past
simple, past perfect);
- to solve the exercises correctly;
b) Affective objectives:
- to patricipate actively in the English lesson;
- to feel free to express their own experience, opinion and
thoughts.
Skills: listening, reading, speaking and paragraph writing;
Approach: independent exercise; explanation;
Teaching aids: MP3 listening support, worksheets with the necessary grammar
theory and exercises.
Time: 50 minutes.
-
Stages of the
lesson
Teacher’s activity
Students’ activity
Time
Org.
Didactic strategies
Methods and
procedure
Materials
Evaluation
1.
Warm-up
- checking attendance;
- preparing the necessary
material for the English class.
The students
prepare the material
for the class.
1 min T-Ss
2. Checking
homework
The teacher will check the
students’ homework.
The students correct
their homework.
1 min T-Ss
S-Ss
Exercise Student’s
own
opinion
Systematic
observation
3.
Introducing
new material
The teacher presents the
pictures and asks a set of
questions.
The teacher asks the students
to identify the difference
between some terms.
The students answer
the questions. (page
8)
The students define
the terms:
emigrant/immigrant
;
passport/visa;(lead-
in ex./8)
3 min
T-Ss
Exercise
Student’s
book
4. Learning
development
The teacher plays the
recording.
The students listen
to and at the same
time read the text.
They have to mark a
set of 4 questions as
True or False.
The students answer
the questions to
check their reading
comprehension.
2 min
3 min
2 min
Ind
PW
GW
Exercise
Exercise
MP3
recording
on the
tablet
Appreciation
based on the
correct use of
grammar,
vocabulary and
spelling
-
Fron-
tal
Explanation
Student’s
book
5.
Obtaining
perfor-mance
The teacher presents the
speaking/writing exercise on
page 9 and gives extra
information related to the
exercises.
The students use
their knowledge to
present their ideal
country.
35
min
Ind.
Fronta
l
Explanation
Exercise
Work-
sheets with
exercises
Systematic
observation
Appreciation
based on the
correct use of
grammar,
vocabulary and
spelling.
6.
Homework
The teacher asks the students
to write the description as
homework, having in mind
the rules for writing a place
description.
The students note
down their
homework.
1 min T-Ss. Work-
sheets with
exercises
7.
Evaluation
The teacher appreciates the
students’ activity based on
their answers.
The students receive
their personal and
frontal appreciation.
2 min Ind.
Fron-
tal
Oral
appreciation
and marks
-
V. Teaching Vocabulary
V. 1. Teaching vocabulary in the context of language teaching
Vocabulary represents the potentially infinite number of words existing in a language.
It is usually divided into active vocabulary (vocabulary for productive use) – including the
words which students have been taught/the students have learned, and which they use, or are
expected to use – and passive vocabulary (vocabulary for “receptive” recognition) – including
words which students know, can recognize whenever they meet them, but which they do not
use. The recent accent on functionality and communication in language learning and teaching
(words understood as vehicles for relaying information and ideas; for communication) made
linguists and methodologists turn their attention to vocabulary and stress its importance in
language teaching. Thus, acquisition of vocabulary has become as important as acquisition of
grammar. Teaching a word means several things: teaching its form/shape/spelling; teaching its
pronunciation; teaching its meaning; teaching that form and meaning go together.
Students should know that one word has usually more than one meaning, that the meaning
can be charged, stretched or limited by how it is used. Decoding the meaning means attention
given to the context (the entire non-verbal environment which is linguistically relevant for
communication purpose) and the co-text (the linguistic environment proper; the items in the
text which play a role in specifying the meaning of a given lexical item) in which the word is
used. “Knowing a word – as Jeremy Harmer explains – means knowing the meaning, the word
use, the word information and the word grammar”(Harmer, 1993); this is why the study of
vocabulary cannot be separated from the study of phonetics and grammar. So, knowing a word
means in fact being aware of the following features:
- the correct pronunciation and spelling; - the denotative meaning – “the objective, impersonal and intellective meaning
word”(Levitchi,1970), the nucleus of a word; the meaning which has been fixed in the
language of the whole people, implying the possibility to be understood in the process
of linguistic communication; the cognitive or communicative aspect of meaning; it
conveys the informational load carried by a word and is neutral as far as the attitude of
the speakers is concerned;
- connotations – “the subjective, personal and emotive of a word” ”(Levitchi, 1970); the emotional overtones the speaker usually associates with each
individual use of words; the field of associations, implications, suggestions which
surround the word;
- the appropriate grammatical forms; - the style – formal/informal; - the transfer of meaning; - the lexical sets – if the word relates to other words within a common topic/ situation/
theme;
- the relations of synonymy / antonymy / homonymy / hyponymy; - collocations – in what way it can combine with other words; - idioms. The students’ native language, their previous language experience, transfer effects and
learning strategies are among the factors which affect their abilities to learn new vocabulary.
In teaching vocabulary the following considerations are highly important: the students must be
interested and must make an effort to understand; it is the teacher’s responsibility to provide a
variety of activities that will keep the students interested and will help them understand; the
teacher should also provide frequent repetitions, to reinforce the learning process and fix the
new vocabulary firmly in the minds of the students; students should be exposed to different
-
kinds of contexts in which a word may be used, to ensure its proper usage; to learn new words,
students to work with them actively, regularly and systematically; learning of words should be
meaningful (words should be learned through comprehension, association and integration of
new material with the one which has already been learned).
Research into memory has proved that people do not store words in their brain in
alphabetical order; words that are somehow related join together in groups, called lexical sets;
this means it is better to teach students lexical sets, in which words are related in several ways:
- by topic: animals, family relationships, jobs; - by similarity of meaning: monkey, ape, gorilla; - in pairs – synonyms: journey/trip, margin/edge; - in pairs – opposites: hot/cold; old/new; - in a series or a scale: boiling, hot, warm, cool, cold, freezing; - by super-ordinates and hyponyms: furniture: bed, table, chair, armchair ; - by activity or process: steps in making a coffee or building a house; - word families: paint, painter, painting, paint work. Vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect exposure to words and intentionally
through explicit instruction in specific words and word-learning strategies.
V. 1. A. Direct Vocabulary Teaching
V.1.A.1. Direct vocabulary learning is a conscious effort made by the learner to
remember new words. It occurs when teachers do exercises and activities in class that focus
the learners’ attention on vocabulary, such as guessing meaning from context, matching
exercises, spider grams, vocabulary games, etc. Vocabulary can also be acquired through
incidental learning. Much of a student’s vocabulary will have to be learned in the course of
doing things other than explicit vocabulary learning. Repetition, richness of context and
motivation may also add to the efficacy of incidental learning of vocabulary.
V.1.A.2. While incidental learning is still where most vocabulary acquisition takes
place, there is room for more direct teaching methods in the second language classroom,
provided such factors are taken into consideration:
Learners need to come across/be exposed to/ the words in a variety of contexts.
Dependence on a single vocabulary instruction method will not result in optimal
learning. Learners best remember words when they have used them in different ways,
so variety is essential for vocabulary teaching.
Recycling and reviewing vocabulary is an important part of the lesson plan as most new
words are forgotten if not reinforced.
For long-term retention, no more than 10-12 new words should be presented at a time.
Vocabulary learning is effective when it entails active engagement in learning tasks.
Vocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary. It is important to be certain that
students fully understand what is asked of them in the context of
speaking/reading/listening/writing, rather than focusing only on the words to be
learned.
Computer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabulary.
V.1.B. What does it take to know a word?
1. Recognize it in its spoken or written form. 2. Remember it. 3. Relate it to an appropriate object or concept. 4. Use it in the appropriate grammatical form. 5. Pronounce it in a recognizable way. 6. Spell it correctly. 7. Use it with words it correctly goes with, i.e., in the correct collocation. 8. Use it at the appropriate level of formality.
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9. Be aware of its connotations and associations. V.1.C. Meaning
As far as meaning goes students need to know about meaning in context and they need
to know about sense relations.
The first thing to realise about vocabulary items is that they frequently have more than
one meaning. When they come across a word and try to decipher its meaning they will have to
look at the context in which it is used. The word 'bark', for example, refers to the hard substance
that covers a tree, to the short loud sound that a dog makes, according to one learner's
dictionary. But the same dictionary then goes on to list more meanings of 'bark' used in phrases
- barking up the wrong tree, sb’s bark is worse than their bites-.
Sometimes words have meanings in relation to other words. Thus students need to
know the meaning of 'furniture' as a word to describe any one of a number of other things - e.g.
chairs, tables, sofas, etc. 'Furniture' has a general meaning whereas 'chair' is more specific.
The meaning of a word like 'good' is understood in the context of a word like 'bad'.
Words have opposites (antonyms) and they also have other words with similar meanings;
(synonyms) - e.g. 'bad' and 'evil'.
What a word means can be changed, stretched or limited by how it is used and this is
something students need to know about.
By being aware students will be more receptive to the contextual behaviour of words
when they first see them in texts, etc. and they will be better able to manipulate both the
meanings and forms of the word.
V. 2 Didactic strategies
V.2.1. Methods and procedures
Generally speaking, the main approaches to teaching vocabulary are: system-oriented;
topic-oriented; strategic-oriented (using contextual clues; using knowledge of related forms;
anlysing internal structure; using knowledge of cognates) or discourse-oriented. There are
several possibilities of introducing the new vocabulary into the lesson: during the introductory
conversation, during the proper work with the text under study or during the students’
individual work with the dictionary.
When the new vocabulary is introduced during the introductory conversation, the
teacher has the role of selecting those words which should be acquired by students in an active
manner; each uttered sentence should include only one word with a definite meaning in the
given context, in a familiar grammatical structure, which needs to be simple and natural. The
teacher utters a sentence related to the text and explains the new word by means of a technique
of word interpretation.
When teaching, there may be different techniques to be chosen as ways of conveying
meaning:
1. Realia - presenting words by bringing the things they represent into the classroom;
2. Pictorial representations
- board drawings, wall pictures and charts, flashcards, magazine pictures and any other
non-technical visual representation
- used to explain the meaning of vocabulary items
3. Demonstrating the word through acting or miming-TPR (Total Physical Response)
- have learners associate a verb to an action (or an emotion to a gesture) by physically
acting out the word
4. Using Opposites - sense relations can be used to teach meaning - the meaning of 'bright' can be
presented by contrasting it with 'dark'-
http://www.brighthub.com/education/special/articles/35181.aspx
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- these concepts may be presented with pictures or mime, and by drawing attention to
the opposites/contrasts in meaning
5. General/specific meaning - sense relation - general and specific words – we can say
'furniture' and explain this by enumerating or listing various items
6. Connecting words to a personal experience - learners can think about the way they respond
to new words by categorizing them into groups: the words they like/dislike, or the words they
think will be easy (or difficult) to remember, and why
7. Explanation - can be used with intermediate students - explaining the meaning of a word
must include explaining any facts of word use which are relevant -
8. Grouping words by collocations - manipulating and remembering new words by joining
them according to the words they are often found with (i.e., 'to ........ your temper'
(set/do/make/lose)
9. Changing, stretching and limiting the meaning of a word function how it is used a. Metaphors: the meaning of some words can be extended, e.g.: ‘I like it when you bring me
jewels’, the young lady purred.
b. Idioms: sometimes metaphors are used so often that they become fixed in the language, e.g.:
The detective likes to play cat and mouse with his suspects.
10. Semantic Maps-Teaching Multiple-Meaning Words
- can be used as a strategy for students to discover the relationships between vocabulary
words
- semantic mapping is an active form of learning as it builds on prior knowledge
- a semantic map is a graphic organizer that is organized around a word that represents
an important concept (e.g., movement); on the map, related words are clustered around
the target word according to criteria that teachers or students choose
- these criteria might include such features as similar or dissimilar attributes,
connotative or denotative meanings, or even shared linguistic components
11. Translating the word into the students' native language
- a quick and easy way to present the meaning of words but:
1. it is not always easy to translate words and, 2. even where translation is possible, it may make it a bit too easy for students by
discouraging them from interacting with the words
12. Vocabulary games
- may be used for reinforcing the meaning and helping the students to remember the
new words they have learned before the vocabulary game
- everything we learn while relaxing and having fun is assimilated a lot easier and for a
longer period of time
13. Contextual analysis - involves inferring the meaning of an unfamiliar word by scrutinizing
the text surrounding it
14. Morphemic analysis - the process of deriving a word's meaning by analyzing its meaningful
parts, or morphemes - such word parts include root words, prefixes, and suffixes -
15. Dictionary use - teaches students about multiple word meanings, as well as the importance
of choosing the appropriate definition to fit the particular context
16. Using computer technology to help teach vocabulary
The greatest potential of computer technology lies in certain capabilities that are not found
in print materials, including:
- Game-like formats. Such formats may be more effective at capturing students’ attention than textbooks and workbooks.
- Hyperlinks. Clickable words and icons placed in online text can offer students opportunities to encounter new words in multiple contexts by allowing them quick
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access to text and graphics. When they are well designed, such extensions can add depth
to word learning, particularly in the area of content-specific words.
- Online dictionaries and reference materials. Devices that allow students to click on words to hear them pronounced and defined may extend students’ understandings of
new words.
- Animations. Animated demonstrations of how the human body works or what life was like in Ancient Times may hold students’ interest, and when combined with audio
narration or text captions and labels, they offer potential for word learning.
- Access to content-area-related websites. These websites, such as those operated by NASA, the Smithsonian, various museums, and numerous libraries, allow students
quick access to photographs, maps, and voice-over narration and text that may both
reinforce content-area vocabulary and relate new words to existing concepts.
The aim of good vocabulary work is to present and practise new language in ways that
help the learner retain the information in their long term memory, so that in the future it can be
easily retrieved and used. The ‘ingredients’ of good vocabulary work include:
Memorable presentations
The language is presented in such a way that learners can pull on the context developed
by the teacher to help them remember the work. This can be done through contextualization,
pictures, clines, timelines, realia, mime etc.
Engagement The meaning work is engaging with learners involved in the process of conveyance.
The conveyance method includes a range of techniques e.g. mime, pictures, contextual stories.
Diagnosis
During conveyance diagnosis of what learners already know and developing their
knowledge from that point is essential rather than assume the learners know nothing of the
meaning. The teacher works to elicit from a context what is known by the learners before
‘telling’ the meaning.
Accuracy
The meaning presented is accurate so learners are confident and can use the language.
For example, many words have multiple meanings (light, foot, set) but the meaning taught
needs to be the one used in the lesson material.
Confirmation of Understanding
Learners have their knowledge checked and confirmed through the use of meaning
check questions (MCQ’s), elicited examples and diagnostic tasks.
The learners have practice and the opportunity to practise the language in meaningful
and personalised tasks. In this way they can test their own hypothesis. For example: A great
scenario is when learners start asking the teacher “Can I say it this way?” This shows that they
are testing out how to use the language for themselves and it gives the teacher a chance to
diagnose their knowledge and provide targeted support.
Full Coverage
In order to use new vocabulary the learners are going to need to know:
- Meaning What is the exact meaning of the word as it is presented in the context? What is the appropriacy, connotation, register etc?
- Form What is the form (grammar) of the word? Is it a noun, verb etc? Does it have a dependent preposition?
- Pronunciation How is the word said?
V.2.2. Classroom activities
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No matter when vocabulary is taught or whether pre-taught, there are endless ways of
integrating it in the flow of active speech. What we should carefully consider before planning
our lessons is the logical steps to be taken in task-based activities:
1.’Engagement’ activities - meant to engage the interest of the students in the topic and its
related vocabulary.
A text: Its purpose is to arouse the students’ interest as well as to introduce the vocabulary and concepts which are to be studied. It also provides a focus for general
integrated skill work.
A discussion/interaction: May provide an opportunity for students to consider the topics in the light of their own experience.
A word task: students do a matching activity as a way of introducing the topic area and giving them the information they need for a discussion/interaction.
2.’Study’ activities - meant to explore the words which the topic has introduced in more
detail.
Completing charts: charts which focus on word formation, on words which go together, etc.
Fill-ins: fill in the blanks in sentences or paragraphs – using words they have been studying-, select the correct word from a box, select a word and use the correct form
(adjective, noun, verb, etc) in the blanks.
Matching: one set of things with another, a set of words with a set of pictures, words or expressions with meanings.
Searching for word meaning: find in the text words which have a certain meaning; use a dictionary to help them to be sure of the meaning of words.
Choosing between different words: students are asked to choose between two different meanings or two different words e.g. older/elder.
3.’Activate’ activities - meant to give students an opportunity to use words which have been
studied.
Telling stories: words studied are used in either oral or written stories.
Writing tasks: words studied are used to write descriptions, dialogues, adverts, etc. A practical example of lesson1 to teach body related vocabulary through literature using
Total Physical Response is “Teaching nursery rhimes through TPR - The finger game”:
“Tommy Thumb, Tommy Thumb, where are you?”
“Here I am, here I am, how do you do!”
“Peter Pointer, Peter Pointer, where are you?”
“Here I am, here I am, how do you do!”
“Bobby Big, Bobby Big, , where are you?”
“Here I am, here I am, how do you do!”
“Ruby Ring, Ruby Ring, , where are you?”
“Here I am, here I am, how do you do!”
“Tiny Tim, Tiny Tim, where are you?”
“Here I am, here I am, how do you do!” Each finger of one hand meets the same finger
of the other, asks and answers the questions.
VI. Teaching Grammar
VI. 1. Grammar in the context of teaching English
Grammar is the linguistic means of manipulation and combination of words and bits of
words in order to form meaning. It consists of two parts: systemizing and codying a bulk of
1 See full article, Ichim Asaftei Ana-Alina, “Total Physical Response in teaching multicultural classes and (very)
young learners”, http://www.toolproject.info/iasi/conference/ConferenceAgenda.pdf
http://www.toolproject.info/iasi/conference/ConferenceAgenda.pdf
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data to become relevant; a system of rules which govern the relationships of words in a sentence
– knowing a language means knowing the items within the language.
It is believed that grammar is the most important issue in teaching and learning a foreign
language. It is also one of the most difficult aspects when it comes to teaching it.
Usually, the word "grammar" is associated with a fixed set of rules of usage. The goal
of studying grammar is to make students aware not only of the language system and of the
typical constructions in a language, but also of the way the language forms are used.
Teachers make a clear distinction between "good grammar” ( e. g. formal language
used in writing and in oral presentations), and "bad grammar” ( e. g. language used in everyday
conversation). Such teachers teach grammar by explaining the forms and rules and then drilling
students on them. As a result, they have students who can produce correct forms of language,
but who make errors when they try to use the language in context. Therefore, students do not
develop the ability to use grammar correctly in oral and written interactions by doing
mechanical drills, because these drills separate form from meaning and use. If we see language
as a strict set of rules there will be disconnections between knowing the rules of grammar and
being able to apply them.
Therefore, grammar should be taught in order to enable students to communicate
properly, that is to use with accuracy different grammar structures in their everyday
interactions. “They probably need to have exposure to the language; they need to notice and
understand items being used; they need to try using lnguage themselves in “safe” practice ways
and in more demanding contexts; they need to remember the things they have learnt.”
(Scrivener, 2005)
VI.1.1. Overt Grammar Instruction
This technique focuses on rules, explanations and instructions given to the students
upon different language forms. The goal is for students to acquire grammatical competence by
following the set of the target language rules. It is a formal instruction that learners follow in
order to attain accuracy.
This technique enables students to understand and assimilate grammatical structures in
a foreign language.
Students should be provided with accurate and appropriate examples. The examples
should be related to particular topics so that students would be able to make the connection
between grammar and vocabulary.
VI.1.2. Relevance of Grammar Instruction
This issue relates to the Communicative Approach which focuses on language
functions, not language as a set of rules. The activities are centered on learners’ ability to use
language to communicate, to produce and understand sentences that are appropriate to a
particular situation. Thus, learning grammar means focus on the language of which grammar
is a part.
It does not mean learning by heart rules and applying them, but acquiring a language
structure that is particular to a certain situation.
VI.1.3. Error Correction
When it comes to this issue, teachers need to be careful not to focus on error correction
to the detriment of communication, as this will “shake” the students' confidence in their ability
to use the language, and will probably determine students not to communicate any more for
fear they will make mistakes. Thus they will focus more on the grammatical structures and not
on the content of their communication; and this does not achieve a communicative purpose.
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There is disagreement among teachers about what, when, and how to correct, although
error correction needs to be done in order to improve language acquisition. However, teachers
can help their students by using error correction when students are doing activities that focus
on development of new language skills but not when they are engaged in communicative
activities.
The goal of studying grammar is to make students aware not only of the typical
constructions in a language, but also of the context in which the language forms are used.
VI. 2. Grammar Teaching Approaches
The Grammar Translation method is aimed at the fact that students must learn words
and grammatical rules and build sentences based on the acquired rules, which were memorized
in a strict order, related to different parts of speech. The text was the strating point and grammar
came after it. The drawback of this method is that the role of mother tongue is highly stressed
and that a set of rules do not make good practice of a language.
The Direct Method eliminated completely the mother tongue, considering that the rules
of the native language influence the acquisition of the foreign one. The advantage of the method
consisted in the fact that it replaced the learning of isolated words, rules or definitions with the
practical learning of phrases and idioms thus enhancing the students’ ability of analysis and
synthesis – grammar comes secondly and acquired through practice.
The Audio –Visual Approach as well as the Audio-Lingual Approach stress upon the
drilled structures. Students are introduced to language, repetition of structures ending in
fluency and correct usage of a foreing lanaguage.
Computerized assisted language learning (CALL) has also gained success in the recent
years, once the computers are part of the every day learning life of a student. It is succinctly
defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997) as "the search for and study of applications of the
computer in language teaching and learning". CALL embraces a wide range of information and
communications technology applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign
languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the
1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a virtual learning
environment and Web-based distance learning. It also extends to the use of corpora and
concordancers, interactive whiteboards (Schmid Euline Cutrim, 2009), Computer-mediated
communication (CMC) (Lamy M.-N. & Hampel R., 2007), language learning in virtual worlds,
and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) (Shield L. & Kukulska-Hulme A., 2008).
VI. 3. Developing grammar activities
Usually, courses and textbooks are organized in a specified sequence of grammatical
topics. When this is the case, classroom activities need to reflect the grammar point that is
being introduced or reviewed. On the other hand, when a course curriculum is organized on a
topic sequence, grammar structures will be studied as they come up.
For those courses that focus on grammatical forms in a specified sequence, teachers
need to develop activities that relate form to meaning and use.
Describe the grammar structure, talking about form, meaning, and use, and give
examples;
Ask students to practice the grammar structure in communicative drills;
Involve students in communicative tasks, providing opportunities to use the grammar
structure;
For those courses that follow a sequence of topics, teachers need to develop activities
that relate different topics to meaning and form. Language structures should be shown in
authentic contexts so that they will cater for the learners’ different needs. Such courses develop
grammar in context, and probably the best way to do it is to get the students attention on a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning#Corpora_and_concordancershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning#Corpora_and_concordancershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning#Virtual_worldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Assisted_Language_Learning
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specific linguistic feature in a text that has been already processed (as far as meaning is
concerned); this helps students understand and consolidate their knowledge of a foreign
language. Teachers need to provide oral or written materials (audiotape, reading selection) that
relate to the topic.
Review the grammar structure, using examples from the materials;
Ask students to practice the grammar structure in communicative drills keeping to the
topic;
Ask students do a communicative task on the topic.
For example, students who intend to apply for a job will need to know how to answer
certain questions in a job interview. Teachers can use audiotapes to simulate real situations;
moreover, teachers need to teach the grammatical forms that typically occur in such situations;
and then ask students to practice by asking and answering questions that relate to the topic.
In both cases, the key- word for the developed activities is practice. Students should
do this in order to be able to use the language they have been exposed to, as the supreme goal
is acquiring fluency.
However, teachers should keep in mind the three types of drills:
Mechanical drills – that focus on patterns or rules; they are not very useful as they do
not resemble a real communication situation. Learners do not need to understand or
communicate anything so such lessons are boring;
Meaningful drills – that focus on the correlation between form and meaning; from this
point of view such drills can help students understand the grammar rules, but the
impediment is that they have only one correct answer, so their resemblance to real
communication is limited;
Communicative drills – that focus on the relationships among form, meaning, and use.
In such drills students become aware of the mentioned relationship and develop their
ability to use language for communicative purposes. Another advantage is that multiple
correct responses are possible and students use the grammar point under consideration
focusing on their own content and experience.
VI.3.1. Teaching Grammar Inductively vs. Deductively
Deductive grammar or rule-driven teaching is based on facts and statements and it
focuses on the learners’ logic. It leads from an explicit presentation of a set of isolated language
rules (together with model sentences), to their application to concrete L2 representations and
practice tasks. That is, the learners are given the grammatical rule and they are supposed to
apply the rule to new sentences. They are typically expected to memorise the rule. The
advantages of this kind of teaching are:
It is time-saving, as it focuses on a specific grammar point;
It involves a cognitive process in language acquisition;
This type of teaching can be related to the traditional way of
eaching.
Inductive grammar teaching or rule-discovery teaching is based on experiments. It
rejects the idea of giving the learners a ready-made rule. The learners learn from discovering,
from trying different things, from carefully selected intelligible linguistic data in context,
usually in the form of a text illustrating the use of the particular grammatical structure. On the
basis of the model they are supposed to formulate their own explanation of the rules governing
the presented material. Through experimenting they figure out the grammatical rules all by
themselves. The elicited students’ rules will then, if necessary, be corrected by the teacher, and
the language structure practised.
Teaching grammar inductively is favorable to communicative acquisition and enables
the learner acquire communicative competence. Learners need to know how to use language
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in context, when, where and how to use a grammatically correct sentence. An example could
be:
how to ask for directions;
how to address people in different real –life situations;
how to respond to different requests, invitations, or apologies.
VI.3.2. Discovery techniques can make grammar lessons enjoyable.
Whatever method for teaching grammar is ultimately chosen, the teachers should
always make sure their students are provided with various practical classroom ideas and
procedures. Also, students do best in classes wherein the teacher varies the approach in order
to accommodate all learning styles.
Students should be aware of the fact that grammar affects meaning, so incorrect
grammar can lead to confusion. To avoid such situations (as far as the students are concerned),
a teacher needs to give clear examples and explanations, and must find a balance between
accuracy and simplicity in examples, he or she must present a structure's form and meaning in
a simple, accurate and helpful way:
When teaching grammar, a teacher needs to take into consideration a bound between
examples and form, meaning, and context;
Make sure to make use of the mother tongue while explaining;
Explanations must be simple and clear;
Provide students with plenty of examples of the grammatical structure;
Make sure the learners understand when and how to use the presented grammatical
point;
Explanations must cover the majority of instances because students are sure to
encounter exceptions along the way;
Give the learners the opportunities to compare the grammar point to the same grammar
structure in their mother tongue;
Do not overdo the teaching of too many grammatical structures in one grammar lesson;
it will be confusing for the students;
Give students the chance of practicing by “playing” with the sentences so they can get
a feel for the language;
Language games can be fun and give students the opportunity to use a grammatical
structure practically.
VI.4. Grammar levels of accuracy (CEFR)
C2 Maintains consistent grammatical control of complex language, even while
attention is otherwise engaged (e.g. in forward planning, in monitoring others’ reactions). Can
understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from
different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent
presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the most complex situations. Can use language
flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes.
C1 Consistently maintains a high degree of grammatical accuracy; errors are rare
and difficult to spot. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects,
showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.Good
grammatical control; occasional ‘slips’ or non-systematic errors and minor flaws in sentence
structure may still occur, but they are rare and can often be corrected in retrospect.
B2 Shows a relatively high degree of grammatical control. Does not make mistakes
which lead to misunderstanding. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects
and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various
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options.Communicates with reasonable accuracy, fluency and spontaneity in familiar contexts;
generally good control though with noticeable mother tongue influence. Errors occur, but it is
clear what he/she is trying to express.
B1 Uses reasonably accurately a repertoire of frequently used ‘routines’ and
patterns associated with more predictable situations. Can produce simple connected text on
topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Communicates with reasonable accuracy in
familiar contexts; generally good control though with noticeable mother tongue influence.
Errors occur, but it is clear what he/she is trying to express.
A2 Uses some simple structures correctly, but still systematically makes basic
mistakes – for example tends to mix up tenses and forget to mark agreement; nevertheless, it
is usually clear what he/she is trying to say. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her
background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.
A1 Shows only limited control of a few simple grammatical structures and sentence
patterns in a learnt repertoire. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks
slowly and clearly.
VI. 4. Practical teaching grammar through literature
Although sometimes grammar and literature seem to students like distinct subjects,
each domain supports the other. Grammar is the way we create order out of chaos in language.
Literature is the way we communicate using a language. „Without grammar, literature would
make no sense; without literature, grammar would have limited use.” (Amber Hathaway, 2014)
VI.4.1. Using Literature to Teach Grammar
If students work with a text, such as a novel, they are basically motivated to understand
the text to the best of their capacity. “One level of understanding is the mechanical nature of
the text: in other words, the technical composition of the text itself. By using a novel or other
reading to provide students with direct grammar instruction, a teacher can help students see the
value in grammar work. For instance, pointing out a passively constructed sentence in "The
Great Gatsby" feels more relevant than doing a completely detached and isolated lesson on
passive voice.” (Amber Hathaway, 2014)
VI.4.2. Using Grammar to Teach Literature
The inverse relationship between grammar and literature helps students learn both areas
as well. In studying the passive voice, students can identify a passively constructed sentence in
a text and question the author’s intent based on the grammar: Why does it matter that the author
gives the character in this sentence no agency with this verb? Teachers can incorporate
grammatical analysis of texts into lessons as a brief component or as a major focus.
VI.4.3. Close Readings
One particularly useful way to pair grammar and literature in the classroom is during a
close reading. A close reading is any in-depth analysis of a short text or excerpt of a larger text;
for example, the first few paragraphs of "Beloved" can be examined in minute detail. Because
close readings are, by their nature, entirely concerned with details, the concepts of word choice,
sentence construction and punctuation are often areas of focus therein. Students must be
familiar with grammatical concepts in order to analyze short texts competently, which in turn
helps them understand those texts more fully.
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VI.4.4. Reinforcing Grammar
In order for grammatical concepts to “stick” with students, they must be revisited
frequently and in contexts in which it makes sense to review them. This can be as simple as a
teacher asking, “What does Hemingway’s use of subordinate clauses here suggest about his
intent?” In order to begin to answer the question, students must know what a subordinate clause
is, be able to identify them in the passage, and then extrapolate meaning from their use. This
call-back to grammatical concepts reinforces both their functions in language and their value
in analyzing texts.
VI.5. Example in the classroom
An example of a grammar lesson based on a literary text is when teaching the degrees
of comparison of adjectives to B1 level students using Emily Dickinson’s poem Hope is the
thing with feathers. Students are presented the poem, identify the adjectives and are introduced
the rules of forming the degrees of comparison. The extensive practice is still related to the
literary text, as they will find synonims for all the adjectives, respecting the meaning and the
form of the poem. (see Appendix 3)
Teaching skills
VII. 1. Reading skills
VII. 1. a) Reading in the context of teaching skills
Teachers want to model students who can cope with different communication situations
even if they do not have complete control of the grammar or an extensive vocabulary. In the
case of reading, this means producing students who can use reading strategies to maximize
their comprehension of text and identify relevant and non-relevant information.
Recent studies have shown that developing reading skills reveals that this issue is more
complicated than it seems.Comprehension requires the reader to be an active builder of
meaning. Reading research has demonstrated that readers do not simply understand the
meaning that is in a text. As a matter of fact, expert readers reconstruct meaning with a text.
The research data show that reading is like a transaction in which the reader brings purposes
and life experiences to cope with the text. This meeting of the reader and the text results in the
meaning that is comprehension. Comprehension stands for what is coded or hidden in the
text, but it is also closely connected with the reader's background experiences, purposes,
feelings, and needs. That is why we can read the same book or story twice and it can have
different meanings for us. We, as readers, are an equal and active partner with the text in the
meaning-making process of comprehension. We make an interactive connection with the
text. Authentic texts ( reports, articles, stories, advertisments, essays) are meant to develop the
students` skills in reading and speaking by connecting prior experiences to the reading.
VII. 1. a) A. The Reading Process
To accomplish this goal, teachers focus on the process of reading rather than on its product.
They develop students' awareness of the reading process and reading strategies by gettig
students think and talk about how they read in their native language.
They allow students to practice the full repertoire of reading strategies by using
authentic reading tasks. They encourage students to read in order to learn (and have an
authentic purpose for reading) by giving students some choice of reading material.
When working with reading tasks in class, they show students the strategies that will
work best for the reading purpose and the type of text. They explain how and why
students should use the strategies.
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They have students practice reading strategies in class and ask them to practice outside
of class in their reading assignments. They encourage students to be conscious of what
they're doing while they complete reading assignments.
By raising students' awareness of reading as a skill that requires active involvment, and
by teaching them reading strategies, instructors help their students develop both the ability and
the confidence to cope with communication situations they may encounter beyond the
classroom. In this way they give their students the foundation for communicative competence
in the new language.
VII. 1. a) B. Integrating Reading Strategies
Instruction in reading strategies is an integral part of the use of reading activities in the
language classroom. Teachers can help their students become effective readers by teaching
them how to use strategies before, during, and after reading.
Before reading: Plan for the reading task
Set a purpose or decide in advance what the reason for reading is
Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed
During and after reading: Monitor comprehension
Check up predictions
Make a good selection of what is important or unimportant
Read to check comprehension
Ask for help if necessary
After reading: Evaluate comprehension and strategy use
Evaluate comprehension in a certain area
Evaluate progress in reading and in particular types of reading tasks
Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task
Change strategies if necessary
VII. 1. a) C. Using Authentic Materials and Approaches
The Common European Framework of Languages lays stress on the importance of
authentic texts which contain interesting topics related to the students` everyday life.
There are reading activities such as: Reading for gist, Reading for detailed information,
Reading to understand text structure, Reading for specific information. Students`
understanding of written texts should go beyond being able to choose items of factual
information : they should be able to distinguish between main idea and hidden points,
between the main idea of a text and specifc detail ; they are required to remake text
structure and deduce meaning and lexical reference and to locate information in certain
sections of the text.
For students to develop communicative competence in reading, classroom and
homework reading activities must resemble (or be) real-life reading tasks that involve
meaningful communication. They must therefore be authentic in three ways.
1. The reading material must be authentic: It must be the kind of material that
students will need and want to be able to read when traveling, studying abroad, or using the
language in other contexts.
Simplifying a text by changing its language, makes it more approachable by eliciting
students' existing knowledge in pre-reading discussion, reviewing new vocabulary before
reading, and having students perform tasks that are within their competence, such as skimming
to get the main idea or scanning for specific information, before they begin intensive reading.
2. The reading task must be authentic: Students must be reading for reasons that
make sense and have relevance to them. "Because the teacher assigned it" is not an authentic
reason for reading a text.
To identify relevant reading needs, ask students how they plan to use the language they
are learning and what topics they are interested in reading and learning about. Let them choose
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their reading assignments, and encourage them to use the library, the Internet, and foreign
language newsstands and bookstores to find other things they would like to read.
3. The reading approach must be authentic: Students should read the text in a way
that matches the reading purpose, the type of text, and the way people normally read. This
means that reading aloud will take place only in situations where it would take place outside
the classroom, such as reading for pleasure. The majority of students' reading should be done
silently.
VII. 1. a) D. Reading Aloud in the Classroom
Students do not learn to read by reading aloud. A person who reads aloud and
understands the meaning of the text is coordinating word recognition with comprehension and
speaking and pronunciation ability in highly complex ways. Students whose language skills
are limited are not able to process the information at this level, and end up not being able to
remember elements. Usually the dropped element is comprehension, and reading aloud
becomes word calling: simply pronouncing a series of words without regard for the meaning
they carry individually and together.
VII. 2. Developing Reading Activities Developing reading activities involves more than identifying a text that is "at the right
level," writing a set of comprehension questions for students to answer after reading, handing
out the assignment and sending students away to do it. A fully-developed reading activity
supports students as readers through prereading, while-reading, and post-reading activities.
As you design reading tasks, keep in mind that complete recall of all the information in
a text is an unrealistic expectation even for native speakers. Reading activities that are meant
to increase communicative competence should be successfully oriented and build up students'
confidence in their reading skills.
A. Build up the reading activity around a task that is significant for the students .
Make sure students understand what the purpose for reading is: to get the main idea,
obtain specific information, understand most or all of the message, enjoy a story, or decide
whether or not to read more. Recognizing the purpose for reading will help students select
appropriate reading strategies.
B. Define the additional instructional goals and the appropriate type of response
In addition to the main purpose for reading, an activity can also have one or more
instructional purposes, such as practicing or reviewing specific grammatical constructions,
introducing new vocabulary, or familiarizing students with the typical structure of a certain
type of text.
C. Check the level of difficulty of the text
The factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a reading
text for a particular purpose and a particular group of students.
How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or instruction conform
to familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented in natural
chronological order, which have an informative title, and which present the information
following an obvious organization (main ideas first, details and examples second) are
easier to follow.
How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that cultural differences can
create major comprehension difficulties.
Is the text redundant ? At the lower levels of proficiency, listeners may find short,
simple messages easier to process, but students with higher proficiency benefit from
the natural redundancy of authentic language.
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Does the text have visual support to help in reading comprehension? Visual aids such
as photographs, maps, and diagrams help students preview the content of the text, guess
the meanings of unknown words, and check comprehension while reading.
Remember that the level of difficulty of a text is not the same as the level of difficulty
of a reading task.
D. Make a good selection of some pre-reading activities to prepare students for
reading
The activities you use during pre-reading can have a preparatory role in several ways.
During pre-reading you may:
Evaluate students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of the text
Give cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage
Make students aware of the type of text they will be reading and the purpose(s) for
reading
Create opportunities for group or collaborative work and for class discussion activities
Sample pre-reading activities:
Using the title, subtitles, and divisions within the text to predict content and
organization or sequence of information
Looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs and their captions
Talking about the author's background, writing style, and usual topics
Skimming to find the theme or main idea and eliciting related prior knowledge
Reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures
Pre-reading activities are most important at lower levels of language proficiency and at
earlier stages of reading instruction. As students become more proficient at using reading
strategies, you will be able to reduce the amount of guided pre-reading and allow students to
do these activities themselves.
E. Match while-reading activities to the purpose for reading
In while-reading activities, students check their comprehension as they read. The
purpose for reading determines the appropriate type and level of comprehension.
When reading for information, students need to ask themselves, have I obtained the information I was looking for or do I understand each main idea and how the author
supports it?
When reading for pleasure, students need to ask themselves, Do I understand the story line/sequence of ideas well enough to enjoy reading this?
When reading for reference we want to know only a small part of the text-airline timetables, telephone directory, searching for one or more isolated pieces of information.
Road signs and notices are also intented for instruction or advice.
Skimming a text is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read a
magazine, you're probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you're scanning the text.
Skimming is faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to
read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of
interest in your research.
You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the
first sentence of each paragraph. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It
might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.
Scanning the text is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone
book or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're
looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer.
When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps,
or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different
font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.
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F. After reading acivities Students participate in post-reading strategies; consolidate or review their
understanding of what they have read, identify new literacy knowledge, link it with what
they already know, automatise aspects of it to achieve fluency in its use and to respond to it
with a positive attitude.
VII. 3. Types of reading – extensive vs. intensive
A. Intensive reading
It is related to progress in language learning under the teacher's guidance. It provides a
basis for explaining difficulties of structure and for extending knowledge of vocabulary
and idioms. It provides material for developing control of the language, speech and writing..
Intensive reading is generally done at a lower speed and requires a higher degree of
understanding to develop and reinforce word study skills, enrich vocabulary, reinforce skills
related to sentence structure, increase active vocabulary, giving details and providing
sociocultural insights.
B. Extensive reading
It develops at the student's own pace according to individual reading skills. It is selected
at a lower level of difficulty than that for intensive reading. Material whose choice of structure
is habitually less complex and whose vocabulary range is less extensive is selected. The
purpose of extensive reading is to train the students to read directly and fluently in the
target language for enjoyment without the help of the teacher. Where graded texts are
available, structures in texts for extensive reading will be already familiar, and new items of
vocabulary will be introduced slowly in such a way that their meaning can be deduced from
context. Students are usually encouraged to guess the meaning of unknown items.
Both intensive and extensive reading are necessary to prepare students for the task and
texts they encounter in college. Intensive reading with a focus on skills/strategies instruction
has been shown to yield positive effects on second language reading. At the same time, students
need the practice of extensive reading in order to coordinate and apply intensively acquired
skills/strategies over the larger texts and multiple reading sources that are required in all
academic course work. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), which focuses on specific
tasks, (e.g. testtaking, report writing), allows students to acquire relevant skills and strategies
in the context of tasks they will eventually encounter in academic courses.
VII. 4. Approaches to teaching reading: methods and techniques
The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes
extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream
method in language education. It was first introduced in Gattegno's book Teaching Foreign
Languages in Schools: The Silent Way in 1963.
The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor the
students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language.
Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation,
and much time is spent practising it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus, and
structures are constantly reviewed and recycled. The choice of vocabulary is important, with
functional and versatile words seen as the best. Translation and rote repetition are avoided and
the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by
observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.
Gattegno developed these ideas to solve general problems in learning, and he also
applied them to his work in the teaching of mathematics and the mother tongue. Broadly, the
principles of this procedure are (Stevick, 1974):
1. Teachers should concentrate on how students learn, not on how to teach
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language-teaching_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caleb_Gattegnohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structural_syllabus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabularyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_%28language_use%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_tongue
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2. Imitation and drill are not the primary means by which students learn 3. Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate experimentation, suspending judgement,
and revising conclusions
4. In learning, learners draw on everything that they already know, especially their native language
5. The teacher must not interfere with the learning process These principles situate the Silent Way in the tradition of discovery learning, which sees
learning as a creative problem-solving activity.(Richrads, 1986)
Just as the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way. From
the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more of the talking. (Stevick, 1974) Being silent
moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students, and can encourage
cooperation among them.( Larsen-Freeman, 2000) It also frees the teacher to observe the class. Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when
a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct; they can also help students with
their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.
When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once so that students learn to focus their
attention on them. (Young, Messum, 2013)
A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction. Students are
encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble with any particular feature of the
language. This help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one. One of the
teacher's tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do not interfere with
students' learning. (Underhill, 2005).
The Silent Way in the form Gattegno described can only be used by teachers who are
free not to adopt the 'Communicative Approach'. Consequently, as of 2000, the Silent Way was
only used by a small number of teachers. However, the ideas behind the Silent Way continue
to be influential, particularly in the area of teaching pronunciation. (Messum, 2012).
The Natural Approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen
and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It aims to foster naturalistic language
acquisition in a classroom setting, and to this end it emphasises communication, and places
decreased importance on conscious grammar study and explicit correction of student errors.
Efforts are also made to make the learning environment as stress-free as possible. In the natural
approach, language output is not forced, but allowed to emerge spontaneously after students
have attended to large amounts of comprehensible language input.
The aim of the natural approach is to develop communicative skills, and it is primarily
intended to be used with beginning learners. It is presented as a set of principles that can apply
to a wide range of learners and teaching situations, and concrete objectives depend on the
specific context in which it is used. (Richards, Rodgers, 2001)Terrell outlines three basic
principles of the approach:
"Focus of instruction is on communication rather than its form."
"Speech production comes slowly and is never forced."
"Early speech goes through natural stages (yes or no response, one- word answers, lists
of words, short phrases, complete sentences.)" (Richards, Schmidt, 2010)
These principles result in classrooms where the teacher emphasizes interesting,
comprehensible input and low-anxiety situations. Lessons in the natural approach focus on
understanding messages in the foreign language, and place little or no importance on error
correction, drilling or on conscious learning of grammar rules. They also emphasize learning
of a wide vocabulary base over learning new grammatical structures. In addition, teachers using
the natural approach aim to create situations in th