as module 2 sources of stress. pptx

8/7/2019 AS Module 2 Sources of Stress. pptx

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ASAS Module 2:Module 2:Physiological PsychologyPhysiological Psychology

and Individualand IndividualDifferencesDifferences

Topic 2: Sources of StressBy Dr George Varvatsoulias


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The relationship between stress andThe relationship between stress andcardiovascular disorders (cardiovascular disorders (KrantzKrantz et al.,et al.,

1991) (1)1991) (1)

AimsThis study investigated whether mental stress

increases myocardial ischemia. Also, it wasinvestigated whether individuals with coronaryartery disease (CAD) react differently from thosewith no cardiovascular problems

Procedures39 patients and 12 controls through three mental

tasks: an arithmetic task, a stroop task, andsimulation of public speaking. Measurementsincluded recording participants blood pressure,and the contraction (muscle compression) of theblood vessels around the heart


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The relationship between stressThe relationship between stressand cardiovascular disordersand cardiovascular disorders

((KrantzKrantz et al., 1991) (2)et al., 1991) (2)

FindingsPatients with greater myocardial ischemia during

mental tasks showed increases in bloodpressure. Controls were showing lowest levels ofmyocardial ischemia and blood pressure duringmental tasks. None or moderate indication of allthe above was exhibited in some patients

ConclusionThere is a direct link between a stressful cognitive

task and physiological activity in relation tocardiovascular system. However, individualdifferences play an important role inresponsiveness of tasks


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The relationship between stressThe relationship between stressand cardiovascular disordersand cardiovascular disorders

((KrantzKrantz et al., 1991) (3)et al., 1991) (3)

CriticismsEthical Issues: Mild stress for the purpose of

study is not acceptable here sinceparticipants were facing greater stress (beingin the condition of a cardiovascular disorder)

Validity of the conclusion: The behaviour of thecardiovascular patients was also examined in

relation to those without (controls); however,no comparison was tested in stress/no stresscondition; in other words, stress performancemight not be the cause for cardiovascularischemia to those patients


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Further research on stress andFurther research on stress andcardiovascular disorders (1)cardiovascular disorders (1)

Cardiovascular disorder and anger (an exampleof acute stress)

Williams et al. (2000) conducted a study onthe relationship between anger and heartdisease. 13000 people took part with noincidents of heart disease. Six years later,

their health was checked: 256 hadexperienced heart attacks; those who scoredhigher on the anger scale were 2.70 morelikely to have a heart attack, than those withlower anger ratings


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Cardiovascular disorder and work-related

stress (an example of chronic stress)Russek & Zohman (1958) looked at heart

disease in medical professionals. Twogroups of high-stress and low-stress

subjects. It was found that stress is linkedto heart disease whether directly orindirectly


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Cardiovascular diseases and individual

differencesRozanski et al. (1999) have found that the

sympathetic branch in some individuals ismore reactive than in others. Those

described as hyperresponsive indicatethat they respond to stress with greaterincreases in blood pressure and heart ratethan others


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The relationship between stressThe relationship between stressand the immune system (and the immune system (KiecoltKiecolt--

Glaser et al, 1995) (1)Glaser et al, 1995) (1)

AimsInvestigating the direct effects of stress on the immune

system. There were sought participants with naturallevels of chronic stress, like caring for people withspecial needs

Procedures13 women in experimental group, 13 women in control

group. All participants were given a wound which

was treated the same to all of them.A

secondmeasure of immune response was taken. Levels ofcytokines were assessed. Finally, participants weregiven a 10-item perceived stress scale to check howstressed they actually were


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The relationship between stressThe relationship between stressand the immune system (and the immune system (KiecoltKiecolt--

Glaser et al, 1995) (2)Glaser et al, 1995) (2)

FindingsParticipants who were carers needed less time

for their wound to heal than controls.Cytokine levels were lower in carers thancontrols. On the perceived stress scale,carers responded as feeling more stressed

than controlsConclusionChronic stress decreases the functioning of

immune system; the same was shown incytokine levels


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What are we going to learn todayWhat are we going to learn today

y Sources of stress in terms of life changes andworkplace factors

y Questions on sources of stress wont includedirect aspects, such as the work of Holmes &Rahe, or what is workplace stressors

y Stress can affect everyone, but not in the sameway. What is being asked is to know how the

effects of stress might be modified by personalitydifferences [e.g. Type A/Non-Type A/ Type T(thrills, including both positive and constructiveforces of creativity, as well as all negative anddestructive choices in ones life (Farley, 1990)]


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Positive and negative stressorsPositive and negative stressors

y All we understand about stressors are negativelife events; however, positive life events, such as

leaving home, starting a new job, going toUniversity, or getting married, may also have astressful impact in ones life, because of...

y Not fully understanding the perceived demandsof involving ourselves in sources of stress,leading to...

y Physical, mental, and emotional exhaustions,known as burnout/examples from professionsinclude teachers, nurses, police officers, etc.

y Living in ghettos can also be a measure of stressfor illnesses, such as hypertension


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Things we need to know beforeThings we need to know beforediscussing sources of stressdiscussing sources of stress

y Stress as a cognitive appraisal (how a stressfulsituation can be understood) for the life of

individuals. How a stressful life event isexamined before even has started (prior tobecome an accomplished fact)

y The relationship between stress and stressor isnot particularly clear. Personality, culture, andgender influence how stress is perceived. The

hormone oestrogen helps pre-menstrual womennot to develop cardiovascular diseases, whilstthose who had their ovaries removed may be ingreater risk. Are women less likely to develop aType A personality compared to men?


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Women and stressWomen and stress

y Although women seem to live more yearsthan men, the lifestyle they follow manytimes is similar to that of men. The numbersin men and women suffering fromcardiovascular diseases is somehow similar,and this because women have also developed

a Type A personality: smoking, drinking,entering the workforce, being simultaneouslya wage earner and a mother does double therisk-chances of stress-related diseases


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What do we mean by life changesWhat do we mean by life changes

y Life changes refer to events of different lifestates than those individuals used to know.

Because the impact of those changes bringsupon a considerable amount of cognitive andemotional involvement as how one adapts tothem, they are stress-related

y Life changes lead to stress: Holmes & Rahe(1967) observed that major life events

precipitate physical illness. Every life event needsa psychic energy to be expended, which meansthat individuals need to release more effortfrom their body and mind expenditure reservoirsso to deal with it


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The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)as a measure of stress (1)as a measure of stress (1)

100 death of a spouse73 divorce65 marital separation63 detention in jail or other

institution63 death of a close family member53 major personal injury or illness50 marriage47 fired from work45 marital reconciliation45 retirement44 change in health or behavior of

family member40 pregnancy40 sex difficulties

39 gain of new family memberthrough birth, adoption, ormarriage

39 major business readjustment38 change in financial state37 death of close friend36 change to a different line of

work35 change in number of

arguments withpartner

31 taking on a new mortgage30 foreclosure on a mortgage or

loan

29 change in responsibilities29 son/daughter leaves home29 trouble with in-laws28 outstanding personal

achievement26 partner begins/stops work26 starting or finishing school25 change in living conditions24 revision of personal habits23 trouble with boss20 change in working hours or

conditions20 change in residence20 change in schools19 change in recreational habits

19 change in church activities18 change in social activities17 major purchase such as a new

car16 change in sleeping habits15 change in number of family

gatherings15 change in eating habits13 vacation12 Christmas or holiday

observance

11 minor violation of the law


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The Social Readjustment Rating ScaleThe Social Readjustment Rating Scale(SRRS) as a measure of stress (2)(SRRS) as a measure of stress (2)

y Holmes & Rahe enlisted 400 participants,

and asked them to score each event interms of their perceived readjustment.The more readjustment would need themore it would receive a larger score

(baseline figure was 50)y Scores then were totalled and averaged to

produce Life Change Units (LCUs) for eachlife event


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Life changes as a source of stress (Life changes as a source of stress (RaheRahe etetal., 1970) (1)al., 1970) (1)

y Aim

- Rahe et al. employed SRRS to test Holmes et Rahes hypothesis that thenumber of life events a person experiences would positively correlate toillness. Participants were coming from normal population, i.e. they hadntbeen registered as ill in hospitals

y Procedures

- The SRRS was given to US Navy Cruisers (2700 subjects). It was anopportunity sample; they completed the questionnaire in around 7months, noting all life events they experienced in the previous 6 months

y Findings- A LCU score and an illness score were calculated for each man. The

positive correlation was supported in other words, an increasedrelationship. Although the figure was .118 and not strong, because of thenumber of participants it was significant

y Conclusions

- The findings supported the hypothesis. Possible the link between the two isstress; life changes cause stress, which means they refer to the overallpsychic energy needed to deal with an event that results to stress


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Life changes as a source of stressLife changes as a source of stress((RaheRahe et al., 1970) (2)et al., 1970) (2)

CriticismsUnreliable data: Recalling life changes may prove

inaccurate. Negative events are sometimesinhibited because individuals dont want toremember them, or they may remember themnot exactly

Is the SRRS a valid measure?: The major criticismabout SRRS is that it is focused on acute life

events rather than ongoing (chronic) ones.Desirable and undesirable events, or socialresources are not taken into account. These areprobably the reasons for the weak correlationfound in the study


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Research methods: CorrelationResearch methods: Correlationcoefficientscoefficients


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Research methods: SignificantResearch methods: Significantresult and null hypothesisresult and null hypothesis

- A significant result means we have a real

association/correlation or difference in ourfindings, and that our hypothesis isaccepted or can be refuted

- A non-significant result means there is

not enough correlation/difference,therefore we accept the nullhypothesis/the variables underexamination are not related


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Correlation coefficients of illnessCorrelation coefficients of illnessscore (1), and LCUs (2)score (1), and LCUs (2)

+0.91 &+0.63 mean that co-variables are closely correlated(1.0)

In the study by Rahe et al (1970)there was found 0.118correlation/not so strong one;however since the sample wasenormous (2700 respondents),the correlation is significant

In other words, the greater thesample the greater thesignificance even if coefficients

are small. E.g. in a sample of 20to 30 participants the greaterthe correlation (close to 1), thegreater the significance.Whereas a large sample mayhave a significant correlationeven with distance from 1.0


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Ways in which life changes causeWays in which life changes causestressstress

y Bereavement: meaning the loss ofsomething valued, such as death,breaking up, loss of a job etc.

y Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):implying the cognitive and behaviouralarousal involved in an exposure after a

traumatic event took place, such asaccident, violence, war. Subjects mayrelive that in the form of flashbacks,nightmares, etc.


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Other ways in measuring lifeOther ways in measuring lifechangeschanges

y Daily hassles: DeLongis et al. (1982)suggested that chronic stress may be alsoan everyday reality in terms of money,job, friends, sex, weather, etc.

y Perceived importance: Moos & Swindle(1990) produced the Life Stressors and

Social Resources Inventory (LISRES) forareas of ongoing stressors, such ashealth, home, finance, work, partner,child, extended family, friends


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Other research on life changes asOther research on life changes asa source of stressa source of stress

y Life changes are related to physical health:Jacobs & Charles (1980) investigated life events

and cancer in children. It was found that familystress was associated with child cancer morethan in children who were treated in diseasesother than cancer

y Life changes are not related to physical health:

DeLongis et al. (1988) studied 75 marriedcouples. They found a significant positivecorrelation between hassles and next-day healthproblems, such as flu, sore throats etc., but norelationship between life events and health


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Designing questionnairesDesigning questionnaires

y Clarity: Respondents should understand whatis being asked without ambiguity

y Bias: Avoiding question to the likeness of theexperimenter; questions that are sociallydesirable and not reflecting the truth

y Analysis: Questions should be easy to beanalysed: open/close questions

A pilot study is preferable to a small number ofparticipants so to be tested the validity ofparticular questions


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Workplace stressorsWorkplace stressors

y

Employees and employers are bothaffected by workplace stressors

y Examples include: physical stressors(noise, length of working day, dangers at

work), psychological stressors (relationswith colleagues, role undertaken, issuesof organisation)


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A study of workplace stressors byA study of workplace stressors byMarmot et al., (1997)Marmot et al., (1997)

(1)(1)

y Aims: Stress and illness in workplace cometogether because of high demands and low

control in jobs. Employees with greaterexperience face higher demands in their jobs,whereas low-experienced ones face low jobcontrol

y

Procedures: 7372 people answered aquestionnaire and checked for signs ofcardiovascular disease. After 5 years eachparticipant was reassessed for signs ofcardiac disorder


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(2)(2)

y Findings: Participants in the highest rank oftheir job experienced less cardiovascularproblems; participants in the lowest rankhave had weaker sense of job control.Cardiovascular diseases were developed inpeople who were under risky factors, such as

smokers, being overweighty Conclusions: Higher stress is linked to low

job control, whereas high job demand doesnot relate to stress and illness


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(3)(3)

y Criticisms

- Can the findings be explained in terms ofsocio-economic status?People who have lowsocio-economic status are more likely to befound under risky factors. However, althoughthe amount of stress in low control jobs is

small, it can be an important factor in theworkplace

- Biased sample: Not all individuals in all jobsare affected the same by workplace stressors


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Factors in the workplace that actFactors in the workplace that actas stressorsas stressors

y Work overload- Repetitive tasks in high demand jobs can exert high-

risk influence to the workforcey Lack of control- Perceived demands from the environment and the

ability one to cope with are interlinked when demandsexceed perceived ability of coping

y Role conflict and role ambiguity

- Demands at work give rise to conflicts, whereas lackof knowing job responsibility leads to frustrationy Environmental factors- Environmental factors at work increase aggression,

and stress (noise, hear, poor lighting, etc.) Galvanicskin response (GSR) and detection of stress


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Individual differences and the roleIndividual differences and the roleof personalityof personality

y People are influenced or affected by stressin different ways. Individual differences instress and stressors help us to understandin a more general view the humanbehaviour

y Characteristic behaviours, attitudes, and

general temperament distinguish oneindividual from another. As to that, wespeak of personality traits that sometimeswe share and some others we dont


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Research on the role ofResearch on the role ofpersonality in modifying thepersonality in modifying the

effects of stressors (1)effects of stressors (1)

y Type A: Individuals are aggressive, ambitiousand have an acute sense of time urgency(Friedman & Rosenman, 1959). 3000 menwere examined in California for signs of CHD;in a way, provocative to the respondent, theinterviewer spoke hesitantly and slowly, so to

elicit participants to interrupt. After 8.5 yearsmany Type A participants had died ofcardiovascular problems (Type B/Non-Type Aindividuals lack the above characteristics)


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y Type C: Those individuals suppress

emotions, particularly negative ones; theyare unassertive, and rarely get intotrouble. Temoshok (1987) suggests thatsuch individuals ignore their needs in

order to please others, and that hasnegative consequences to them. Suchbehaviours attack the immune systemand may be associated with the onset ofcancer


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y Type D: People who are gloomy, sociallyinept and worried may also be at risk ofheart attacks, because they behave in adepressed or distressed manner. Denolletet al., (1996) first identified Type D

having looked at 300 men and womenwho suffered heart attacks. The subjectsproved to be socially alienated andassociated with depressive feelings


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y The hardy personality type: Kobasa (1979)proposed that some people are more

psychologically hardy than others. Hardinesscould be taught as a stress managementtechnique comprised of:

1. Control: they control themselves rather thancontrolled by external factors

2. Commitment: they have strong sense of

purpose; they take part; they dont flee3. Challenge: Life changes for them are

challenges for the better; they enjoy newexperiences looking at them as opportunitiesfor further development


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Effects of personality on stressEffects of personality on stress

y Are the effects of personality a cause or an effect?Greer et al. (1979) found that women with cancerhad a fighting spiritand recovered from the conditionquicker; in other words, personality characteristicsmay be a positive cause in fighting an illness

y Are the effects of personality direct or indirect?Acause or a correlation?Nemeroff & Musselman (2000)found that there is a direct link between personalityand illness. Some subjects because of suffering from

sticky platelets (thrombocytes) were provided withprozac and others with placebo (being told it wasProzac). Although both groups were healed, it wasntfor Prozac to be, but the mood itself as influencingsubjects bodily systems


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The role of gender in stressThe role of gender in stress

y Biological explanations: Less impact on stress is experienced bywomen whom levels ofoxytocin (the anti-stress hormone) arehigher than men (Taylor et al., 2000). Hastrup et al. (1980) found

also that levels ofoestrogen protect women more than meny Social explanations: Males have less social support, more

unhealthy habits, and more stressful situations. Women engagein fewer unhealthy behaviours than men. However, since womenentered the workforce they become as much stressed as men.

y Cognitive explanations: Different cognitive appraisals betweenmen and women irrespective of the effect of sex hormones.Vgele et al (1997) suggest that females learn to suppress angerand so show low reactivity, whereas males by suppressing angerit leads to raised blood pressure

y Do females in fact react more than males?: Stone et al. (1990)had shown that higher reactivity to stressors (a video game andcigarette smoking) was observed more in women than men


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Research methods: InterviewsResearch methods: Interviews

y Structured interviews: Questions arepredetermined, and it is difficult for he

interviewer to stick to its own script(foreseeing the answers without takinginto account what his/her intervieweesactually said)

y Unstructured interviews: questions lackpredetermination (in many cases),because they result from responses of theactual interview of his/her participant


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SummarySummary

y Life changes influence the onset of stress andthe emergence of illnesses

y Workplace factors reveal a positivecorrelation between the experience ofstressors and various cardiovascular diseases

y Individual differences and personality

characteristics play an important role inmoderating life stressorsy Gender differences affect the way both sexes

consider stress socially


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Essay questionsEssay questions

y All employees suffer from some degree ofstress as a result of their work. Assess the

relationship between stress and theworkplace (12 marks)

y Some personality types are more vulnerablethan others to the effects of stressors: Towhat extent is stress modified by personalitytype? (12 marks)

y Describe two research studies into the effectsof life changes as sources of stress (6+6marks)


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Few ReferencesFew References

y Greer, A., Morris, T., Pettingdale, K. W.(1979): Psychological response to breast

cancer: Effect on outcome. The Lancet, 13,pp. 785-787

y Holmes, T. H., Rahe, R. H. (1967): The socialreadjustment rating scale. Journal ofPsychosomatic Research, 11, pp. 213-218

y Kiecolt-Glazer, J. K., Marusha, P. T., Malarkey,W. B., Mercado, A. M., Glaser, R. (1995):Slowing of wound healing by psychologicalstress. The Lancet, 346, pp. 1194-1196

as module 2 sources of stress. pptx

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