artistry in stone: the mosaics of ancient sepphoris

Artistry in Stone: The Mosaics of Ancient SepphorisAuthor(s): Eric M. Meyers, Ehud Netzer and Carol L. MeyersSource: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Dec., 1987), pp. 223-231Published by: The American Schools of Oriental ResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210049 .

Accessed: 04/07/2014 07:19

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

The American Schools of Oriental Research is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extendaccess to The Biblical Archaeologist.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 212.247.54.210 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 07:19:30 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=asor

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210049?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


i)n Stone The Mosaics

of Ancient

Sepphoris by Eric M. Meyers, Ehud Netzer, and Carol L. Meyers

he 1987 season of the Joint Sepphoris Project was a campaign with many important objectives. Several

probes were laid out in the west to continue work in an area of the site where many stepped pools have been recovered (Meyers, Netzer, and Meyers 1986: 15-17). Work in the eastern sector of the theater was also continued. In addition, several new, small soundings were begun southwest of the citadel. Finally, further excavation in the area (designated 86.1) just south of the main entrance to the ancient theater of Sepphoris, where traces of monumental archi- tecture were located in 1986, was undertaken. It was our hope to re- solve outstanding problems and to prepare for another season to be carried out in 1988. Fieldwork to meet these goals began in mid-July, under the direction of Ehud Netzer of the Hebrew University. The codirectors, Eric and Carol Meyers of Duke Uni- versity, joined him at the first of August.

One of the panels (number 16) of the mosaic in the main hall of the monumental building at Sepphoris depicts a procession. It includes eleven separate human figures, one of whom is riding a donkey. All are carrying gifts or offerings, such as the vividly colored rooster shown in the closeup (left). The elegant and peaceful procession may represent life in the countryside in the third century c.E.; or, since this panel is one of three that form a U-shape around the southern end of a central section made up of a series of scenes relating to the god Dionysos, it may depict a procession related to the central Dionysiac theme of the continuing rejuvenation of nature. Whatever its significance, its beauty is surely enhanced by its 30-centimeter-wide border, which consists of geometric patterns, groups of birds and fish, and human faces. The faces may represent masks, an interesting possibility in light of the nearness of the monumental building to the theater.

Biblical Archaeologist, December 1987 223



Above: The most imposing structure of Sepphoris today is the citadel or fortress, here looming above the area where the mosaic is being cleaned. The present superstructure of this large square fort dates to the late nineteenth century C.E., but its foundations are ancient, although probably not as early as either the nearby theater or the monumental building that houses the mosaic. Above right: The best photographs of the mosaic, especially the details of each panel, had to be taken from directly above. Zev Radovan (on the right), one of the three photogra- phers to record the find, and his assistants erected this rig to provide a stable setting for the camera. Right: The brilliant colors of the natural stone tesserae can best be seen when the mosaic is wet. Thus, preparing it to be photographed involved keeping it as wet as possible. A farmer from the nearby modern village of Zippori hauled up an irrigation tank, and the floor was hosed down repeatedly during the sessions, which lasted for hours.

As is so often the case in archaeology-a field in which one can never know what a season's work will uncover- the expedition's carefully laid plans were demolished on Friday, July 31, when, with six digging days to go, the excavations in area 86.1 began to reveal several patches of mosaic pavement at the floor level of a monumental building.

The first glimpses of these mosaics aroused great excitement and anticipation. Some mosaics had already been uncovered at Sepphoris in the 1986 season, but they had all been either monochromatic white/ buff or else had featured simple black lines on a white or buff background. To the amazement of the students and volunteers working in this area, the emerging mosaic floor apparently had geometric patterns, depictions of human figures, and even inscriptions.

The excavators had to contain their excitement temporarily, however. The next day was the Sabbath,

a nonworking day; so the mosaics were reburied for the weekend. In a way, this was fortuitous. It allowed some time for proper plans for their excavation to be made. The Meyers, meanwhile, arrived from the States and listened eagerly to the news about the unusual discovery. With Netzer, they discussed a strategy to uncover, record, and safeguard the find.

Work on the mosaic resumed on Monday, August 3. Although the potential importance of the mosaic was clear, we were not quite prepared for what came to light in the next days: seventeen surprisingly well- preserved mosaic panels set within a lush border of acanthus volutes, with Greek inscriptions labeling fifteen of the panels. Even more surprising than its size and state of preservation was the astonishing beauty of the scenes and figures. From the teenage workers who helped uncover it, to the art historians who came to make initial assessments of it, all

recognized the mosaic as a stunning work of art.

Preservation specialists came from Jerusalem to help in the final stages of the excavation and cleaning of the mosaic floor. A two-day photographic "shoot" was arranged for the end of the week. Because the per- manent preservation of the mosaic could not be carried out in the few remaining days of the 1987 season, a full photographic record was manda- tory. Three separate photographic series, in both color and black and white, were carried out: one by the photographer (G. Larom) of Hebrew University's Institute of Archaeol- ogy, one by the expedition's regular photographer (E. Meyers), and one by an independent specialist in archaeological photography (Z. Radovan).

After photography came the most frustrating aspect of the season, the reburial of this beautiful mosaic under tons of sand and dirt. Excava- tion of the rest of the mosaic-for there are portions at the southern

224 Biblical Archaeologist, December 1987



end that are under a later wall and a balk-and its full context had to be delayed until the 1988 season.

What follows is therefore only a provisional statement about the setting of what must surely be con- sidered one of the finest, if not the finest, examples of mosaic art in ancient Palestine. Indeed, the Sep- phoris floor compares favorably with some of the best examples found anywhere in the Roman Empire. Although the chronological param- eters seem fairly secure and the archaeological context reasonably well understood, it should be empha- sized that this initial discussion comes quickly after the digging season and that it is provided in the spirit of open scholarly exchange.

The Monumental Building The mosaic was constructed on the northeast-to-southwest axis of a building that was probably built in the third century c.E. The building is about 23 meters wide; its length is still unknown, because excavations are not complete, but it can be esti- mated to be about 30 meters long, based on topographic evidence.

From what has been excavated thus far, several features of the building can be described. It contains a main hall (with mosaic pavement), flanked by three-wings, on its eastern, northern, and western sides. The outlines of the northern and western wings are fairly clear, but little yet can be said about the largely unexcavated eastern wing. The northern wing is interesting because it may have contained an open court, which would have been used for household chores. A water cistern, probably associated with the building, is situated at the end of the possible courtyard area.

In addition to this long courtyard or hall, the northern wing contains a small room, with a mosaic floor and several features obviously dealing with water usage and drainage, which has been tentatively iden- tified as a toilet; the drainage from a toilet installation goes around the edges of the room, presumably to take sewage out of the building. In the center of its mosaic floor, which was uncovered in the 1986 season, is a Greek inscription: TFEA, "health."

Outside of the main hall, the

floors were in some places paved with mosaics and with smooth plaster in others. Some of the walls, which remain standing to a height of 2 meters in places, were also plastered. Built of large ashlar stones, the walls have an average width of 60 centimeters. Several fresco fragments were uncovered in the debris, suggesting that part of the plastered walls or ceilings of the building were decorated with geometic and floral designs.

In the western wing evidence has been recovered of a second floor. Several hundred nails were found, some with fragments of wood still attached to them. The ceiling was apparently made of wooden beams, upon which the floor of the room above was laid. A large quantity of white, and also some black, tesserae were also recovered in the debris. These tesserae were too high up in the debris to represent tiles loosened from the ground floor. Rather, they may have come from a second story, from a floor laid mainly with white tiles and featuring a black border. Such a floor would have been similar to those found elsewhere in the building, at ground level.

Excavations thus far completed indicate that during the century in which the building stood, a number of changes were made. Some of the alterations, early in the building's existence, were done carefully. Others, made later in its history, were less successful and perhaps represent a period of degeneracy. The determination of the sequence and significance of these changes, which include drainage work, door- way blockages, and installation of benches, awaits the results of further excavation.

The building was covered over in antiquity by a massive destruction layer. Although it is too soon to be certain about the cause of its destruction, our initial sense is that something sudden, like an earthquake, caused the building to be destroyed. The date of this devasta-

Preliminary plan of the monumental building, showing a main hall and three wings. The main hall, which contains the extraordi- nary mosaic floor just discovered, is a triclinium, or dining hall. The northern wing features a long area that may have been a courtyard, with a cistern at one end, and a trape- zoidal room that probably served as a toilet. The diagonal wall of this room, which gives it its peculiar shape, may have been constructed at an angle to accommodate an entrance to the theater, or perhaps a small plaza between the monumental building and the theater. In the three rooms and associated hallway that make up the western wing, evidence of a second story has been found, including white and black tesserae (stone tiles) similar to those used in the mosaic floor of the hallway but too high in the debris to have come from a ground- level floor. The eastern wing and a possible southern wing are still largely unexcavated. Probably built in the third century c.E., the building was subjected to numerous alterations, the precise explanation of which awaits further excavation.




The Making of Mosaics

T he pavement discovered at Sepphoris is an outstanding example of the stylistic and technical achievements of the mosaic medium in antiquity. The floor is of

the type, invented in the Hellenistic period, called opus tessellatum- that is, composed of very regular marble and stone cubes called tesserae (tessellae). Thousands of mosaics survive because of their materials and their function as a floor covering.

The procedures for laying a mosaic floor are outlined both by Vitruvius (VII, 1) and Pliny (XXVI, 186 and following). The first layer, a conglomerate of rough stones and mortar, was laid on levelled ground and topped by a second layer of cnlshed stone and pottery fragments mixed with mortar. Tesserae were pressed into a third layer of soft plaster and then flattened. Finally, the mosaic surface was levelled by using emery. Coarser tesserae (up to 2 centimeters square) were used to cover larger areas of neutral background and simple ornament. Smaller tesserae (for example, 6 milli- meters square), often of irregular shapes, were set for figures and more intricate designs.

It is assumed that mosaicists drew upon a stock repertory of scenes and patterns made available in the form of sketchbooks. Undoubtedly, there were also travelling guilds of mosaicists who were commissioned for special assignments and who trained local craftsmen. In the case of Sepphoris, there seems to be a close connec- tion to the Syrian school, which is well represented by the discoveries in Antioch.

The brilliance of the colors, the animation of the figural designs, and the rich ornamented borders make multicolored mosaic floors among the most striking material remnants of the ancient world. In the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, mosaics depended closely on painting traditions. Such mosaics are often our only evidence of famous paintings lost through the vicissitudes of time. As the technique became standardized, however, it replaced painting as the primary pictorial medium from late antiquity through the medieval period.

The third-century Sepphoris pavement attests to the high level of production to which craftsmen aspired and the patrons demanded. Mosaics can reveal much about the buildings they decorate and the people who lived in them. These buildings were commissioned by wealthy citizens who formed the local municipal aristoc- racy, and it is the activities and concerns of this group that the mosaics often reflect. For example, in Sepphoris the figural panels illustrate Dionysiac scenes drawn from mythology and from actual cult practices. Both the arrangement of the seventeen panels and the scenes selected indicate that the room functioned as a triclinium, perhaps for banquets held for members of a guild connected to the nearby theater. Several of the scenes are unique in the repertoire of Dionysiac subjects thus far discovered, especially because of the accompanying Greek inscriptions explicitly identifying the scenes.

For further reading, see H. P. L'Orange and P. J. Nordhagen, Mosaics (London, 1966); K. M. D. Dunabin, The Mosaics of Roman North Africa (Oxford, 1978); and P. Fischer, Mosaic: History and Technique (London, 1971). Christine Kondoleon, Department of Art, Williams College.

tion can probably be fixed, by two coin hoards as well as by the ceramic evidence, to the second half of the fourth century. Perhaps the earthquake of 363 c.E., which destroyed many Galilean sites, was also responsible for the late-fourth-century disruption of life in Sepphoris. Cyril, the Bishop of Jerusalem, reported this earthquake. He listed the cities that suffered damage and especially

noted the total destruction of Sep- phoris. However uncertain the cause of its destruction, the fact that the building housing the mosaic was never rebuilt is certain, although parts of it may have had limited reuse.

The Main Hall The main hall of this monumental building, the room in which the

decorated mosaic pavement lies, is 6.90 meters wide. The length, as best as can be determined at this point, is at least 9.20 meters. In the eastern and western walls are two, and perhaps three, doorways, which give access to this large hall from those wings. The openings are each 1.10 meters wide.

Large halls with mosaics of the sort discovered at Sepphoris were used in Roman buildings as triclinia-that is, dining rooms. The guests at a festive meal sat on three couches, placed near three of the walls of the room. In the case of Sepphoris, the couches would have been situated on the eastern, northern, and western walls. The word triclinium in fact is derived from two Greek words, treis and kline, meaning "three couches."

In the Sepphoris pavement, the placement of the couches is actually indicated in the mosaic floor. Four gammas (or angles) are laid in black stone near the corners of the white mosaic that forms the background for the colored mosaic panels and borders. Other triclinia, with similar arrangements of mosaic patterns and similar settings for three ban- quettes, are present in the Roman world: for example, at Antioch in Syria and Port Magnus in North Africa. The Sepphoris arrangement, however, with so many doors, is unusual. The guests would therefore not have been seated against the walls but closer to the center of the room.

The decision to install a decorated mosaic pavement caused special problems. If we assume that the mosaic was not intended for the orig- inal construction of the building in which it lies, the artist or artisan charged with organizing the mosaic's orientation in an already existing large room, with existing structural features, had to deal with the matter of viewer orientation to figural designs on the floor.

If one entered the hall at Sep- phoris from the south, the one side on which no couches were placed, and if one thereby would have had a




X`c~-~n: ?r- 'i

?s~ ?????? r -LiL?;:~~_ i:?~, ?-?4~11

:%

?:? J -? ??? rl L

:: C r l.v \, ~-J?~;,i :.? t~i ?~,bj !R

~:'~w';~""-ga~,'r~.i~jE .i` I: ;;

:?1 I'' ?i ?i~z c? ?, r .a

'k; ?.. ;`o~'" ~~?? P~iQ? " rc~

-???? ?lf -? z~(4;P1-~?C 4. '~n D i??II '+?"^~t?L, C?~ r, d

r~z*''~~~~~- ~1:: ????-" i ~?- ;-:~-=1?; ?5 --r ~i-~C~L?I~? i;'C?.' '' ' r? f~? ~cr ,.i ... `I; ,i - II-?B~,

~f,? -r.3. I) I ,--r -4 ?- . -It?-?c~c-ti: ;I~~t~~p~ ': ~ls? J, ?Z "

F-

?r ~ ~~~ i~Yr~c~-~ I~t?u

;~tlle i? ~ a \ ?

r ?t I' Y) ; Y -(E :: V \i ;?(':? I s?i; i?~ A4 L C ~ ~ .~ rr -.5a~.: ,? .4 ~c, i ~-.1~??~--- ?-? `~ ~:(;(.~.-"?"j"-~F?".: ?~??.-~-~ ~:??- -?" r- r: ~t"yl?.1 .'nurrlm7

-? 2u .....,~-;~.. I~''' ''I )rr~: "" jr :t~-~cy?I: :r c I ~??-r~- IBI1~LI~

r illS ;u?~~ ?? :~e~ ~

?- ~rzurrr~ii .r T~

-? 17

? ,•.. .;- ,. zS--., % -. _ '"

12 13 1 15 1 4 18 11 3 1

92

101 9 8 7 16

----- -

, S16

The mosaic in the main hall of the monumental building, as viewed LJ I I I from the west. The central rectangle, measuring 3.2 by 1.65 meters, is made up of fifteen panels, each with a Greek inscription. Depicted here are scenes taken from the mythology of the god Dionysos. Around this is a border, 60 centimeters wide, that features twenty-two acanthus medallions and originally included female portraits in the central volutes on the two narrow sides. Enclosing the southern end of the central rectangle and its acanthus border is a U-shaped panel, which is composed of a series of three panels: number 16 on the west, number 17 on the east, and one on the south that is unexcavated. These may have formed one continuous processional scene, 6 meters long. (Note that the diagram is provisional and not to exact scale.) Dionysos was worshipped as early as the Mycenaean period (ca. 1400-1150 B.C.E.) and was a popular deity in Greece during its classical period (ca. 550-324 B.C.E.). In the second century B.C.E., the mysteries of Dionysos were also celebrated in many cities in Italy and in Asia Minor. The frequency of Dionysiac themes in art, of which this mosaic is a prime example, in the second and third centuries C.E. attests to the sustained interest in his cult. It's possible that the proximity of the theater to the monumental building had some bearing on the mosaic's focus on this god, since he was a god of the theater.

frontal view of the mosaics, then none of those seated around the decorated pavement would have had this view. Conversely, if some of those seated in the triclinium around the scenes had frontal views, those entering on the side without couches would not. We are assuming here that an important entrance, perhaps the main entrance, was in fact on

the south. The fact that there were, in addition, other entries meant that not every entering guest (unless all guests used only one entry, with the other doors being for the host or ser- vants) could possibly have had a frontal view of the entire decorated portion of the pavement.

One solution, which was adopted at Sepphoris, is to have scenes facing

in each of the directions in which couches were situated. Of course, this means that the only way a visi- tor could have had a proper look at all the scenes inside the triclinium would have been by walking around before sitting down!

Clearly, in organizing the mosaic scenes, the planner had to take into account the function of the room, the location of entryways, and even the traffic patterns in the vicinity of the building. In the case of Sep- phoris, with one exception, all of the scenes are laid out so as to give a frontal view to the nearest side. The exception is the central panel, for which there is no one nearest side. This panel is oriented to the west. The significance of this orientation is not yet clear. It may be related to the direction from which guests would have entered the building; that is, that it faces west may have been influenced by the existence of major roads or access routes within the city to the west of the building. Not enough is yet known about the city plan on the eastern end of the acropolis to prove or disprove such a possibility.

Another consideration in the arrangement of the mosaic was light. Often the major entrance to a triclinium was from a courtyard area. Such is the case in several large resi- dential buildings of the Roman period found at Antioch. For the Sep- phoris building, the one possibility for an adjoining courtyard would be the southern side, the one side on which no excavations at all have so far been carried out. A courtyard there would have provided light and also would have afforded all those seated in the triclinium a pleasant

Toga party, excavation style. After the mosaic was cleaned and photographed, staff members and workers wrapped themselves in sheets, and reclined on imaginary benches in the white U-shaped portion of the mosaic floor meant for the seating of guests in the triclinium. The "guests"on the left side of this picture would have had a frontal view of the main Dionysos scene, the center panel (panel 1); and those at the top could look head on at the "Mona Lisa" portrait.




Dionysos in Myth and Art

T he newly discovered pavement at Sepphoris exemplifies the enormous popular- ity and importance of the god Dionysos among the Greeks and Romans of

antiquity. Best known as god of wine and the grapevine, he came especially to be equated with the themes of divine enthusiasm, revelry, and ecstatic release. He was, however, more generally a god of vegetation and fertility who personified the mysti- cal, procreative forces essential to earthly life and its renewal. Dionysos became the patron god of the theater and the dramatic or poetic arts, in conjunction with his divine counterpart or opposite Apollo. And as a deity associated simultaneously with nature and poetic song, he also assumed a significant place within the rustic pastoral genre that developed in literature and the visual arts during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Greek artists gradually evolved a standardized repertory of themes and mythic figures in order to portray the complex and synthetic aspect of Dionysos. By Roman times he normally appeared in a rustic setting accompanied by female devotees or bacchantes, the wild and lusty satyrs, the shepherd-god Pan, erotes or putti (cupids) harvesting and trampling grapes, and his favorite animals, the goat and the tiger or panther. Depictions of Dionysos often included stylized plants or tendrils, especially his attributes, the grape and ivy vines, as symbols of his regenerative powers. His elaborate entourage could be portrayed either as a train of drunken revelers, or komasts, or as a triumphal procession celebrating the Eastern victories of Dionysos, who, like Herakles, was renowned in myth as a world conqueror. The Dionysiac theme of triumphant global dominion became an important component in the art, coinage, and ceremonial of the Hellenistic kings who inherited Alexander's empire, and later in the coinage and propaganda of the Roman emperors as well. Among the Romans, the pastoral, festive, and triumphal imagery of Dionysos was also wide- spread in private arts - decorative metalwork, wall-paintings, statuary, sarcophagus reliefs, and mosaic pavements.

The pavement from Sepphoris beautifully encompasses the diverse range of themes connected with Dionysos. We see the god and his mythic companions in the act of joyous song, intoxication, revelry, and triumphal procession, set amidst the rustic occupations of the shepherd and the making of wine, along with other scenes probably showing Dionysiac cult practices. The images of drinking and revelry, and above all the central panel depicting the symposium of Herakles and Dionysos, are especially suited to the decoration of a triclinium, or banquet hall. But the exuber- ant vegetal border of the pavement with its enigmatic female heads also contains the tiger and goats of Dionysos, and thus it suggests as well the mystic, life-giving powers of the god. The pavement is not only a major addition to the body of Roman mosaic but also a monument that may someday tell us much about the religious life of Sepphoris and its leading citizens.

For further reading, see A. Bruhl, Liber Pater. Origine et expansion du culte dionysiaque ai Rome et dans le monde romain (Paris, 1953); H. Jeanmaire, Dionysos. Histoire du culte (Paris, 1978); and W. E Otto, Dionysos, Myth and Cult (Bloomington, 1965; reprinted Dallas, 1981). David Castriota, Department of Art, Duke University.

view of the courtyard garden. It remains to be seen in next season's excavations whether an expected entrance and courtyard will be found south of the triclinium. The existence of so many other doorways to the Sepphoris triclinium, however, is atypical of triclinia in general and raises some doubt as to whether the

southern wall, too, would have had an entry.

The Sepphoris Mosaic As the above description of the triclinium indicates, the design of the mosaic is basically rectangular. It is composed of two distinct parts, one colored and one white. The colored

part of the floor can be described as a T-shape, with the major part of its design forming a rectangle (measuring 7.2 meters by 5.4 meters and oriented longitudinally northeast-

southwest) that is augmented by two outwardly facing rectangular panels, one on the western and one on the eastern side of its southern end. It is almost certain that yet another such panel runs across the entire southern end; only the 1988 excavations can substantiate this supposition.

These colorful augmentative panels thus form a U-shape, which, when combined with the main rectangle (with its border) yields the T-shape of the colored portion of the floor. The rest of the mosaic, the white part, constitutes a second, longer, U-shaped unit on the north. (This organization of the colored and white portions of the mosaic makes the identification of the main hall as a triclinium all the more

compelling.) The main rectangle consists of a

series of fifteen panels surrounded by a border of acanthus leaf medallions. This arrangement means that there are three main components to the decorated carpet: the fifteen central scenes; the surrounding border of acanthus; and the eastern and western (and possibly southern) panels. In addition, each of these

components has some associated geometric designs or figural elements that form borders. In the case of the group of fifteen panels, the central panel is set off with a geometric border. The acanthus medallions -

twenty-two in number-themselves make a border; and they in turn have framing lines and a two-part geometric border consisting of curled waves and a double guilloche.

The fifteen panels, all with legends or captions of one or two Greek words, depict mythological scenes relating to the god Dionysos (see the accompanying sidebar). This makes the mosaic a kind of em- blema-that is, a series of scenes relating to a certain subject and




Ile ~ CT ~ Ildn ?

r: r

I it.

. %r `r wv: # r t ? -N ie

1 r C444F

lip' fA~~CAI-

This charming scene shows one of the putti or erotes (cupids), that recur in the border along with wild animals of various kinds, in this case a deer or gazelle and a leopard. At least some of the animals in the mosaic are associated with Dionysos in his mythology.

placed within a wide border that is not usually connected to the theme of the scenes. The central panel mentioned above, the one oriented to the west, is the largest of the fifteen. It depicts the symposium of Dionysos and Herakles and sets the thematic content for the other fourteen. Flank- ing that scene (numbered 1 in the accompanying diagram2) are two somewhat smaller panels on the south (2) and the north (3).

These three are surrounded by twelve additional panels (4 through 15), beginning at the southeast corner. The four corner panels (4, 6, 10, and 12) are smallest. They each are apparently oriented in the same direction as the middle panels (5 in the south and 11 in the north) on each of the short sides, or ends, of the rectangle. Panels 4 and 6 are thus oriented to the south, as is 5 between them; 10 and 12 face north, along with 11. (Actually both 6 and 10 are broken, but it can be assumed that they are situated in the same way as are their counterparts, 4 and 12 respectively).

On the long sides are the six remaining panels, three on each side: 7, 8, and 9 in the west; and

13, 14, and 15 on the east. The middle panel in these two sets of three are smaller than the two flanking ones.

Although the state of preservation is, as we have indicated, remark- ably good, the tiny size -2 to 3 mil- limeters on a side - of many of the tesserae in the figural scenes has meant that several of the fifteen panels have not survived intact. In addition to the damage present in 6 and 10 noted above, scene 15 is also broken up. Panel 2 is partially dis- rupted, and panel 5 has only the right side of its scene visible. That right side, however, is perfectly preserved and is quite impressive. De- spite the fact that some scenes are damaged beyond recognition, the mythological content of all seems assured. Together, these fifteen scenes constitute a visual rendering of "the life and times of Dionysos."

With respect to damage, the wide border (60 centimeters) of inter- twined acanthus tendrils has suffered the greatest disruption. Still, the content of the medallions, or acanthus volutes, seems clear: Wild animals, hunting scenes, and domestic animals fill most of the leafy frames

(compare Dauphin 1979). The fact that two of the animals-the tiger and the goat-are ones closely associated with Dionysos may be coinci- dental. But that is unlikely, in which case the acanthus border would in fact have a thematic relationship to the mythological scenes that it en- closes. Technically, then, it might not be appropriate to call the series of fifteen Dionysos scenes an em- blema. The animal depictions are not specifically mythological or fan- ciful, however, and hence only their zoological identity with Dionysiac faunal themes links them to the mythological scenes.

Not all of the inhabited acanthus volutes contain floral designs and faunal images. In the center of the border on the northern end, and also in the central medallion on the south (although that part is badly damaged), two female portraits were uncovered. The one on the north is undoubtedly the showpiece of the spectacular mosaic floor. That portrait (designated 18) depicts an exquisite woman. All who have seen her have been struck by her beauty and by the way her mysterious eyes seem to follow the viewer wherever he or she may move. She has been dubbed the "Mona Lisa" of Galilee - not because she directly resembles da Vinci's famous painting but rather because she seems to have the same quality of timelessness and of superb artistry. Also, the woman in the Sep- phoris portrait has the same faint hint of a smile, and that is perhaps what first prompted the sobriquet.

Finally, the long panels (16 and 17) on the west and on the east are neither mythological scenes nor decorative medallions. They are apparently processional scenes, depicting real people carrying all manner of agricultural and other products: perhaps offerings or victuals and decorations for a festival or banquet. The eastern panel is only partly preserved, but the western one contains eleven separate human figures in various postures.




,ago .649,41

as -g.I- 9. 64

t -400

a vast' '04..IM :-I 1-.w.: So for a I sweet a .66mosas 'ww as ?111* bawflaw *-let seft 3f a- 0. @of &S4-44JA I a 0 a

14, 6 wj f-i4q.. trn a"

Lee 9901 7?%- a 4 u: V;114 'N a - -- Tow

I. dw a dwrib.a.44, tog 0. 0. Qi: a Z=sla ' is a we 004.! on so CM . =,so 0 Vise Vim

Ile.Soap 66 011, 9 vw * 1 01. gas'. a Aft!

00 ... ... age,

a ca. fib* J", it off- .60 6.

8V vw Ole zo 64-16&4 too- 91 1 IAN 6 IN a a 8 go!!,. 9 Ara. oft- %:,aq4aa Val emov w8*42yan "amp" doom NOWS40.6446 .-aft as

-gall Data&*&

7 I .T o v

I.L

OK

i'i

Above: Shown here are two of the best preserved scenes among the fifteen Dionysos panels. At the right is panel 5, with the Greek label MEOH, meaning "drinking" or "drunkenness." The club at the upper left is a good indication that the reclining figure, who is vomiting into a bowl held by the female at the right, is the inebriated Herakles, one of the most prominent of the heroes in Greek mythology. The panel on the left is broken, but its surviving portion reveals Dionysos riding in a chariot. The god holds a thrysos, a stylized sacred branch that is holy to him. The Greek word for this branch, which was often carried both by the god and his worshippers, is bakchos, hence the terms Bakchoi (male) and Bakchai (female) for the followers of Dionysos (who was known by the name Bacchus in Italy). The inscription HOMHH means "procession" and perhaps refers to Dionysos' triumphal return from India. One of the figures plays a double pipe, as do figures in several other of the Dionysos panels. Here the god is shown smooth-faced, although in much earlier representations he is usually depicted with a full beard. Left: This bird appears between two of the acanthus medallions at the northeast corner of the central rectangle. This detailed view shows the skillful execution of the mosaic. Here, as in the "Mona Lisa"portrait (see the cover of this issue), the subtle tones and shadings achieved by the artisan were possible because of the large palette (tesserae of more than twenty-five different colors were used) and because of the miniature size of many of the tesserae.

If the entire floor constitutes a unified Dionysiac ensemble, then it is possible that these panels represent a triumphal procession celebrating Dionysos' global victories. Whatever their thematic meaning may be, their artistic beauty is enhanced by an elaborate border, 30 centimeters wide, around each of the panels. The border consists of a geometric frame which in turn is surrounded by a series of small panels depicting groupings of three fish, groupings of two birds, and human heads, possibly representing masks. In the first two cases, several different species of fish and birds are represented in the panels in which they appear.

It will take some years before a complete examination of all the complex features of the mosaic can be properly carried out, before a detailed description of all the scenes and other elements can be provided, and before an assessment of the mosaic's historic, artistic, and religious significance can be achieved. Meanwhile, this brief presentation of the Sepphoris mosaic, surely one of the outstanding examples of mosaic art in the Roman east, will have to suffice. Given its unparal- leled beauty and its existence in a leading Galilean city with a diverse population, we were reluctant to wait for final analysis before releasing any information. Although, as we have said, its true significance can- not be properly established yet, some tentative suggestions or observations are in order.

The Mosaic and the Peoples of Sepphoris: Preliminary Observations The previous two seasons at Sep- phoris, in 1985 and 1986, had already provided important information relating to the various religious groups- Jews, Christians, possibly Jewish-Christians (minim), and Romans or pagans - that occupied the city in Roman times. The Roman community, which is almost cer- tainly the one to be most closely as-




sociated with, or responsible for, the mosaic pavement described above, is also known from some of the coins produced by the Sepphoris mint. One example has several goddesses standing in temples (Meshorer 1985: 36-37); another shows the Capitoline Triad (Zeus, Hera, and Athena).

The archaeological finds from Sepphoris itself that relate to the pagan presence there are indeed no- table. The theater, set deeply into the scarp on the northern side of the Sepphoris hill, epitomizes the existence of Roman culture in this Pales- tinian city. And the two small bronze figurines, of Pan and Prometheus, discovered in the 1985 season, are unusual for Roman Palestine and bespeak a high level of cultural achievement.

The mosaic carpet of the triclinium, however, although perhaps adumbrated by the numismatic scenes and by the previous discoveries, surely represents a higher level of Greco-Roman culture than any- one had heretofore imagined. The large building in which the mosaic is located and the colorful stone carpet itself indicate a degree of wealth and a standard of taste greater than any of us had expected. Whoever commissioned the mosaic, which may have been designed or executed by someone of the Antioch school, was an individual (or individuals) of considerable means and artistic discretion.

The individuals who sponsored the large building and its triclinium with mosaic were most likely Romans. But it is at least theoreti- cally possible that the Jewish community of ancient Sepphoris was also involved in the enterprise. After all, it was in the third century c.E., according to numismatic evidence, that the Jewish boule or town coun- cil of Sepphoris entered into an agreement with the Roman Senate (see Meyers, Netzer, and Meyers 1986: 7). In the same century in which the mosaic was laid, the Jewish component of Sepphoris

seems to have had a strong political role. Its literary or religious creativ- ity is marked by the publication of the Mishnah at Sepphoris early in that century, in the time of Rabbi Judah the Prince and his friend - according to traditional anecdotal sources -the emperor Caracalla. In addition, fragments of a synagogue mosaic floor, with Hebrew letters, were found in the 1987 season in the remains west of the citadel. Although not in situ, they supplement in a significant way the synagogue inscriptions already known from Sepphoris (Hiittenmeister and Reeg 1977: 402-07).

Even if direct Jewish sponsor- ship or involvement in construction is deemed unlikely, the large building with its striking mosaic floor must have been well known to the Jewish inhabitants of Sepphoris. The Jews undoubtedly attended the theater, which dominated the upper city visually and culturally. Scarcely any resident of the city could have been ignorant of the mimes or spec- tacles held there. Since the building with the mosaic is in such close proximity to the theater, the Jews of Sepphoris could hardly have been unaware of the existence of such a spectacular artistic achievement as the mosaic pavement.

The multireligious composition of Sepphoris' population may represent a special form of cultural sym- biosis, a possibility that finds considerable support in Jewish literary sources (Urbach 1959). Similar sym- biosis apparently existed at nearby Beth Shecarim, site of the official burial ground of the rabbis in under- ground catacombs, according to the epigraphic and pictorial evidence (Avigad 1976).

The identity of the sponsors of the mosaic at Sepphoris may never be definitively established. Yet the existence of the mosaic and of the nearby theater establish the fact that Sepphoris was a thoroughly Helle- nized city in the third century c.E. The attraction of Roman culture for

all its inhabitants was clearly power- ful. Whether Jew or pagan, Christian or Judeo-Christian, the residents of this Galilean city clearly lived in a Greco-Roman milieu. Surely the pre- vailing ambience in many aspects of the city's culture was set by the artistry in stone of the Sepphoris mosaic.

Notes 'Field staff members for the season

were Zev Weiss (who supervised the excavation of the building with the mosaic and contributed to its analysis), David Amit, Marva Baluka, Rivka Birger, Michael Dadon, Mary June Nestler, and Yigal Yisrael.

2The numbering of the panels here is provisional and only intended for use in this article.

Bibliography Avi-Yonah, M.

1975 Ancient Mosaics. Series: Cassell's Introducing Archaeology Series 5. London: Cassell and Company, Ltd.

Avigad, N. 1976 Beth Shecarim, volumes I and III.

Jerusalem: Massada Press. Ben-Dov, M., and Rappel, Y

1987 Mosaics of the Holy Land. New York: Adama Books.

Dauphin, C. 1979 A Roman Mosaic Pavement from

Nablus. Israel Exploration Journal 29:11-33.

Hiittenmeister, F, and Reeg, G. 1977 Die antiken Synagogen in Israel,

volume 1. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert.

Levi, D. 1947 Antioch Mosaic Pavements.

Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Meshorer, Y. 1985 City-Coins of Eretz-Israel and the

Decapolis in the Roman Period. Jerusalem: Israel Museum.

Meyers, E., Netzer, E., and Meyers, C. 1986 Sepphoris-Ornament of All

Galilee. Biblical Archaeologist 49: 4-19.

Toynbee, J. M. C., and Ward-Perkins, J. B. 1950 Peopled Scrolls, A Hellenistic Motif

in Imperial Art. Papers of the British School at Rome 18: 30-37.

Urbach, E. E. 1959 The Rabbinical Laws of Idolatry in

the Second and Third Centuries in the Light of Archaeological and His- torical Facts. Israel Exploration Jour- nal 9: 149-165, 229-245.




artistry in stone: the mosaics of ancient sepphoris

Documents