artigo cient - carotenoides from fruits x from veggies

8/10/2019 Artigo Cient - Carotenoides From Fruits x From Veggies

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Xanthophyll carotenoids are more bioaccessible from fruits than dark

green vegetables

Orla F. OConnell, Lisa Ryan4, Nora M. OBrienDepartment of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Republic of Ireland

Received 23 October 2006; revised 26 March 2007; accepted 10 April 2007

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to compare the in vitro bioaccessibility of carotene and

xanthophyll carotenoids from a range of fruits and vegetables. b-Carotene, lycopene, lutein,

zeaxanthin, and b-cryptoxanthin contents of 4 fruits (orange, kiwi, red grapefruit, and honeydew

melon) and 4 vegetables (spinach, broccoli, red pepper, and sweet potato) were determined by

high-performance liquid chromatography.Bioaccessibility (transfer of carotenoids from digestate to

micelles) is defined as the amount of the ingested compound available in the gastrointestinal tract

for absorption. Raw fruits and vegetables were subjected to an in vitro digestion procedure, as

previously described; and the micellar fractions were prepared by ultracentrifugation. There was

generally better transfer of carotenoids to the micelles from fruits rather than vegetables. When

present, the xanthophyll carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, and b-cryptoxanthin) were highly

bioaccessible from fruits, ranging from 50% to 100%. The dark green vegetables (spinach and

broccoli) had lower lutein bioaccessibility (19%-38%) in comparison with fruit (100%-109%). The

differences in bioaccessibility between the fruits and vegetables indicate that certain carotenoidsare potentially more available from fruit for absorption by gastrointestinal cells. It was observed

that the higher the carotenoid content of a fruit or vegetable digestate, the lower the transfer into

the micelles. Data are in line with previously published in vitro and in vivo studies in this area.

This in vitro digestion method allows a rapid estimation of carotenoid bioaccessibility from

different food samples.

D 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bioaccessibility; Carotenoids; Fruits; Vegetables; In vitro; Digestion

1. Introduction

Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments responsible for thered, yellow, orange, and purple colors of a variety of fruits

and vegetables [1]. Carotenoids can be divided into the

carotenes (eg, lycopene andb-carotene), which contain only

carbon and hydrogen groups, and the xanthophylls (eg,

lutein, zeaxanthin, and b-cryptoxanthin), which are their

oxygenated derivatives [2]. The carotenes, in particular,

b-carotene and a-carotene, and the xanthophyll carotenoid

b-cryptoxanthin are precursors of vitamin A. In developing

countries, vitamin A deficiency is a serious problem;

therefore, many investigations are focusing on the bioavail-

ability of provitamin A carotenoids and their conversion to

retinol[3-5].

Recently, there has been increased interest in assessing

carotenoid bioaccessibility and bioavailability from fruits

and vegetables because of the many proposed health

benefits associated with carotenoid consumption [6]. As

antioxidants, carotenoids are capable of inactivating reactive

oxygen species (ROS) and may therefore help delay or

prevent oxidative damage. Numerous in vitro studies have

provided insights into the mechanism of their antioxidant

0271-5317/$ see front matterD 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2007.04.002

4 Corresponding author. Tel: +353 21 4902846; fax: +353 21 4270244.

E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Ryan).

Nutrition Research 27 (2007) 258 264

www.elsevier.com/locate/nutres


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action and the interaction of carotenoids with ROS and co-

antioxidants [7]. The ROS-scavenging activity of carote-

noids is associated with reduced risks in developing certain

chronic diseases including cancer [8-10], cardiovascular

disease [11], and osteoporosis [12]. In addition, the

xanthophyll carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin, found in

dark green or yellow vegetables, exist naturally in highconcentrations in the macula[13]and have been proposed to

play a protective role against the development of age-related

macular degeneration[14]and cataract formation [15].

As awareness of the potential health benefits of

carotenoids grows, there has been an increased interest in

determining bioaccessibility and bioavailability of these

compounds from plant foods. Methods to assess bioavail-

ability include human and animal studies [16]. However,

human studies to assess bioavailability are expensive, often

invasive, and of significant duration. The suitability of using

animal models (with the possible exception of the expensive

minipig model) for studies of this nature is questionable, asbioavailability, metabolism, and utilization of phytochem-

icals (eg, carotenoids) differ between human beings and

other mammals [17]. The efficiency of micellarization

(bioaccessibility) of carotenoids during simulated in vitro

digestion of plant foods can be used as an effective tool for

the initial screening of the relative bioavailability of these

compounds. Compared with human and animal studies, this

method of analyzing the transfer of carotenoids from the

digestate to the micelle fraction provides a rapid and cost-

effective means of qualitatively identifying potentially

available carotenoids.

Before absorption into intestinal cells, it is essential thatcarotenoids are packaged into micelles; therefore, although

certain foods may have a high carotenoid content, the

carotenoids may not be available for absorption. Informa-

tion on the bioaccessibility of carotenoids helps identify

foods that have a high transfer of these desirable phyto-

chemicals from digesta into micelles. The objective of the

present study was to compare the bioaccessibility of

xanthophyll and carotene carotenoids, after in vitro diges-

tion, from a variety of fruits and vegetables. The fruits

selected were orange, kiwi, red grapefruit, and honeydew

melon. The vegetables included spinach, broccoli, red

pepper, and sweet potato. Raw fruits and vegetables werehomogenized before the simulated gastric and intestinal

digestion procedure. Digesta were ultracentrifuged to isolate

the aqueous micellar fraction. The carotenoids from whole

fruit or vegetable, homogenate, digestate, and micelles were

extracted and quantified using high-performance liquid

chromatography (HPLC). The percentage of bioaccessibility

(% bioaccessibility) of each carotenoid was determined by

calculating the transfer from the digestate to the micelles.

This particular method has been previously used to assess

the bioaccessibility of carotenoids from a number of foods

[18-24]. As research focuses on the many health benefits

associated with carotenoids, the in vitro digestion modelused in the present study provides valuable information on

the amount of these fat-soluble pigments that is potentially

available for absorption by the gastrointestinal tract.

2. Methods and materials

The fruits (orange, kiwi, red grapefruit, and honeydew

melon) and vegetables (spinach, broccoli, red pepper, and

sweet potato) selected for this study were sourced from a

large supermarket chain (Tesco).

2.1. Chemicals

b-Cryptoxanthin was purchased from LGC Prochem

(Middlesex, UK). Lutein and zeaxanthin were purchased

from Fluka (Buchs SG, Switzerland). All other chemical

reagents were purchased from Sigma Aldrich Ireland Ltd

(Dublin, Ireland), unless otherwise stated.

2.2. Sample preparation

All manipulations with the fruits and vegetables were

conducted under subdued (yellow) light to minimize the

photodecomposition of the carotenoids. Whole, homoge-

nized, digested, and micellarized fruits and vegetables were

prepared for carotenoid extraction and analysis. Whole fruits

and vegetables (approximately 2 g) were weighed, placed in

a glass tube with 1 mL of saline (Hanks balanced salt solution

and butylated hydroxytoluene), and frozen at808C before

carotenoid extraction and analysis. Homogenized fruit and

vegetables (approximately 2 g) were weighed and made up

to a total volume of 4 mL with saline. An aliquot of

the homogenized samples was frozen at

808

C, and thecarotenoid content was analyzed within 1 week. The

remaining homogenized fruit and vegetable samples were

subjected to an in vitro digestion and micellarization

procedure [18] followed by analysis of carotenoid content

[25,26].The carotenoid content of the homogenized samples

was compared with the levels of carotenoids present in the

digesta after completion of the digestion procedure. Levels of

carotenoids after digestion were similar to those measured in

the homogenates. This confirmed that carotenoids were not

destroyed by the digestion procedure.

2.3. In vitro digestion procedure

The in vitro digestion model was adapted from Garrett

et al [18]. The homogenized fruit and vegetable samples

were transferred to clean amber bottles and mixed with

saline to create a final volume of 20 mL. The samples were

acidified to pH 2 with 1 mL of a porcine pepsin preparation

(0.04 g pepsin in 1 mL 0.1 mol/L HCl), overlaid with

nitrogen, and incubated at 378C in a Grant OLS 200 (Grant

Instruments, Cambridge, UK) orbital shaking waterbath at

95 rpm for 1 hour. After gastric digestion, the pH was

increased to 5.3 with 0.9 mol/L sodium bicarbonate

followed by the addition of 200lL of bile salts glycodeoxy-

cholate (0.04 g in 1 mL saline), taurodeoxycholate (0.025 gin 1 mL saline), taurocholate (0.04 g in 1 mL saline), and

O.F. OConnell et al. / Nutrition Research 27 (2007) 258264 259


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100lL of pancreatin (0.04 g in 500 lL saline). In a separate

experiment, an additional 250 lL of cholesterol esterase

(0.079 g in 1 mL saline) was added to the fruit samples. The

pH of each sample was increased to 7.4 with 1 mol/L NaOH

and overlaid with nitrogen. Samples were incubated in an

orbital shaking water bath (95 rpm) at 378C for 2.5 hours to

complete the intestinal phase of the in vitro digestionprocess. After the intestinal phase, approximately 3 mL of

the digesta was frozen at 808C and analyzed within

1 week. The remainder of the digestate was transferred to

ultracentrifuge tubes (Beckman Life Sciences, Brea, Calif)

and placed in an NVT 90 rotor at 53000 rpm for 95 minutes

at 48C (Beckman L7-65 ultracentrifuge, Beckman Instru-

ments, Palo Alto, Calif) to isolate the micellar fraction. The

aqueous fraction was collected and frozen at 808C and

again subjected to extraction and analysis of carotenoid

content within 1 week.

2.4. Extraction procedure

Frozen whole, homogenized, digested, and micellar

fractions of fruit and vegetables were allowed to thaw and

were vortexed briefly. Whole fruit and vegetables were

analyzed directly, whereas 2 mL aliquots of the homoge-

nate, digesta, and micelles were subjected to the extraction

procedure. All samples were mixed with 700 lL of recovery

standard and were extracted twice with 1 mL of hexane/

ethanol/acetone (50:25:25) [25]. The 2 extracts were

combined, dried at room temperature under a stream of

nitrogen, and frozen at808C before HPLC analysis.

2.5. HPLC procedure

The HPLC method was as described by Hart and Scott

[26]. Dried samples were reconstituted in 200 lL of mobile

phase, and the carotenoid content of the samples was

quantified by a reverse-phase HPLC procedure. The HPLC

system (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) consisted of an LC10-AD

pump connected to an SIL-10A autoinjector, SPD-6AV

system controller, SPD-6AV UV-visible detector, and SPD-

10AV UV-visible detector. The column system consisted of a

Spherisorb ODS-2 C18 5-lm PEEK guard column (Alltech

Associate Applied Science Ltd; supplied by Ocon Chemicals

Ltd, Cork, Ireland) connected to a Vydac 201TP54 (250

4.6 mm) reverse-phase C18 column (Separations Group;

supplied by AGB Scientific Ltd, Dublin, Ireland). Column

temperature was maintained at 258C using a column water

jacket (Alltech Associates Applied Science Ltd) with a

thermostatically controlled water bath (Lauda RM6 T,

Lauda-Kfnigshofen, Germany). The UV detector was set

at wavelength 292 nm for tocopherols; the visible detectorwas set at 450 nm for carotenoids and had a flow rate of

1.5 mL/min. The injection volume was 50 lL; samples

were eluted using isocratic mobile phase composed of

acetonitrile-methanol-dichloromethane (75:20:5, vol/vol/

vol) containing 10 mmol/L ammonium acetate, 4.5 mmol/L

butylated hydroxytoluene, and 3.6 mmol/L triethylamine.

The mobile phase was filtered through a 0.5 lm filter and

degassed using ultrasonic agitation. Results were collected

and analyzed using Millennium software (Waters Corpora-

tion, Milford, Mass). Lutein, zeaxanthin, b-cryptoxanthin,

b-carotene, and lycopene levels in fruit and vegetables were

extrapolated from pure carotenoid standard curves, aftercorrection for extraction efficiency based on the recovery

standard. The carotenoid content of the whole food,

homogenized food, digested food, and micellar fraction

was determined. The % bioaccessibility of each carotenoid

was determined by calculating the transfer from the digestate

to the micelles.

2.6. Statistical analysis

All data are the mean values (F SEM) of at least 3

independent experiments. Whole fruit and vegetable sam-

ples were statistically compared with homogenized samples,

homogenized samples were compared with digested sam-ples, and finally, fruit samples containing esterases were

compared with fruit preparations without esterases using a

1-tailed pairedttest (P b .05). Data presented inTables 1-3

were not statistically compared with each other. Prism

software (Graphpad Software Inc., San Diego, CA) was

used for statistical analysis.

3. Results

The concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, b-cryptoxan-

thin, lycopene, and b-carotene in whole, homogenized, in

Table 1

The lycopene and b -carotene content (in microgram per 100 g) of digestate and micelles of fruits and vegetables

Food Lycopene b-Carotene

Digestate (lg/100 g) Micelles (lg/100 g) Digestate (lg/100 g) Micelles (lg/100 g)

Orange 45.8 F 5.1 45.8 F 6.5 118.3 F 36.0 36.9 F 6.1

Kiwi 69.9 F 25.2 TR 200.4 F 32.3 89.2 F 9.9

Red grapefruit 1957.7 F 338.7 93.1 F 9.6 6094.8 F 1242.0 128.9 F 24.1

Honeydew melon 295.9 F 219.3 TR 372.1 F 231.0 TR

Spinach ND ND 835.5 F 48.0 239.5 F 75.4

Broccoli ND ND 46.3 F 2.9 25.1 F 1.4

Red pepper 1166.6 F 114.1 ND 602.5 F 105.8 139.7 F 62.4

Sweet potato ND ND 745.2 F 256.1 244.4 F 101.8

n z3 independent experiments presented as means F SEM.TR indicates trace levels; ND, not detected.



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vitro digested, and micellarized preparations of selected fruit

and vegetables were determined. Of the carotenoids

detected in the fruit and vegetable samples, a significant

increase (P b.05) in carotenoid content of the homogenates

was observed in comparison with the whole food (data notshown). There was no statistical decrease (P b .05) in

carotenoid content between any of the homogenized and in

vitro digested fruit and vegetable samples (homogenization

data not shown).

3.1. Carotenoid content of fruit and vegetable digesta

Lycopene, b-carotene, and lutein were present in the

4 fruit digesta. Of all the fruits, red grapefruit digestate

contained the highest amount of lycopene and b-carotene

(Table 1). The fruit digesta contained similar amounts of

zeaxanthin (approximately 300lg/100 g), apart from kiwi,

where only trace amounts of this carotenoid was detected.

b-Cryptoxanthin was low in the honeydew melon digestate,

but all other fruit samples contained approximately 100lg/

100 g (Table 2). In a separate experiment, the 4 fruits were

subjected to the same in vitro digestion procedure with the

addition of cholesterol esterase during the small intestinal

phase of digestion. There was no significant difference (P b

.05) in carotenoid content of the fruit digestate or micellar

fractions prepared following the digestion procedure with or

without the addition of cholesterol esterase (data not

shown). The vegetables chosen in the present study were

spinach, broccoli, red pepper, and sweet potato. Lutein and

b-carotene were detected in all vegetable preparations

(Tables 1 and 2). Lycopene was detected only in the red

pepper digestate (Table 1). Lutein was highest in the spinach

preparations (digestate and micelles) (Table 2). Zeaxanthin

concentration was low in all vegetable preparations and notdetected at all in broccoli. b -Cryptoxanthin was detected in

spinach and red pepper, and it was undetectable in sweet

potato and broccoli digesta (Table 2).

3.2. Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from fruit and

vegetables

Before carotenoids can be absorbed by intestinal cells,

they must be packaged into micelles. The amount of

carotenoids transferred into this micellar form can provide

valuable information on their potential availability for

absorption in vivo. In the present study, the efficiency of

transfer of carotenoids from the digested food into the

micellar fraction (% bioaccessibility) differed between fruits

and vegetables (Table 3). The general trend was that

carotenoids were packaged into micelles more efficiently

from the fruit preparations than from the vegetables and thus

would potentially be more readily available for absorption

by intestinal cells. Lycopene was completely bioaccessible

from orange (99.7%). However, despite the fact that a much

lower percentage (4.9%) of lycopene was bioaccessible

from red grapefruit, this translated as a higher content in

the micelles (93 lg compared with 46 lg in the orange)

(Tables 1 and 3).b-Carotene was bioaccessible from orange

Table 3

The % bioaccessible lutein, zeaxanthin, b -cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and b -carotene of fruits and vegetables

Food % Bioaccessibility

Lycopene b-Carotene Lutein Zeaxanthin b-Cryptoxanthin

Orange 99.7 F 6.4 33.6 F 4.8 102.5 F 7.1 102.8 F 7.2 97.8 F 6.0

Kiwi TR 46.9 F 9.1 109.3 F 6.1 TR 77.0 F 38.5

Red grapefruit 4.9 F 0.7 2.1 F 0.3 104.1 F 3.9 106.1 F 4.7 104.6 F 4.9

Honeydew melon TR TR 100.0 F 3.8 50.2 F 30.7 TR

Spinach ND 29.7 F 10.0 18.9 F 3.7 ND ND

Broccoli ND 54.3 F 1.7 38.4 F 1.4 ND ND

Red pepper ND 21.2 F 6.2 97.7 F 11.9 77.1 F 13.2 29.7 F 9.8

Sweet potato ND 45.2 F 27.9 97.0 F 6.3 92.1 F 2.0 ND

n z3 independent experiments presented as means F SEM.

Table 2

The lutein, zeaxanthin, and b -cryptoxanthin content (in microgram per 100 g) of digestate and micelles of fruits and vegetables

Food Lutein Zeaxanthin b-Cryptoxanthin

Digestate

(lg/100 g)

Micelles

(lg/100 g)

Digestate

(lg/100 g)

Micelles

(lg/100 g)

Digestate

(lg/100 g)

Micelles

(lg/100 g)

Orange 81.9 F 10.0 83.9 F 11.5 294.5 F 36.7 302.0 F 41.6 111.5 F 13.4 109.2 F 15.2

Kiwi 165.7 F 23.8 178.9 F 18.2 TR TR 102.5 F 7.8 79.7 F 40.6

Red grapefruit 84.6 F 7.3 87.8 F 7.2 299.6 F 24.6 317.2 F 25.2 101.8 F 7.8 106.2 F 4.9

Honeydew melon 88.3 F 4.2 88.1 F 3.5 324.9 F 15.7 167.3 F 99.6 TR TR

Spinach 2519.3 F 84.5 471.8 F 75.3 TR ND 9.2 F 3.0 ND

Broccoli 175.7 F 25.6 67.2 F 9.1 ND ND ND ND

Red pepper 78.6 F 3.1 77.5 F 12.0 46.9 F 9.5 35.6 F 7.4 304.4 F 73.3 99.9 F 45.6

Sweet potato 108.8 F 5.1 105.1 F 4.6 35.4 F 1.4 32.6 F 0.6 ND ND

n z3 independent experiments presented as means F SEM.



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and kiwi, but availability from honeydew melon seemed to

be limited. In a similar trend to lycopene, of the 6100lg of

b-carotene present in the red grapefruit digestate, only 2.1%

was bioaccessible (129 lg) (Tables 1 and 3). Despite red

pepper containing greater than 1000 lg of lycopene in the

digesta, none of this was transferred to the micellar fraction

(Table 3). In contrast,b -carotene was bioaccessible from allthe vegetable digests (Table 3).

Xanthophyll carotenoids present in fruits were generally

micellarized to a greater extent than those in spinach and

broccoli. There was complete transfer of lutein from the

digestate into the micelles of all fruit samples (Table 3). The

% bioaccessibility of lutein was more variable from

vegetables. The dark green vegetables had much lower

bioaccessible lutein in comparison with red pepper and

sweet potato, which were similar to the fruit preparations.

Spinach, which had the highest content of lutein after

digestion, had the lowest transfer into the micelles (18%),

although it had the highest actual content in the micelles(472 lg). Although red pepper and sweet potato showed

almost complete transfer of lutein from the digestate to the

micellar fraction, the content was much lower than the dark

green vegetables (Tables 2 and 3). Zeaxanthin was 100%

bioaccessible from orange and red grapefruit. For the

vegetables, the transfer of zeaxanthin from red pepper and

sweet potato digesta to micelles was high, although the

absolute amounts were low. The % bioaccessibility of

b-cryptoxanthin from orange, kiwi, and red grapefruit was

very high, whereas that from red pepper was low (29%).

However, all micellar preparations contained similar

amounts of the carotenoid.

4. Discussion

The carotenoid contents of whole fruits and vegetables

were measured (data not shown), and the levels deter-

mined correlated well with those reported in literature

[27-30]. Comparison of the carotenoid levels in the fruit

and vegetable homogenates and digesta ensured the

compounds were stable during the simulated digestion

procedure. Our findings are in line with previous reports

where recovery and stability of carotenoids from foods,

meals, and supplements after in vitro digestion were veryhigh [18-24].

Xanthophyll carotenoids are frequently esterified with

fatty acids. Esterification decreases polarity so that the

xanthophyll carotenoids are found on the core rather than

the surface, thus limiting their transfer into bile salt micelles

[31]. In an in vitro digestion model system, Chitchumroon-

chokchai and Failla [23] and Granado-Lorencio et al [24]

recently reported that the addition of the enzyme cholesterol

esterase was needed for the hydrolysis of xanthophyll esters

present in fruit. However, in the present study, the addition

of cholesterol esterase during the in vitro digestion of fruit

did not increase xanthophyll concentration or improve theirtransfer to micelles when compared with fruit digested

without this bile saltdependent lipase. The study by

Chitchumroonchokchai and Failla[23]included the addition

of olive oil during the in vitro digestion procedure. It is

widely known that fat has a positive role in the micellariza-

tion of carotenoids and thus may have contributed to the

improved bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin.

Differences in the bioaccessibility of carotenoids fromfruit and vegetables during simulated digestion were noted

in the present study. The xanthophyll carotenoids in fruit

exhibited higher transfer to the micelles and therefore had

greater potential for intestinal uptake compared with the

dark green vegetables. A greater percentage of lutein was

bioaccessible from orange compared with broccoli, corre-

lating with a study by Granado-Lorencio et al [24]. In the

fruits analyzed, all of the xanthophyll carotenoids were

highly bioaccessible compared with the variable bioacces-

sibility of the carotenes. Xanthophyll carotenoids have

previously been reported to be more efficiently micellarized

than carotene carotenoids[22,24]. A human study reportedby Tyssandier et al [32] observed that lycopene was less

efficiently transferred to the micelles than lutein, which

correlates with trends in this study.

It was apparent that the higher the carotenoid contents of

digested fruits or vegetables, the lower the transfer into the

micelles. Red grapefruit had the highest contents of

lycopene and b-carotene; however, only 4.9% and 2.1%

were transferred to the micelles, respectively. Spinach had

the highest content of lutein but had the lowest bioacces-

sibility (18.9%). A similar trend was recently reported by

Chitchumroonchokchai and Failla [23], who found that

efficiency of micellarization of zeaxanthin during in vitrodigestion of wolfberry, orange pepper, and red pepper was

inversely associated with the relative amounts of the

carotenoid in these foods.

Simulated in vitro digestion has previously been used to

examine carotenoid accessibility from foods, meals, and

supplements[18-24].We found the bioaccessibility of lutein

from spinach was slightly lower (18%) than that previously

reported[18-20].However, each of these studies used meat

fat or vegetable oils as a lipid source in the meals, whereas

in vitro digestions carried out in the present study were in

the absence of any external lipid source. Hedren et al [5]

found that leafy green vegetables cooked with red palm oilincreased b-carotene bioaccessibility to almost 94%, thus

highlighting the positive impact oil has on transferring

carotenoids from the digesta to micellar fraction. Chitchum-

roonchokchai et al [22] found that lutein was more

bioaccessible than b-carotene from spinach; however, we

noted the opposite trend. The discrepancy between results

may be due to the lower lutein content observed in our study

(2519 F 84 lg/100 g) compared with 5870 lg/100 g

determined by Chitchumroonchokchai et al [22]. In addi-

tion, the sample preparation by Chitchumroonchokchai et al

[22] included a microwaving step. Disruption of plant cell

walls has been reported to have a positive impact on thebioaccessibility of lutein and other carotenoids[33].

O.F. OConnell et al. / Nutrition Research 27 (2007) 258264262


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The difference in transfer of carotenoids from the

digestate to micellar fraction from fruits and vegetables

could be due to a number of factors including the location of

carotenoids in the food matrix and the effect of food

constituents [34]. Fiber has previously been shown to have

an impact on the absorption of carotenoids [35-37].

Vegetables are typically more fibrous in structure, whichmay explain in part the difference in carotenoid bioacces-

sibility from fruits compared with vegetables[38].A human

study by de Pee et al[3]investigated the vitamin A status of

a deficient population using a diet rich in fruit or vegetables.

It was found that carotenoids were more bioavailable from

fruits. The carotenoidb -carotene was 5 to 6 times higher in

the group whose diet was high in fruit in comparison with

the vegetable-supplemented group. Carotenoids in dark

leafy vegetables are found in chloroplasts bound to protein

and fiber [37]. However, in fruit, carotenoids are found in

chromoplasts dissolved in oil droplets[3]. It should be noted

however that although the fruits analyzed in this studyshowed greater carotenoid bioaccessibility, there were

higher concentrations of carotenoids in the micelles from

vegetables. The % bioaccessible lutein in spinach was 18%,

whereas for kiwi, it was higher at 109%. However, there

was 471 lg/100 g of lutein present in the spinach micelles

that would be potentially available in the gastrointestinal

tract for absorption in comparison with the lutein content

(165.7 lg/100 g) in micelles prepared from kiwi fruit.

Recently, Goni et al[39]observed similar trends where the

content of certain carotenoids was greater in the vegetable

micelles compared with that in fruit.

This is one of the f irst s tudies to examine thebioaccessibility of carotenoids from fruits. Trends observed

in this study are similar to those observed in vivo [32].

Numerous potential health benefits have been associated

with increased carotenoid consumption [8-11,15]. There-

fore, the simulated digestion procedure used in this study

could provide a qualitative, rather than a quantitative,

indication of the potential availability of carotenoids in

vivo. In summary, the results support the usefulness of an in

vitro digestion procedure as a rapid method for screening

the bioaccessibility of carotenoids from food. We propose to

use this model to determine the relative bioaccessibility of

carotenoids from different foods and meals and to determinethe effect of food processing techniques on bioaccessibility.

The model represents a means to investigate rapidly and

systematically the numerous potential factors, compounds,

or conditions that impact on carotenoid bioaccessibility.

Acknowledgment

This research was funded by Science Foundation Ireland.

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artigo cient - carotenoides from fruits x from veggies

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