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53
PART FIVE LATER SCHOOLS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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Page 1: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

PART FIVE

LATER SCHOOLSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

Page 2: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

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Page 3: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

DECCAN ANDSOUTH

CIRCA gTHCENTURY ANDLATER

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Page 4: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

Detail af 21,34,

C H A P T E R T W E N T Y - O N E

The Cola and Related Schools of the Tamil south

(Mid-Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries)

The Colas were the successors to the Pallavasas the most prominent south Indian dynasty.However, the distinction between Pallava andCola art goes far beyond chronological impli-cations, lor while Cola-period rrr revea]s anindebtedness to the Pallava style, it is much morethan merely a second step in a pallava-Cola

chronological continuum. An imporranr regionaldisrinction musr also be nrade when discussinsPallava versus Cola art. The homeland of rhiPallavas and the region where most of theirmonuments are found was centered aroundKaflcipuram, but the Cola nucleus was furthersouth in the viciniry ofTanjore. Thus, it is likelythat disparate local'traditions had some efect onthe art. It is also probable that the art traditions oflesser known families, such as the Pdlrdyas, Mut-tarayars, and Irukkuvels had some bearine on theformation of the Cola idioms, although muchwork is yet to be done before the inferactionbetween these groups is understood. Further-

more, the Colas may have had a long-standingartistic tradition of their own upon which todraw (though nothing remains ofit), for they areknown in history as early as the third centuryn.c. in A6okan inscriptions. Xpigraphs on sorne ofthe approximately one hundred extant Colastone temples indicate that these monumentsreplaced earlier brick structures, clearly indicat-ing an art tradition prior to the second half ofthe ninth century, at which timc it apparentlybecame the practice to either build or rebuildreligious structures in stone.l Initiation of thestone tradition is largely associated with the reignof Vijayalaya Cola, who wrested control ofTanjore probably from the Muttarayar chieftainsin the middle of the ninth century and thusbrought the Cola family into a political andartistic prominence that was to last approxi-mately four centuries.

Although most authodties agree tlat a free-standing stone temple at Narttemalai dates from

509

Page 5: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

51d IATER SCI{OOIS OF THE DtrCCAN AND THI SOUTI]

approximately the mid-ninth century, thcre is

considcrable disagreemcnt about the patronage

of thc . tn ,c t r t re (F ig . z r . r ) . A Pand l r inscr ip t ion

of rzz8 reGrs to it as the Vijayalaya Coliivara

templc,z a name suggesting that the nonument

was built during the reign of Vijayalaya Cola

and rvas perhaps patronizcd by hin.r. However,

the tenple difers considerably in form and style

from others that are more firnly cstablished as

early Cola structures. On that basis, as wcll as on

other inscriptional evidence at the site, the teul-

ple is now thought to be a nonurnent of Mut-

i"rny", m".r.,f".tl,re dating fron-r around the

middle of the ninth century.3 Thus, while its

creation roughly coincides with the rise of the

CoJa family and Vijayalaya specifically, it may

nor be a Cola tcrnple per se. Strch sceming con-

fusion frcquently arises in the study of South

Asian art when dynastic designations are used to

dcfine styles. For example, to be considcred a"Cola" templc, must a ternple have been dedi-

cated by a C61a king, a membcr of his family or

retinue, or one of his subjects, or is it suflicientsimply that the templc rvas created during thcperiod of Colr supremacy and in Cola territorics?

Basic questions of terminology such as this are'ri l l widely dircnr.cd uirh reg.rrd to Coh art(and indecd, many other arcas of South Asian arthistory). It is probably most accurate to consider

the Vijayalaya Coli6vara temple a rnonument of

Muttarayar patroragc, but onc constructed dur-ing the late pre-Co]a or early Cola pcriod, and

therefore a fitting subject for study in relation-ship to early Cola art.a

Dedicated to Siva, the Vijayalaya Coli6varatemple consists of a joined ardhana1lapas rnd

tinaxa orientcd to the west and surroundcd by.ub,hrine' (parinralnyas: Fig. zr.z). OF thc.c.six rcnain and there are traces of a seventh,although it is possible that originally there werceiglrt of thern dedicated to thc eight parioarudeities (astapaivarailerafa), as is conmon in southIudian Saivite tenplcs of this period.6 All theseelements were originally enclosedin a rectangular

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Page 6: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

2r. r. Vijayalaya Colrsvara ternplefronr west. NarttaDralai, TarnilNadu, India. Ca. mid-ninth cen-tuly.

zr.z. Plen of Vijayalaya CdliSvaratenple. Narttemelai, Tarnil Nadu, India.Ca. mid-ninth century.

compound, The exterior of the main temple isnearly devoid of figurative sculpture except forthe two duarupalas on the wesr (Figs. zr,r, 2t 3),some figures on the upper stoies of the vimaxa,and a series of small sculpted panels placed atintervals along the base ofthe ternple, Insread, itis mainly omamented by the detailing of variouselements ofthe architectural scheme, includingthe base (adhisthana), the walls of the first story(tala), and the cornices and other details of theupper stories. The pilastered wall tr€atment rs atypically southem architectural feature, but thelack of niches containing deities (devakostha) isat variance with the usual Cola format, againsuggesting that the structure is not of COlamanufacture. The pilasters have plain and angu-

21,3. DrAfipAIa to left of west entrance, VijayelayaCoii3vara temple. N,rttamalai, Tanit Nadu, India. Ca.mid-niuth century.

R.ELATED SCHOOLS 5r tco+A AND

mtl

ir sufiicientduring the

r territories ?I as this areto Cola artrtl Asian art, ro consideroDument ofructed dur-period, andir relation-

a \,ollsvaramdapas androuaded by

of rhe""

a seventh,rhere were

ft parivarcon in south-6 All theserectangular

n t

N T

N T

Fo--,- -j 5

Page 7: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

JI2 LATER SCHOOLS OF THI DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

lar brackct-typc capitals. The heavy cornice of

tbc prastara abovc thc pilastcrcd wall separates

thc first ticr (rala) from the secoud rala, which is

continuous around both thc llrttaa,r and t]re

atdhaua4lapa. However, this is the final level of

the ardhamatl/apa with its llat roof while the

superstnrcfrrrc of the uittnna cotrtinLtc. in a

series of diminishing talas, the next two bcingsquarc in plan, the next round, and thcn the

rvl.rolc toppcd by a citctir likharc. In contrast toP, l l rv r s r rper , t r r tc tu res . u l t i ch \cc r ) r to r i sc

directlv out of the walls bclorv, the suPcrstruc-ture of the rirrdzn is rcccsscd. Like the mainternple, tlte parivarrr shrines have pilastered wallsand appcar vcry simple duc to thc minimalfigLrrative sculpture. These shrincs arc single-storied, consisting of a gafihaglha, and ardha-napdapa alad a rowd iikhara above the shrine.

Tlre entrance to tl'\c dhamar4apa ofthe mainter.nple is flanked by a pair of dvarapalas (Ftg.

zr.3) that are approxirnately buman-size. Thesetwo-arr-ned figures stand in the twistcd rnannerwith one leg turned across the body often seen insouthern Indian styles. Each figure rcsts on a cluband has one hand in the uisuaya, or wondcring,pose. In style, the slendcr bodics are part of the

southcrn trxdition visiblc since the Setavahanaand Iksveku periods, although details of the cos-tur.ne and jewelry nay bc indicative of regionalor local styles.

Witlrin, dre ardhanax/apa has six pillars,arrangcd in two rows of thrcc (Fig. zr.z). Insizc, botlr inside and orLt, the uimafla is larger thanthe ardhana4dapa and it consists of two elernents,the garbhagfia propcr and a surrounding pas-sagcr,vay. Perhaps the rnost striking fcaturc oftl.re shrine area is the circular plan of the gar-hlngrha. The srrrrounding pass.rgcway is verynarrow, suggesting that it rnay not hxve bccnused for circunumbulation by devotees butmay h.rvc bccn n functionrl fc.trure serring rs r

transition bctlvccn the circular wall of the sl.rineand tlrc rcctanguiar exterior of tl:'e vimana.Thc circular slrrine contains a liiga md a yoni.

'Whether or not tlis temple and others of

Vijayalaya's time are truly "Cola" r,vorks is un-certain, but by dle time of Aditya I, Vijayalaya'sson, wlro ruled fiom 87r to go7 and extendedthe Cola holdings to includc former lands of

the Pallavas extcnding to the Rastrakula ter-ritorrcs, a Cola stone tradition nust havc beenwell established. Inscriptional evidence suggestsrh.rr Adity.r I rvrs rccpon.ib]c [or thc consrrrrcrionof rows of Siva tcrnplcs that wcrc likc thc"banncrs of his own victorics"-of stonc on thctwo banks of thc Kaviri Rivcr.T Onc author haslisted r.norc than forty temples belonging to thisperiod,s although it is likcly that some of thesewere monurnents of thc Muttarayars, Iruk-kuvels, or other contemporary families. Adityal's son, Par5ntaka I (r. Sol-SS), was also respon-siblc for building a nurnbcr of tcrnplcs, includ-ing a funerary tenlrple (pallippadai) over theremains of his fathers and thus, under AdityaI and Par-ntaka I, Cola art as we know itreceived its first major impetus.

Thc surviving templcs of this carly stagc, thclate ninth and first half of thc tenth centuries,arc gencrally small in size, rnade completely ofstone (in contrast with later temples, whichoftcn have brick supcrstructurcs), and consist ofa joited a hana4/apa artd vimdna. Invariably,these tcn.rples display exquisite workmanship. Afinely preserved example is the Brahmepuri$varaternple at Pullar.nangai (Fig. zr.a). Thc tcrnplewas clcarly in cxistcncc by 918, as indicated by aninscription datcd in the clcvcnth year of Par-n-taka I, at which timc it had alrcady bccn conse-cratcd.r0 However, construction may have takenplacc during the lattcr part of Aditya I's reign orduring the first part ofthat ofParantaka I. Dedi-cated to Siva (the name Brahrnapuri(vara is notoriginal), the temple faces east and consists of theardhama4dapa xtd uinana (Ftg.zt.5), akhough thefront portion of the a hama1lapa has beenobscured by the addition of a later mukhanatllapaand tlre superstructure of the vitnata has urtdevgone modi{ication in post-Cola times. Thercmplc i.

"irurtcd in a shrllow mrsonrl pit. a

fairly common feature of errly Cola temples,apparcntly originally intended to havc bccn filledwith water. The lowest member of the tcmplebase is carvcd in an inverted lotus design, andthus the tenplc was probably conceived symboli-cally as rising fron thc cosmic watcrs on a lotus.Such direct use of water and water symbolismsecms particulxrly to have been a southem lndianfeature, as suggested in earlier Pallava caves and

Page 8: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

THE CO}A AND RELATED SCHOOLS J ' J

lrrakrila ter-sE have beenrnce suggeslsconstructioniere like the: stone on there autl-ror hasnging to thisome of theseevars, Iruk-rilies. Aditya, also respon-rples, includ-ai) over themdcr Adityan-e know it

rlr' stage, therr}r centudes,ompletely ofopies, whichrnd consist ofr- lnvariably,rkmanship. Ahmapuri Svara. I ne temPlerJicated by an'ear of Paran-r been conse-zl have takenra I's reign orrtaka L Dedi-riivara is not

corrsists of the

. ahhough therpa has beenw*hawa4lapdiaa has under-I flmes. IIIe

risonry Plt, a

Cala temPles,are beenfilledo: the temple

:. design, and:ir-ed symboli-re:: on a lotus.:e: symbolism:utrern Indianlava caves and

2r.4. Brahmapuri6vara temple, south wall fron south-east. Pullamangai, Tamil Nedu, India. C0la period.Ca. late ninth--early tenth century.

zr.,s. Plan of Brahnlpuriavara temple. Pullamangai,Tamil N,du, India. Cola period. Ca. late ninth-earlytenth century.

Page 9: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

514 LATER SCEOOLS OF TUE DECCAN AND TIIE SOUTII

2r.?. Litigodbhava comPosition on west wall of vifiafid'

i,.li'","1.iit*" rempie. Pu)lamangai' Tamil Nadu'

r.rdi". C^ol" p"tiod. C". lete ninth-early tenth century'

or the south wall ofthe airrana (identified by the

".".t"p-tt"S scenes and tree above)' Liirgod-

t't r,o"i.rutii In th. *.'t of rhe uinana (Fig'

,rlri,'st"lt"t" on the north o{ th< vimdno' and

i^"tiv p"tga on the north wall of the ar-

dhonlaadapa"(Fig. zr.8)' As in standard icono-

;t"ohj; ;'d.; in Hinduisnr, the placement

Jf C"".Si and Dtrrga represent the beglnrung ot

*Jti" Ot th. o"ve'coming of obstacles) and

th" ".ii.rr"-.nt

of religious victory' respec-

rively. Likewise- the appearance of Daksir'rarnurrt

(the "southern Form") of Siva is appropnate

io the south, while Brahma commonly appears

;;';i";,h in southem-style temPles' The

oi"""t"""t of the Lingodbhavarnurti in the

i""t,-" "i"ft"

indicates the Saivite dedication

ofthe temple, and carries the implicit suggesuon

of Sir,"', in{ittit"tt"ss and his supremacy over

Visnu and Brahma.' 'ili. iiig.aUft""" form (Fig' zr'7) is explained

i" "-""^tit

of Pure4as' Supposedly' Viqlru and

Brahm-a were engaged in an aJgument concem-

ll-*iti"rt ."" oi ,i"* *"' thi principal archi-

2r.6. Caneia on south wall of ardhana4,lapa' Brahma-

""ii*t,

-,"*of.. Putlamangai' Tamil Nadu' lndia'

'Cola period. Ca late ninth-€arly tmth cenury'

temples, although not in this precise form'

fir" .*t.rio.t -of

the ardhoma4(opa and uimara

are articulated in the standard divisions ofbase'

-"11. "nd

,op"rrt ucture, although these elements

diff", "onrii"t"bly

from those of the Vijayalaya

Coli6u"." ,.-pl. at Nentamalai one of the

-or, oro*inal,, elements of the base' for ex-

a*ple, is rhe frieze of yafis (lion$, which is com-

-olt.. Cut" t.-pl"t, bo*t early and late The

;;llt ;.. "ni"ul"t"d

wirh pilastered niches

(a*,"eutlnl that protrude flrom the suface of

it. *.ii, it aoai"g one each on the south and

north sides of the ardhand4lapo, and one on the

.ooth. *"rt, and north sides of the I)imana' h

form, these niches aPPeu to be later variants olr

ail" ,r"*-.n of eariilet Pallav" walls as seen' for

example, in the "Arjuna rutho" at Mi'mallt'

olu"m (Fiq. 14.23).t;-;;.?, pro"."diog clockwise around the

temple, rhe /erako5lhas teveal a systematlc

i"o.iler"phi. program beginning with Ga4eia

r" irrJ..'r.ft *"tt if rhe arihanandapa (Fig zr'6)'

and proceeding with Dak5in:rmUni (now lost)

rr Ltl1 f r rGie la:t

E: Lrc=a

Lc--c r:e,ialr-il - cr

q-f . iG i N : :

Egr: -;

fu-t z-r-:;-- -:-*

lc ::r icrE : : ] E

rsi._c: .'ie :.ri ulr:;:-*e ..

=o..;$\::ti:]\

:ai .-i BP:-;.r-.-uS.n-r rc;t;-_tta rn,i.:x- !

ic: res;r

l:5 iLal

-= *- .r'

Page 10: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

6a well of vimAnd,

Fi, Tamil Nedu,l)' tenth century.

dentfied by therbove), Lingod-hs uinana (Fig.the dmana, rr'd;all of the ar-srandard icono-, the placementhe beginning off obstacles) andncoryJ resPec-rf Dakgiqamnrtir is appropdatenmonly appearse temples. Theramfrti in their-ite dedicationplicit suggestiontuPremacy over

rr.7) is explainedredly, Vigru and

iunlent concern-' principal archi-

2I.8. Durgi on noth wall of a hanu1lapa, Btehma-puriivara temple. Pullamangai, Tardl Nadr:, India.Cola period. Ca. late ninth-eariy tenth century.

tect of the universe when a giant liiga appearcdbefore them. Brahma took t}rc form of a goose(hathsa), or rode upon his hathsa rahana, to seekthe top of the linga, whlle Vi94u took the formof a boar to find the bottom. When neithercould find the end of the lihgo they realized thatthey were in the presence of something greaterthan themselves, namely Siva, and they beganto pay devotion to it, at which time Siva mani-fested lrimself in the liiga. (According to someversions of the text, Brahma did not admit thathe had not found the end of the liiga arrd,because of this lie, was doomed to have notemples dedicated to him-a modification un-doubtedly intended to explain the almost totallack of Brahma temples in South Asia.) hr thePullamangai relief, the central niche containsSiva appearing in the liiga while Brahma fliesabove and Vigqru furrows below. In the sideniches, Brahma. (left) and Visqru (riglrt) payrhe i r rec^e . t . t ^ en ' .

This format, in which a central niche contain-ing the principal subject is flanked by subsidiary

THE COIA AND RELATID SCHOOTS J'J

pilastered niches, is used not only in early Colaternples such as this, but also is found in latermonuments. Gaqre6a, in the south niche of themdhanandapa (Fig. zr.6), for example, is accom-panied by gazas (he is lord of rhc ganas. as oneof his names, Gar.rapati, implies) and his mouseu7hana appears at the upper right. The Durgagroup on the north side of the a hamatl(apa(Fig. zr.8) similarly contains the main figureof the goddes standing atop the head of thedefeated, decapitated Mahisa, and she is flankedby representations of her lion, deer, and maledevotees in the side niches. The composition ofthe Durga group recalls the Durga rclief inthe Varaha cave at Memallapuram (Fig. r4.rz),including the devotee who is about to decapitatehimself at the lower left.

Above each sculpture group at Pullamangai isa decorated tympanlrm dclicatcly carvcd withfoli,rte and othcr moriG thar carrics out minoraspects of the templc's iconographic program.Stylistically, the figures revcal a debt to Pallavaart in the relaxed postures and naturalistic stances.A slender body type prevails, as is generally truesince Satavahana-Iksvtku timcs in the southeastregions, and the high headdresses and detailingof the jewelry and garments further reveal tiesto Pallava and other south Indian styles.

ln add i t i ' n to thc rnc in i con ic 6g t r re g ror rps .the temple is adorned with numerous, smaller,sculptcd vigncttcs, including standing figureswithin small pavilionlike forms that project fiomthe upper portion of the wall of the templeabove the empty pilastered nichcs fanking theiconic niches. These omate architectural formsadd a great deal ofvisual interest to thc extcriorof the temple and consist of pilastered nichcssurmounted by candtolalas. A lively figure in anaturalistic pose adorns each of these pavilions.In addition, the base of the temple is dccoratedwith morc than sixty small panels locatedbeneath thc pilasters of the wall (Fig- zr.9),including representations of aspects of Siva andVisnu, episodes ftorr. the Ranayapa, and othersubjects.

Another temple approximatcly contemPo-raneous with the Brahmapuri(vara temple atPullamangai is the Nege(varasvami tcmple atKunbakonam, which has traditionally been held

-

Page 11: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

5]O IATER SCHOOLS OF THI] DTCCAN AND THT SOUTH

2r.9. Detail, basc of Brahrnapuriivarx tcmple. Pulla-mangai, Tanil Nadu, India. Cola period. Ca. latcninth-early tenth ccnlury.

2r.ro. PlaD of Nascivarrsve ti ter11ple. Kunbakonarn,Tanil Nadu, India. Ca. late ninrh exrrh tenth century-

to be a Cola tenple from the reign of Aditya ior Par-ntaka I.1r It has rightly been noted tlutif this templc were not obscured by thc manyIater additions and surrounding buildings oflatcrdate (which makc it difiicult to photograph),as well as by stucco accretions ro the originalstructure, it would indeed bc one of the finestof all South Asian artistic crcations. As is typicalof this period, the original structure consisted ofan adhana4lapa and a vimaxa (Fig. zr.ro).

The beauty and elegancc of this period'ssculpture style is nowhere more clear than inthe figures that adom the pilastcred nichcs onthe exterior walls of the temple. These includedeities in the principal niches, such as a higllynaturalistic and rclaxed reprcscntation of Sivaas Bhiksttana on thc norrh side of the temple(Fig. zr.rr). In this form, which was extremelypopular in south Indian art, Siva becomes anascetic in order ro atone for his sin of havingcut of one of Brahma's heads in anger. Forbid-den to wear clothing, Siva is adomed only withornamcnts, including a snake around his hips.

I

{a

I

frili "

Page 12: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

THE COIA AND RELATED SCHOOLS

Xumbakonatn,snih century.

tr of Aditya I:n noted thatbv the manvldings of laterphotograph),rhe originalof the finest

. As is typicale consisted of. zr . ro) .this period'sclear than ined niches onthese includer.as a hig,hlymon or )rvarf the templeras extremely

becomes anin of havingoger. Forbid-rd only withrnd his hips.

2r. r r. Siva as Bhiksetana on north wall of NageSvaras-vami temple. Kumbakona0r, Tamil Nadu, Ildia. Ca.late ninth-carly tenth century.

In addition, he holds a skull cup in his front lefthand, representing the skull of Brahme, wirhwhich Siva begged for food. Secondary nicheson the temple walls contain representations ofstanding fi gures, each approximately human-size,some of which may depict characters from theRanaydt-16 (Figs. zr.tz-t4)-rz These are so lifelikeand naturalistic in pose, facial Gatures, andindividualization of form that it is possible thatthe representations are based on specific in-dividuals. Such a tradition is unusual but notunknown in south Indian art, and may be tracedat least to the Pallava period. The naturalism ofthe figures indicates a predilection rhat wasmaintained in the south at least since Iksvakutimes. Again, the slender body type with thenarrow ankles, wrists, waist, and joints prevails,except in specific instances where fuller formssuggest the requisites of the subject marter, asseen in one ofthese niche figures (Fig. zr.14).

Many ofthe figures appear to be almost totallyfiee from the niches, and convey the appearanceof truly standing within them rarher than being

zr.rz. Female figure o1I Nagejvarasvani temple. Kun1-bakonam, Tamil Nadu, India_ Ca. late ninth,earlytenth centuty.

2r.rj. Male figure on NageSvarasveni tcmple. Kum-bakonam, Tarnil Nadu, India. Ca. late ninrh-early tenthcenrury.

Page 13: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

J]8 TATER SCHOO1S OF THE DECCAN AND THB SOUTH

21.14. Male figurc on Nageivarasvani tcmPle. Kum-bakonan, Tamil Nadu, India. Ca. late ninch-early tcn'h

attached to then. One autho. has correctly

remarked that COla sculPtures are best seen in

the architectural settings for which they were

intended,rl due to the dynamic interaction

created by the relationship of the figure and the

niche. In spite of the naturalism, even in the

facial features, the figures fall within what must

be considered to be the stylistic parameters of

south Indian sculpture and reveal a clear tie to

earlier traditions. Thus, the face of the sculPture

in Figure zr.r4 looks remarkably similar to the

f"ces of maoy early images from Andhra Pradeslr,

particularly those seen on Buddha {igures frorn

ihe Satavahana and Ikgvaku periods; it is also

possible that the garment falling over the left

ihoulder is derived frorn Buddhist styles of the

K61ra River region. Thus the earlier Andhra

traditions may have perrneatcd the south and

persisted in the later style developments. How-

!ver, it is an intriguing possibility that the Colas

or Cola artists had actually seen some of the

Andhra region Buddhist remains, for inscrip-

tional evid-ence reveals that the Great Stupa at

Anardvati was in good condition at least until

A..D. rz34 and it is known that the Co]as were

active in this very region at certain trmes.

Another important monument from this

early phase of Cola art is the Koranganatha

templc at Srinivasanallur, which may have bcen

buili during the reign of Aditya I or that of

Parentaka i (fig. zr.r5).ta On the exterior, the

temple's division lnto thc a hanan/apa ar'd

,inino ^pp" rs typical. However, within, a

vestibule or antcchamber (antarala) separatlng

thc pillarcd hall from the shrine is a very unusual

addiiion to the carly Cola temple plan (Fig.

z r . r6 ) . A : i s gcnera l in Co l r -per iod arch i tec t t t re .

rlte ardhana4dapa is flat roofed wlrile thc rirraaa

rises in ticrs (rala), in this case, two (/r,ltala), and

is then cappcd by a square gritla (neck) and

likhan. Made of brick rathcr than stone, the

supcrrtructtlre of thc vinata apparcntly 'uffqrqd

danrrge ,nd has bcen rcpaired l hcrcfore. the

cxterior dctailing of this portion of the temple

cannot be studied as a reliable index of the

orisinal form. The cntire temPlc is situated in a

rnaionry-lincd pit and the lower moldings of

the base includc a nassive double lotus, again

in an apparent attenPt to suggest that the temPle

arises on a lotus from thc cosmic waters A plank

across the fiont of the moat enablcs the devotee

to enter the templc rvithout rvalking in the

watcr. Circunambulation of the structure was

undoubtedly performed on the outer side of

the moat.Thc carved dccoration of the exterior of the

tcmple ranks anong thc best of this period A

yali lr ieze alotlg tlte ba'e i. frrrcly crrvcd. con-

.i ' i inq of .rnirnaced forms of l ions. r ' wcll as

"l"ph.,ntr. rnd evcn .onte figtrrc5. The main

icorrographic progr'rrrr oI t l 'e tcrnple is car-

ri"d o.tt ty approxin.rately human-sizc figures in

pil:rstered nichcs on the cxrerior wajls oI rhe'arr)haunndapa

and uinana in rhe couth Indian

pattem tra;eablc to the Pallava period. A deco-

, r , "d rv -p"nu- (F igs . u r . r7 . z r . ro ) was p laced

,bou.'.". lt principJ ti.h.. , l t lrotrgh thar on

2r.16. Plar of Koransanatha ternplc. S Div3sanallur,

Tanril Nadu, India. C61a Pcriod. Ca. tate ninth-+ar1y

tenth centurY.

l

Il

I

Page 14: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

r- ,: untl l:_ r lvere

' :. r11 this

i . q.rnetha.. 'e bcen

rhat of:. rrior, the,.::o1ra and

: ',r'ithin, a- : jeparating

-. c11' unusual: .: plan (Fig.

- .uclitecture,; the lirlanadtitala), al'd

; (Iieck) and:lrn stone, thci.:(-ntly sufi-eredThercfore, the..f thc templernclcx of the

:i siturted In a:: moldings of: ; lotus, again:-r.rr the tcr-t-rple. ..rcrs. A piank- :. tl-re devotcc

:lking in the: rlrLlclule .was

rLrter sidc of

-:..:rrior of thc' : . r i s

pcr iod . Acirvcd, con-

::.. as rvell as:-,. The rrrain: i:r:Plc is car-: -,:2.'f igurcs in

'.., rlls of the. .outh lndian' - : : . , J . A deco-

:, ..-as pllced- ',:gh rhat on

' : r , \ rs l la l lur ,

: . : : n inth ear ly

ilrF

s{ ,lTHB COIA AND RTLATED SCHOOTS Jrg

i r

2r.rJ. Koraneinarha rcnple f rorn southeast . Sdr l ivasanal lur , Tar l i lNadu, India. Cola per iod. Ca. iatc n inth-car ly rcnth ccntnry.

=-fr] r

il

l!. ? . i , p - , p _ +' ' :

Page 15: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

J2O LATER SCI{OOLS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

2r.r8. Fcnlale frgure on rvcst !r-a1l of /i,rira, Koran-

$nath:r tenlple. Sriri\':tsanallllr, Tlllil Nadu, Indix

Cola period. Ca. latc ninth-early tcDth cenlury.

the north is missing. The niche on the south ofthe adhama4/apa is empty but thc n.rain niche onthe soutlr ofthe yilrbra contains r representJtionof Siva Dakginamurti (Fig. zr.r7) accompaniedby animals and seated human devotees arrangedin tiers in the fanking niches as well as large,standing malc attcndants in separatc nichcs oneithcr side ofthe main composition. 5iva, beauti-fully carved, sits in a peaceful attitude. Thccentral deuakastha on the west of the temple isempty, the in.nge having been lost, but it isflani<ed by a pair of Gmalc attendants in thepilastered niches to either side (Fig. zr.I8). Likeothers at this temple, the figures in tlis groupdisplay a great degree of refinement in thecarving and in the vcry naturalistic poses andattitudes, and seem to be situated comfortablywithin their narrow niches. The figures areperhaps rnore omately decorated rvith jewelrythan has been scen in the preceding nonuments,posibly an indication ofa stylistic direction. Thchighly ornate, iloriated tympanun.r above theniche on tl:e west (Fig, zr.r9) carries a representa-tion of Varaha holding the earth goddess, asubject which may be important in deterrnining

Page 16: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

n the south ofmain niche onrePresentaaron

) accompaniediotees arranged

rvell as large,,rate niches on

n. Siva, beauti-anitude. The

I rhe temple islost, but it is

iendants in theig. zr.i8). Likes in this groupoement in the

listic poses and

eJ comfortablYtre figures are

d rvith jewelrY

trq monuments,c direction. The

rum above the

ic a representa-Lrth goddess, a

in determining

,t.17. Si.'" Dakgiqamiirti orsouth wall of rimana, Kot^t-ganatha temple. Snnivasanallur,Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period.Ca. late ninth-+arly tenth century.

2r.r9. Tympanum on west, Ko-ranganttha temple. Sriruvasanal-tur, Tamil N.du, India. Cdlaperiod. Ca. late ninth-early tenthcentury.

THB CoLA AND REIATTD SCHOOIS Jzt

duough the reigns of her son Uttama I (ca.

969-8j) and the first part of the reign of thegreat Rajaraja I (085-ror4). During the SembiyanMahadevi phase, numerous older brick templeswere rebuilt and "almost ovemight replaced bythose in stone."16

The monuments of the Sernbiyan Mahadeviphase mark a departur€ from the grace anddelicacy of the earlier Cola and related temPles,which preserved something of the naturalism inthe figure style and pose of figures that had ex-isted since Pallava times. Instead, figures took ona stiffer, drier appearance, anticipating the formsto be found on later Cola monurnents. In thisway, the south€rn developments parallel manyof the trends in other parts of South Asia, forby about the late tenth and early eleventhcenturies many other regional schools alsounderwent a sort of "stylistic dessication" inwhich images often seemed to be l.iGless repeti-tions of earlier, livelier formulae. In south India,as in other parts of the subcontinent, this mayhave been Dartlv the result of codification oficonic typeJ and'development of greater adher-ence to textual orescriptions.

Many of the monuments of the SembiyanMahadevi period have been damaged, some havebeen refurbished so that the original forms aredifiicult to distinguish, and others are ofmediocreor poor artistic qualiry. A rePresentation ofDurga in tle north wall devakastha ruche of

the identification of the now lost image of a

deity originally placed in the niche below.15

The deeply cut forms and delicacy ofthe carving

testify to the skill of the craftsmen. On the north

side of the uimdna, the main nicbe contains an

image of Brahma, as is common in Cola-period

t"-il"r, "od

he too is fanked by standing at-

tendlants. The last ,y'e vakastha nrche ot the temple,

that on the north wall of the ardhawa1(apa,

contains a seated representation of Siva. A pair of

tludrapalas were probably originally placed in the

now empty niches fanking the enrrance ro the

temple on the east. In contrast to the Pil.steredand-figured exterior walls of the temple, the

interioi is starkly plain except for the pillars

and pilasters; although it is possible that the walls

were originally painted. (Traces of paint are

found at Narttemalai on the flat walls and this

may document what may have been a comrnon

practice.)The next phase of architecture and sculpture

following the reigns of Adirya I and Parantaka I

has been called the Sernbiyan Mahadevi phase,

named after the queen of Gar.r{araditya (949-57),

who died early; his surviving queen became a

great patron of the arts through her religious

devotion. It is thought tlat her influence on art

was felt for a period ofabout sixry years, during

which time she founded and patronized numer-

ous establishments. Inscriptions clearly testify

to her activities from the time of Parentaka I

Page 17: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

522 LATER. SCHOOLS OF THE DTCCAN AND THE SOUTH

2r.2o. Durg: on north wall, Agastyeivara. remple.Anangur, Tarnil Nadu, India. Cola period. ScmbiyanMahtdevt phase. Ca. A.u. 979.

the Agastye6vara temple at Anangur (Fig. 2r.2o)suggests something ofthe style change, however,and contrasts sharply with female {igures of aslighdy earlier date (Fig. zr.rz). The temple wasbuilt by Sembiyan Mahadevi around 979,demonstrating that by the late tenth century,the figure style had lost the gentle countenancethat had characterized much of earlier southIndian art.

If size alone was the cdtedon for quality ofart, there is no doubt that the Great Temple atTanjore (Tafijdviir) would stand among theforemost architectural creations produced in theworld prior to the twentieth century. Indeed,at the time it was built, it was not only one ofthe largest buildings in South Asia but in theworld. Ir seems to represent a moment in ancientlndian history when the apogees of both thepolitical and artistic realms coincided, for thesize and grandeur of the temple are an eloquentexpression of the extent and power of the Colaempire under Rejaraja I, the creator of themonument. Many ofthe architectural features of

the temple must be classified as innovations,that is, they are more than simply the next stepin a continuum of artistic developments fromearlier periods: the size alone was unprecedented.Thus, while it is by no means the only survivingtemple from the reign of R.jaraja I, it is indeedthe most comrnanding and the supreme exampleof what might be called the late Cola phase.

The Great Temple is also called the Brhadc6-vara (Great Lord), in rcfercnce to Sirr"'s gre"t-ness. Furthcr, it was called Rajarajefuara afterRejareja I himself, in

"""ord"tr.. with the

common practice of naming the lirig,z enshrinedin a Saivite temple after a famed individual orthe king or patron. Rajaraja I, "King of Kings,"as he named himself upon his coronarion in98J, nust have cnlisted craftsmen wbo had beenworking at other projects in thc empire in orderto create his great monumenr, for it was builtin approximately seven yeafs, from roo3 tororo, a significant achievemcnt for such a vastundertaking.l? It was thus the product of aunified, concerted building efort, conceived andexecuted nearly at the sxnle time, and althoughadditions and modifications were made in thefollowing centuries, it should be consideredlargely a product of the reign of Rajaraja I anda testimony to his greatness as a king.

Rajaraja I's rise to powcr was facilitated bythe fact that the Raslrakutas had been over-powercd by the Later Calukya Taila II in 98o.Thc kingdom he had inherited was rathersmall due to the blow that had been dealt theColas by the Ragtrak[1a Klsna III at the Battleof Takkolam during the reign of Parentaka I.However, under him, the empire grcw to bestrong, well organized, and wealthy, havingconsiderable infuence not only in India but inSoutheast Asia as well. Rajarrja I naintaineda large navy and invaded Sri Lanka, makingPolonnaruwa a provincial capital. In addition,he gained Nolambavadi and Gangavadi, whichfurthered the conflict with the Later Calukyas,who had taken over the forrner Rastraklgalands.

The Rajaraje(vara temple is contained withinan enolmous rectangular enclosure (Figs. zr.zr,zt,zz). Prcceding the temple on thc cast are twotemple gateways (gopuns; Figs. zt.zr, 2r.23,

{

-.,:--- *

lry--

| " , - t -q+tr-+-

# . -

-n

\ - - . i

Page 18: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

: . : .ovatlol ls,

: : : : i l1ts fron1

: : : l c cden ted .' . survlvlng

: -. :r is indeed

:, f1l:1se.-: : .rc Brhade6-

Sile's qrcat-

. : : ' . ' r 'ara a er

..:.' r.-ith thc

:.:1.: cnslrr ined

: :rJividual or

:: : -- of Kings,"

, t :onauon tn... i: o had been

: -: i r . ' i t r order

: 1: l-as bui l t

: : t : n r oo3 t o

: r'.rch a vast

:: idr. lct of a

: r:rccivc.l and.1 . , 1 r1 . ^ , , o11

: ::lcle in the

:- considcrcd

..:: rreja I atrd

:: . : i l i tatecl by

. - D('en OVer-

:. :- . l I I in 98o..t .,.,,rs rathcr

.: rr dealt the

. . : rhe Batt le

,r lrantaka I.

: : : Ia$' tO be

. : ; :r . h:rving

:: I : : . l ie brrt in

- ll:rinteined- . - - - ^ l - : - ^

1 addition,:.:-, ldi, rvhich:...: Calukyas,:.: Rlstrakuta

-:.:rcd rvithin: F ig l . u r .z r ,

, : . i I are tWO

: , . : r , 2 1 . 2 3 1

:,3

THE COIA AND RIIATTD SCI]OOTS 52J

' . ' -

2I.2r. Rejarajelv:ra tcmplc fron rvcst looking northcast. Tanjore,Tamil Nadu, India. Cola pcriod, rcign ofRajaraja L C:r. roo3-ro.

Page 19: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

524 LATER SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

_ t ,,, ,q,r 2gc

ltI

zr.zz. Plan of Rajarejcivaratemplc. Tadore, Tamil Nddu,India. Cola period, reign of Re-jaraja I. Ca. roo3 ro.

zr.z3. Outer 3opura from west,Rajarlje(vara temple. Tanjore,Tamil Ntdu, India. Cola period,reign of Rajaraja I. Ca. roo3-ro.

2r.24. Inner 3oPara frorn east'

RaiJr: ieivrra tenrPle Tanjorc.

T;il-Nidu, Indi.r. col.r period.

reign of Rejaraja [. Ca. Ioo3-ro'

=!E iL

fi

Gt*

Page 20: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

THT COLA AND RXIATED SCHOOIS 52S

::: : i1 Nadu,: : ' :sn of Ra-

:: : . ; . Tanjore,:: Cola period,I Cr. Iooi-ro.

: : : . : . Tanjorc,: Cola period,. Cir. roo3-Io.

Page 21: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

52b LATER SCTTOOTS OF THE DTCCAN AND THr SOUTH

zr.2+). Gopuras {e not a new Gature at this timein south Indian architecture, for formauve exam-ples are knom as earV as the Pallava period.However, the forrn and emphasis given to themhere marks a departure from earlier tradition andpaves the way for the ultimate development ofthe south Indian gopura into the dominantarchitectural Gature of the temple comolex.In later sourh Indian temples. thi creation ofgopurus is intimately linked wirh the constructionof additional enclosure walls (Tnaharas) b'altsuccessively around the main temple. Ultimately,as many as seven concentric prakards were b.ulltaround some tenples, each having one or moremonumental goprras. Usually, the gopuras farth-est from the center of the temple, that is, thelatest ones, tended to be largest in size. Becauseofthis, it has often been suggested that over thecenturies, architects and Datrons became moreambitious and technically berter able to createmonumental forms and that the laree size wasthus a sign of the later date. While t"his ,nay bepartially true, it is clear that a precedent forsuch size differentiation exists it the two gopurasof the Rajarajeivara temple, where it may be{irmly establbhed that both gateways, thoughdifferent in scale, are of the same date, bothhaving been completed by ror4 as known frominscriptional evidence.l8 Therefore, another, butstill unknown, reason must explain the delib-erate change in size between the gopuras.

The form of the Rajaraje6vara golnrcs camotbe explained as an outgrowth ofearlier entrance-ways alone, in spite of their functional link withsuch structures. Harle has clearly shown thatthe form of these gateways is based on theform of the vimana itself in terms of methodsof construction, disposition of elements, andeven iconographic patterns, a fact verified byan examination of Hindu architectural texts,which reveals that new instructions were nordevised for the building of goputas, but rather,instructions for the zlnarcwere "pirated" to servein the new building.le A major modification, ofcourse, is the creation of a passageway throughthe gateway to allow novement through it.Although the basements of the Rajarajeivaragopuras are made of stone, the upper stories arebrick, a combination that becomes the norm

2r ,25. Drardpald o\ east face, inner gopura, Rejarijeivaratemple. Tanjore, Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period, reignof Rajaraja I. Ca. roo3-ro.

in south Indian gopura architecture, and thatserved the practical purpose of rninimizing theweight of the superstructure. The superstructuresof the two gateways are similar, although thatof the outer gopwa has {ive tiers, while that ofthe inner has three. Each is topped by a barrel-roofed iala. The exterior of the gateways areelaborated with pilastered niches, and somesculpture, including a pair of monumentaldvarupalas flenking the eltranceway on the outetface of the ir.ul,er goputa (Eig. zt.z5), which areapproximately two and a half tines human-size.Each stands with one leg thrust across the bodyin a_ manner not unlike contemporaneous imagesof Siva as Nataraja (Fig. 2r.34). The four-armed,fanged, dvarapalas are strikingly different instyle from figurative carvings of the earlierphases of Cola a!t, for they are heavier in bodybuild and more elaborately omamented- Inaddition, in spite of their presumed dynamic

PCErs- tl

rPPcn-{

Tffi.:r'.'rr rro&

-llgdFiriir di.'iqEribv :n <a\a.n<ii mnos bocm-ain remirtg. pil

&rine are$'est (Fig,rhe east aro the anfzof ttre ten

Althour

Page 22: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

THE COIA AND REIATTD SCHOOTS 527

3,':Fry'

2I.26. Detail, lowcr iier of rinrfla wall, Rajaraje6vara renlplc. Tan-Jore, Txmil Nidu, India. Cola pcriod, rcign ofRajara.ja L Ca. rooj_ro.

extelior treatmcnt of the walls o{ thc uinatawith its hcavily reccsscd and projccting nichcs,dceply carved pilastcrs, and huge, carved-in-the-round figures creatcs a very differcnt efecton thc viewcr (Frg. zt.z6). The scheme is muchmore elaborate rhan that of carlier ternples,consisting not only of the major der.'akasthasbut intermcdiary pillar and vase motifs (&arr6&apaijara). Tlrc deeply carved yali f i iczc 5cp.rraringthe base of the temple (which is carved withiengthy inscriptions) fiom dre wall area furtherenlivcns the wall surface. Thc lower ticr ofnichcs on tlte vimdxa wall contains mainly rep-resentations of differcnt forms of 5iva, inciudingsevcral dancing icons (Fig.2r.26). Dancing Sivaforms arc cspecially prominent in rhc later Colaperiod and appcar commonly in metal sculpture(Figs.2r.33, 2r.34) In this case, thc figure on thcright danccs the kalantuka dance, thc dance oftime and cternity, whilc that on thc lcft performs

-.:. R.jar.jeivara. : :er iod, re igD

:::e. and that:rnimizing the,:!arstructufcs.:.rhough that'''.'hile that of

: bv a barrel-:alelvays are

l.. and somenonunental

'. -.n rhe outerr_r , rvhich are.-- human-size.:.ris the body.:raorls itnagcs.:oUl-armed,

iiFerent in: ,:he carlier:r ier in body:=lented. In'':j dynarnic

poses, the figures are remarkably static inappearance, almost totally lacking the scnse ofspontaneous movement within the architccturalcontext so often seen in earlier Cola and Pallavaworks.

Aligned with the two gopwas on thc castwithin the compound. is the main templc

1 ; . _ - 1

: . ,dedrcxrcd ro Sivr. The Sivl rcmplc is prccededby an enormous monolithic reprcscntation ofNandi measuring nearly six metcrs in lcngth,now housed in a pavilion of a later date. Themain temple consists of a pillared porch, rwolargc pillared nat/apas (mukhanaxdapa and.ardhanaxdapa), ar atltdrala (vestibule), and thcshrine area, all aligncd on an axis fron.r east towest (Fig. zr.zz).In addition to the starrcase onthe east, a monumental set of stairs grvcs accessto the anturala on both thc south and north sidcsof the temple.

Although based on earlier C61a forms, the

Page 23: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

J28 TATXR SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THT SOUTH

the morc well-known anarda tan/aua. In themore hardencd treatment of detail and the lessspontaneous and naturalistic pose and expression,the figures differ greatly from carly Cola andPallava works but arc typical of thc later Cofaphase. The upper tier of figures on the vimanq,anturala, and mukhamandapa walls bears thirtyrepresentations of Siva in his Tripurdntaka(Destroyer of Threc Cities) form, in which hevanquishes thrce powerful demons by destroyingtheir thrce citadcis with a single arrow. Thcpopularitv of this theme at tlis temple suggeststhat it had a special importance ro Rejaraja Iand may have servcd as a symbol of his militarystrength and irrperial authority.zo

Perhaps the n.rost impressivc aspect of thcRajarajeivara temple ts thc uinfina, wlic]r reachesa he igh t o fappror - i rn . r re ly s ix ry r re lc rs end mryhave been lhe taile\L srructrrre in Sourh Asiaat the time it was built (Fig. zr.zr). Consistingof the base noldings, a two-tiered rvall,

"nJa superstructure rising iu a scries of fourtecndiminishing tiers, thc r.vhole is capped by amonolithic ill/iara repured to weigh eightytons: it is traditiollally hcld that this ji&fiara wasset into its prescnt position aftcr iraving beenhauled up an inclined plane about six kilon.retcrslong, the lcngth neccssary to make the slopegradual enor-rgh for the stonc to be movccl. Thctower is pyrarnidal and straight sided in profile,in contrast to thc curved shape of northern-style superstructurcs, and it is ciearly based onearlicr south lndian prccedents, consisting ofa multiplication of elements rather than creationof a new form.

Access to the anturald and garbhagrha of thetenlple is rcstricted ancl no photographs ofthese arcas havc been publishcd. Thc liigaenshrincd in thc sancruilry is said to be one ofthe fincst in all ofsouth Asia, and like rhc renlplctlr.rt hou.c' it. colossrl in rj2q. [.r rhe uppcrcylindrical stone alone mcasures tluce netcrsin he ighr and r r ro rc th rn . tven rnerc r r i r r c i r -cLrmfercnce. Surrounding the sinctLrm 1s acirculnambulatory passage, within which arethrec colossal sculpturcs of Siva, ouc cach onthe south, wcstr and nofih sidcs of the passage-way, as wcll as a scrics of paintings on the walls.

These paintings arc of great interest for they

represent rhc only major body of COla paintingknown, having been discovered in r93o whena later layer of painting of the Nayak periodbegan to f:rke off Only portions of the Colapaintings have been published, but they showa great lelationship to sculptural idioms of thetimc. A pair of malc figures that have beenidentified, perhaps without foundation, as Raja-raja I hirnself and his grrr Karuvlr Devar (Pl.33), shows that the dark line used to outlinethe figures and the details of their hair, jewelry,and facial fearure\ cre.rtcs :r configurarion quiresinilar to what one might expect if a drawingwas made of a typical Cola sculpture of thisdate (compare F\g. 2r.26, right). The alrnond-shaped cyes, the straight noses, and eveir theshapes of the faces arc stylisdc features thatmust have becn products of specific aesthcticand/or iconograpllic concerns on the pat of theartists. In contrast with earlier Indic paintings,such as thosc of Ajante, outline plays a muchmore dominant role in delineating the forms,and color is applied in a 1lat, rather than modu-lated rnamrer so that thcrc is iittle suggestion oflight or three-dimensionality created by thecolor. In gcncral, this conforns to the develop-ments occurring within painting styles all overSouth Asiil at dis titrre. It is seen, for example,in Pala nranuscripts, and western Indian Jainpaintings of r slightly later date, and continuesto bc the trajor artistic modc in later southIndian paintings as wcll. Tire palette includesprinadly cath and nineral colors, relating thcpainting styles to those of the Dcccan as se€nunder the Rasrrakiitas at Ellora or carlier underthe Vekatakas at Ajant-.

The Rajarajcivara tcnple at Tanjorc marked adcparture from thc carlicr soLrth lndian temples,which hacl becn smallcr in scale, morc personalin fccling, and sin.rpler in form, and simtltanc-ously pavcd the way for futurc strrlctLues also ofgrand scale. Such inlluence was fclt altrost im-mecliately, for Rajaraja I's son, Rejcndra I, soonfollowed his fathcr's cxaruplc and constructedtitc Cre.rr Tcrnplc. rlso crl lcd Brlr.rdcivrra. arGar\gaikondacolaputarn (Fig. zt.z7). ln totz,Ralrri jr I h.rd nr:rde RijcnJr:r rlrc yuvardja. orheir apparent, in keeping with thc general Colapracticc, arld by ror4, Rajcndra lvas on d1c

Page 24: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

C : paintingc :;3o when

\."'-k Periods :: rhe CO]a':: rhey show

::ioms of the

r-:: have been

;:ion, as Raja-;ur Devar (Pl.

seJ to outline

: hair, jewelrY,

.uuration quite

r if a drawingllpture of this

I nc almono-rnd even the

: teatures that

rcifrc aestheticthe part of the

ndic paintings,plays a much

ing the forms,

rer than modu-

i!- suggcstion of

reated by the

ro the develoP-

: stl'les all over

r. for example,:rn Indian Jainr. and continues

in later south

;.rlette includcs

..r:. relating the

)eccan as seen

..r carlier under

.:r]orc marked a

. ir.lian tcmPles,

:. nrore personal

. ;nd simultane-r:r.rctures also of

s i lt almost im-

R:'endra I, soon

-,,J aonstauatadtsrhade6vara, at

: : . :7 ) . In ro rz ,

:.-: )rttratajo, ot

::.: gcneral Cdla

.a. ..4, ot th"

throne, ruling until ro44. Rajendra I extended hisfather's empire even furthcr, making it perhapsthe most extensive Hindu state ofthe period.Dur-ing his reign, embassies were sent to China (ro16

and ro33), and he made victorious crmpaign'into northem India and broughc water fromthe holy Ganges River back to south India,thus "sanctifying" the Cola lands. Because ofthis,hc called himself conquerer of the Ganges andfounded a new capital, Gangaikondaco]apuram(City of the Cola who conquered the Ganges)to comflemorate the event.zl

Rajendra I's monumental temple at his newcapital was obviously modeled after his father'stemple at Tanjore, although the later structureis much more uneven in terms of the quality ofits workmanship. It is possible that the templewas begun even beforc the Ganges expedition(wlrich musr have taken place before toz3. as itis mentioned in an inscription of that year) andwas possibly named only after his victory. Aninscription from rozg refers to a king's palace at

THE ColA AND REIATED SCHOOTS J29

Gangaikon{acolapuram, and it is likcly that thesite had bcen consccrated before that timc.However, the temple was probably primarily aproduct of the third decadc of the eleventhcentury. Much of thc tcn.rplc complex is now inruins and some parts wcre apparently nevcrcompleted. The main structure has a double-storied basemcnt, as had thc Tanjore templc,b:ut the uimona iscs only in eight tiers to a heightof over fifty metcrs. In contrast to thc Tanjoretowe!, the Gafrgaiko4dacolapuen'\ ltilafla l1asan inwardly curved rather than straight profileand the stories seem to decrease more abruptly.Greater crowding ofthe walls ofthe rimana withsculpture than at Tanjore also occurs but, intypical Cola fashion, figures are displayed inniches with accompanying scencs.

Perhaps one of the finest sculptures from thistemple is a represcntation of Cande6Snugraha-morti (Fig. 2r.28). Siva's power to give grace toa devotee is called arugraha.lrt tlis case, he grantsfavor to a young boy named Can{eia, and

zr.r7. Bghade6vara templc from southeast. Gairgaikorllacofapurarn,Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period, reign of Rajendra I. Ca. thirddecade eleventh century.

Page 25: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

S3O IATER SCHOOLS OF THE DTCCAN AND THE SOUTH

2r.28. Siva confeEing grace on Caqdc(a, Brhadc(varatcmple. Gangaiko4dacolapuran, Tarnil Nadu, India.Cola pcriod, reigr, of Rijcndra I. Ca. tbird decadeeleventh ccntury.

therefore this for- of Si,r" is called Caqdci-

anugraham[rti- Car.rdeia was a resident of the

Cola country and a devotec of Siva. When he

tended cows, they gave so much milk that he

used thc excess in his worship of Siva by pouringit over liigas he made of sand. Thinking drat

Car.r{eia was being wasteful, iris father kicked

dorvn one of the liigas, whereupon Candeia,

without even looking up from his devotions to

see who had done this, chopped of his father's

leg. Because of Ca4deh's devotion, Siva granted

grace to thc boy.In this rcliet, Siva, who is accom-

panicd by Parvati, places a wrcath (symbolizing

victory) atop thc head of thc seated boy. It has

bccn suggestcdz2 that this dcpiction may have adouble meaning, perhaps referdng to thc victorics

won by Rajendri I through the g.".. of Siva ,s

well. Stylistically, the broad, full forms of thc

bodies ancl thc lack ofarticulation ofthe musclesand bones suggests ties to Deccan sculpture

schools rather than to strictly Tamil schools. It is

possible that Rajendra l's northward expeditionshad some effect on thc art.

By the latc Cola period, the basic conponcntsofthe devcloping south lndian temple were wellestablished, and included the principal templc,grtcways, and subsidiary stluctures. In contrastrvith many north lndian developraents, in whichtenples n-ray be discussed as single structures,the devclopcd south Indian temple must be seenas part of a large conplex, as in thc casc of theSaivitc tcmple at Cidan.tbaram. Largely aproduct of the rcign of Kulottunga I23 (ro7orr22) and his immediate succcssors, thc templcwas founded much carlicr and is even meirtionedin relationship to certain Pallava kings. Thetemplc compound consists of a serics of fourenclosurcs that are arranged in a rectilinear plan,surrounded on all four sides by extremelywide streets used by temple carts (radas) onprocession days. Thc strcets of the town havebeen laid out in such a way that they seemto be extensions of thc plan of the templeitself. lndced, the temple was thc doninantfocus of the town as well as its symbolic center.Covcring an area of about fifty-five acres,the tenplc neasures more than 3Jo meters byabout 3r5 fifteen meters along the outer (fourth)

prakara.za The fourtlt prakan, which may be theproduct of a later building period, defines thctcnple boundary, but it is at the third enclosure,which has thc highest wall, that the sacredprecinct of thc tcmple properly begins. Muchof the ternple has bcen rnodified in later tincs,including thc two rnain shrines, which are ap-parenrly lergcly rnodcrn. One of the'c i ' dedi-catcd to Siv, ;. NrtareJa. Lord of Dance, incorrnemoration of Siva's supposed pcrformanceof his cosmic dance at thc sitc. Thc other con-tains an "cther" (akaia) liigq, onc offive liigas,each made of one of the five clcmcnts of Indiccosmology, enshrincd in south Indian tcrnples.It has been suggestcd that some ofthe irrcgularityof thc ovcrall plan of the temple cornplex maybe due to the accon-rr-nodation ofthc two sl-rrines.'fhe

gopwas of the tltrd prakara, one of whichis illustrated here (Fig. zr.zg), and thc Nr'tf4SaLLa (dancc hall), a rna4(apa thlr takes the formofa temple cart (Fig. zr.3o), are ofthc latcr Colapcriod.

Page 26: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

r]rd expeditions

anc componentsr:lrple werc wellincipal templc,::c:. In contrast:r.nts, in which:rgle structures,:-J n-rust be seen. :he case of the- - T - .^- l . , -

' : r r Tz3 / rarru

i!.:s. the temple€\'en mentioned;:'a kings. The: leries of fourrr'crilinear plan,' - . . . - , . - , - ^ t , ,

2l-.s (lathas) on:be towr have

::ar they seem- i r h " t " - . 1 "

rhe dominanti mbolic centcr.ii--five acres,

_i jo meters by.:- outer (foufth):rc: may be therri. defines thc:ird enclosure,::r the sacred

tregins. Muchrn later times,'.'. hich are ap-- rhese is dedi-oi Dance, in

ej performanceTre othcr con-: of fivc liigas,:::ents of IndicLrjian temples.-:re

irregularity: --omPlex may:1: rrvo shrines.. .,ne of which=--i thc Nrttc: ::kes the form: i lre later COla

zr.zg. Sottth gopura ftoDr inside Siva ternple I-compound. Cidanbararn, Tamil Nadu,Indi.r. Complcrcd b) r272.

The thrd prakara is not perfectly rectangular inshape. Its folu gopuras are not arranged to beopposite each other; their positions may havebeen determined by the location of alreadyexisting structures in the compound. The westand east gopuras are placed south of ccnter ontheir sides, possibly to align thern with thecentral s]uines, which are off- center from thethitd prakarc- Harle has shown that all fourgopuras o{ the thnd, prakara werc conceivcd atone time, were part of an overall schemc, andare relativcly close in date. Thc west gopura,tlte earliesr, and that on rhc casr v ere in exisrenceby rz5o, and the south gopura (Fig.2r.29) wascompleted by o7z-25 The north gopura, o{tenconsidercd to be a product of the Vijayanagarperiod because of an inscription and portraitstatue of the Vijayanagar king Krsqadevaraya,was probably started in the same pcriod as theothers, although it was possibly completcd byKlsnadevaraya in the sixteenth century (closely

THE COIA AND RTIATED SCHOOIS 5?T

following the pattern of the othcr gateways).26In plan, design, form, style, iconography, and

to some extent size, there is an undcrlying unityto the fow gopurqs. Each is built of stonc up tothe main cornice, above which the structure isof brick and plaster. Although the sizc of thetowers vades slightly, each is about forty raetersin height and has a seven-story supersrrucureconsisting of -ialas, pavilions, and other featuresthat were by this time comn-ron to both uimaxasrnd gopuras and is capped by a barrel-vaultediala {Fig. zt.zg).Thc straight-sided profiles ofthetowers and the double-storied basemcnt recalltlr.e uindna of theRajarejc(vara temple at Tanjore(Frg. zr.n), supporring Harle's contcntion thatthe form of the goputa is indeed based on thatof a pimana. At the cntranccway to each gopura,a series ofpilasters is subdividcd into rcctangularunits that contain sculptures of dancc poses il-lustrating thc dance texts known as the Natya-jastras, evidently as a corollary to the dedi-

Page 27: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

532 LATEE. SCHOOLS OF TIIE DICCAN AND TIIB SOUTII

cation of the temple to Siva as Lord of Dance(Nataraja).

Iconographically, the sculptural programs ofthe fow goyuras of the third prabara present a.kind ofmicrocosm of Saivite iconography oftheCola period, for virtually every forrn of ttatdeiry known at that time is presented here. Manyof the images are identified by inscribed labelsand there is almost no repetition of images on a$ven gopura. Although the scheme of the westgopan dlffers from that of the other tbree, ingeneral, the programs are similar except for thenecessary modifications made for correct place-ment of directional figures, the dikpalas, sincethese invariably face the cardinal point of which*rey are regent. Gar.re3a is invariably placed inthe first large niche on tte outside of the facadeto the dght of the entrance and Gairga andYamune are always {ixed in the same prescribedplace. The images are of the mature Cola style,which apparently changed little after the tirne ofRajaraja I. The deeply carved figures are verythree-dimensional, an effect partially created bythe deep niches into which thev are ser.

Afteithe twelfth century, the go?r/4 surpassedthe vimana as the most dominant visual elementof the south Indian temole comolex. While theuiflafn tower was the most prominent el.mentof the Rejarajeivara temple at Tanjore (Fig.zr.zt), clearly overshadowing the still monu-mental and tmpresive gopuras, at Cidambaramand in later temples the emphasis is increasinglyplaced on the gateways. A full explanation ofthis phenomenon is yet to be made, although theaddition of extra frAkAras and gopwas was prob-ably simply the result of a desire to add toalready existing holy shrines. The increase insize remains a przzle, and as suggested earlier,cannot simply be ascribed to greater ambitious-ness on the part ofthe makers.

Another feature that began to be prevalent insourh Indian temples of the twelfth and thir-teenth centudes is the transformation o f maxdapasinto cartlike forms. The Nrtta Sabhd. at Cidam-baram, posibly built during the reign of Kulot-tunga III (1178-rz16), is an elaborately carvedhall distinguished by the presence of carvedwheels and horses, which suggest that the entirestructare is a rdtha, or temple chariot (Fig. zi.3o).

Examples of this metaphor in temple architec-ture exist since at least the early twelfth century,and it is apparently a southem irurovation, al-though its origin is still obscure. Its appearaocein the Sun temple at Konarak (Fig. 19.28) islikely to have arisen from southem iniuence.Piobably, the symbolism is associated with theconcept ofportable images ofdeities, often padeof metal. which were carried in procession inwooden temple carts, the form of which wastranslated into stone to suggest that the immobilema4lapa of the temple was such a transporter ofthe gods.

Such portable metal images, in fact, comprisea major corpus of artistic remains from theCola period, and a study of Cola-period art ishardly complete witbout discussion of them.A great deal of work needs to be done beforethe full implications of chronological, regional,and workshop distinctions are known, for mostof the images survive from the period of Raja-raja I and later, after which the Cola figural srylechanged but little. As in the case of the study ofCola temples, the problem of dre artistic debtto the Pallavas is yet to be solved. Metal imagesgenerally lack inscriptions that provide infor-mation about their place and date of manu-facture, and since there is no reason to presumethat an image found in a ternple was necessarilymade in a local workshop due to the potabilityof such iurages, great confusion arises when at-tempting to &scuss the schools ofcasting. A greattechnical proficiencv is visible in the vast ma-jority of C6la-period rnetal images, which,along with their great iconographic variety andrnultiplicity, suggests that either an importantbut unl<nown earlier tradition existed, or thatCola craftsmen quickly developed their idiomin response to favorable circumstances withinthat period. The production ofmetal images on alarge scale implies great wealth in the empire,since metals have an intrinsic value and couldalso be used for jewelry, coins, weapons, andother items. It is interesting that the Cola flore-scence coincides with the intense production ofmetal images in Bihar and Bengal under thePdlas and Senas, and one wonders if new depositsof ore were discovered at that time, leading tothe burgeoning.

:r,-aa -\-r!,Cidlnba-rrCiir FicEda.tuge:aCr &ir.Er

Taajore.cf metal irako work*at tbe T&c malyRaj"taj"itsaiptions rIodiar ia:6e norrl sare solidbotl are cposedly, x:llo;- of firas coPPelsit! the rregions-zirie draperthe workiruge undwhich thea dare selergod r,r'as "rhe god- Clugs or holbe carriedthe i,n.ge:

Page 28: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

THE COLA AND ITELATTD SCIIOOTS JJJE-: :- architec--i : ::]l centuly,

, . - . i ^ - ^ t

r- ,:: :lPPearance- : t . r9 .28) i s

::.::r iduence.:.-.=red with the:::,.. o{ten madei lrocession in

..t s'hich was:i rhe immobile.: lranspoltcr of

: iact, comprise::ins from the

. - - - i ^ l ^ - . : ^

r ion of them.:e dolre before. - , - - . - ^ i ^ - ^ l

: -. lr n, for most:::too oI t(aJa-: : irgural style- i ' h " . t " 1 . , ^ f

-.' ,rrtistic debt. \,Ietal images::ovide infor-i:rc of manu--i:r to Ptesume'...:s necessaflly::le portability

::rrcs rvhen at-

- :ie vast tr1a----:lcs. which,

: . . - - ; ^ , . , ^ - l

::r inlportants:.icrl, or that, : :hc i r id iom.::nces within

- -:: and could-. '. ' . iPons, and- -.- Cola fore-::..duction of:. .urder the

2r.3o. NI/ra SablZ, Siva ternpte.Cidanbararn, Tamil Nadu, India.Cola period, posibly rcign ofKulottunga IIL Ca. late tweifth-carly thirtccnth century.

Tanjore, Rajarajat capital, was a major centerof metal image production, although therc werealso workshops in outlying regions. It is likelythat the Tanjore workshops produced somc ofthe many images given by Rejaraja I to thcRajarejeivara temple at TanJ orc as described in in-scriptions on the base of the templc. The southIndian images differ tcchnically from those inthe north since, by and large, south Indian imagcsare solid rather than hollow cast, althoughboth arc created by the lost-wax proccss. Sup-posedly, south lndian images were made of analloy offive metals, the paiicaloha (usually givenas copper, silver, gold, tin, and lcad), in contrasrwith the octo-alloy traditional in thc northernregions.z? Finishing details, such as elcments ofthe drapery, were oftcn done by chasing afterthe work had been cast, and in particular, theimage underwcnt an eyc-opening ccremony, inwhich the details of the cyes wcrc added, ona date selected by asrrologen, at which time thegod was "awakened" and the sculpture becamethe god. Often, south Indian metal imagcs havelugs or holes in thc pcdcstals that :rllow thcn.r tobe carried with poles in processions (invariabiy,the images would be clothed and would not

appear ungarbed as tbcy arc displayed today inmuscums). Metal images were oftcn considered"proxies" for the "immovablc" deity within thesanctum of thc ternplc, and would be carricd inprocessions and in circumambulation of thetemplc.

South lndian metal imagcs, like thcir northerncounterparts, often form part of iconographicgroups or scts. A typical group consists of amale dcity, his consort, and various attendantfigures, sometimcs enacing a spccific subject.For example, a group of f igurcs, four in ail,r,cpresents Kalyanasundara, or the Marriagc ofSiva and Parvati (Fig. zr.3r). Thc group isfrom Tiruvcnkadu and posibly datcs fron thecarly elevcnth celtr]ry, that is, from thc pcriodof Rajareja I- The figures appcar in hicrarchicscale. Siva, tl.Le largest, holds thc hand ofparvati,who is approximetely equal in sizc to Visnu.Laksmi, the consort of Visnu, is proportionatelythc same sizc in relation to Visnu that Parvati isto Siva, the appropriate scalc Letwccn god andconsort. The prescrvAtion of this figurc groupas a r rn i t p ror idcs an oppor run i ty ro e \dnr in (lour figurer ofdiffcrcut god. rluc rie ofrlrc sanredatc and workshop, and thus cstablish a certain

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5J4 I-ATER SCHOOTS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

2r.3r. Marriagc of Siva and PtNatr (Katyenasundarannrti). FronrTiruvenkadu, Tanil Nadu, India. Cola period, possibly rcign ofR,jar4a L Ca. cerly eleventh cenlury. Bronze. H: 9J crlr. (Siva)-Tanjore Art Gallery, Tanjore.

stylistic control. Too often, scholars attemPt to

anall zc 'tylc by studying figures rh rt .rre icono-

graphically dissirnilar, in which casc it is diltrcult

to difl-erentiatc stylistic charactcristics flom

iconographic Gatures. In gcncral, for example,

fcmale {igures are shown in a rclaxed posture

while Visr]u is normally shown frontally and

stiffiy posed. An analysis of "style" based on

rclativc relaxation ofpose, a valid index in sorne

cases, would thus be inappropriate in such an

instance. Stylistically, the facial features and thctreatmcnt of the garments and ornaments find

close parallels with contemporaneous stone

,culptrrrct. this i ' also clcarJy te.n in an inrrgc

of Sin" ",

Bhiksatana (Figl zr.3z) also frotr

Tiruvenkadu in the Tanjore district clating from

,bout rhc mid-elevcnrh century. (An inscription

dated to the eguivalcnt of a.n. ro48 may rcfer

to this image.z8) Compared with the carlier

example of the samc subject on the Nage(va-rasvemi templc (Fig. zr.tr), which rcvealed

the heritage of Pallava-type naturalism, this{igure more closcly parallels stone images fronthe time of Rajareja I and later in the full formsof the body, broad shoulders, and the rathercrisply delincated detail.

Perhaps the subject par excellence of the Coltpcriod is the form of Siva known as Nataraja,Lord of the Dance, of which a vadety of types

Sppear in Dretal sculpture. Dancing forms ofSiva (literally, (ttd murti) were not new at tlistime, but the Cola patronage of the Cidambararntemple dedicated to Siva as Nataraja and theproduction of numerous representations ofNataraj:r during dre Cola period signify that theicon had a spccial meaning in Cola tin.res. Siva'sdancing forms appear in both angry and pacifrcaspects and depict individual dances he perforrnedon specific occasions, the most famous ofwhichwas the dance to dcstroy thc universe in ordcr thatit could be rebon again. ldentification of thedance depends on both hand and lcg positions and

Page 30: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

ruralism, thisr images om',le fulI forms

ni the rather

e of the Colar as Nagar5la,riery of typesing forms of)t new at this: Cidambaramraraja and thesentations of

3nify that thea tirnes. Siva'sn- and pacificrhe performed:lous of which;e in order thatiedon of ther positions and

zr.tz. Siva as Bhik:alana. From lrruvenkrdu. T.rmilNedu, India. Cdla pedod. Ca. mid-eleventh centuy,possibly ro48. Bronze. H: 89 cm. TaIljore Art Gallery,Tanjore.

on subsidiary or accornpanying elements. Oneof the earliest known Cola Naqaraja bronzes isfrom Tiruvarangalam, probably dating from themid-tenth century, which shows Siva in thecatwa pose cltaracterized by the two bent legswith the right leg bearing the weight of thebody and the left posed with the heel up and thetoes on the ground (Fig. 2r.33). (A reversal oftheleg positions would indicate that Siva was inthe lalirc pose.) His four arms are gracefullyposed; the front left is h the da4fuhasta position('ttaflhand"; sometimes also called gajahastaor "elephant-hand" since it resembles the trunkof an elephant); the back left holds a flame;the back right holds a drum ((anaru); and thefront right is in the abhaya pose. Siva dances onthe back of the dwarf Apasmdra (Moya!aka),who symbolizes ignorance. This image. in rermsof its grace and the lilting effect of the pose,is surpassed by none in South Asian art, andshares, with stone sculptures of the early Cola

THE COLA AND RLLATED SCHOOIS (?{

zr.3 3. Siva Nalaraja in catwa pose. From Tiruvaranga-lam, Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period. Ca. mid-tenthcentury. Bronze. Hi 7z cm. National Museum, NewDelhi.

period, a sense of inner liG and naturalisrn.A more commonlv depicted form of Siva

Natarajafromthe Coli period shows the god withhis left leg thrust across his body performingthe dnanda tatllava (datce of blis$, also called thenadanta,zs as seen in a large image dating fromaround the twelfth century (Fig.2r.34). Thenad'anta is believed to have been performed bySiva at Cidambaram afrer vanquishing a groupof heretical ruiJ. According to some textualsources, Siva had taken the form of Bhiksatana,the wandering ascetic, and was accompanied byVipqu in the form of Mohini, the Gmale seduc-tress, when he went to visit the rji.t to test them.However. the rgrs attempted to desrroy Sivaby creating {irst a tiger, then a serpent, andthen a dwarf (Apasmtra or Mriyalaka), each ofwhich Siva overcame in turn. These creaturessymbolize the threefold bonds or Gtters to beovercome by the r;is, with the tiger represent-inq their beast-nature or untamed minds, the

Page 31: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

536 LATER SCHOOIS OF THE DTCCAN AND THX SOUTH

snake denotirlg such evil traits as cgoism, andthe dwarf, thcir ignorance. It is possible that thethree creatures symbolize the tirrcc "miseries,"the fear of which Siva is saicl to dcstroy duringhis dance.3o The dancc, thcn, reprcsents thiheretics' ovcrcoming of their inherent character-istics, which were obstacles to their realization(and recognition) of Siva and rhe rcsultant endto thc cycle of rcbirth. Coomaraswamy, in hisclassic essay on the dance of Siva, says that the"Esscntial Significance of Shiva's Dance isthreefold: First, it is the image of his RhythmicPlay as the Source of all Movcment within theCosmos . . . Secondly, the purposc of his Danccis to Release the Countlcss souls of men from thcSnare of Illusion: Thirdly, the Place of theDance, Chiclambararn, the Centre of thc Uni-verse, is within the Heart."3l As in the casc ofmost religious icons in SoutL Asia, a profoundmeaning as wcll as a narrative or cxotelc oneis thus in.rplied.

..In, the typical nadann itrLage (Fig. zr.3a),)lva s arms are arranged rn the same nannef :lsin the preccding inagc and hc holds the sameattributes. The drum, according to one text thatCoomaraslvarny consulted,s2 syn-rbolizes creation,and as a musical instrunrcnr is cspecially ap-propriate to the dancing modc. The fire, accord-ing to the srme soLlrcc, represcnts dcstruction,whilc tlre abhaya nndra deirotes releasc and thegajahasta pose poi:iLts to thc,lifted foot, thc refrrgeof thc sor-rl. Typically, Siva clances upon thedwarf rvhour he has just vanquished, and hewexrs thc clcfcated snake as all orn:rnent. lntextual clescriptions, Siva is said to wear the skinof thc tiger that had been crcatccl by the rsrs asvu'ell, although this is often absent in bronzeimages. Horvevcr, since it is invariably depictcclin paintings, it nay have been includetl as anacrua l c lo t l r fo compl ( tc r l rc b ronze i r r r . tgc . . anobvious suggestion, sincc invarirbly the metalimages were drcssed with clothes and aclornncntsduring their worship. Thus, the tluee bcastscreateti by thc rsls to detcr Siva would have beenan integral part of thc total imagc. A ritr of fircsurrounds the ccntral image, and this elementhas becn vrriously intcrpretcd by differcntauthors. On one level, it may be suggested dratthe rim of fire may syrnbolize thc purifying

2r.34. Si"" Natareja pcrforning the natJa a. FronTanii N:du, India. Cola period. Ca. twetfth century.Brorrzc. H:96 crD. National Muscum, New Delhi.

cremation fire through which thc individual isrelcased fron.r this world. The burning ground,according to Coomaraswamy, is not thc placewherc our earrhly bodics are cremated, but inthe hcarts of Siva's lovers, thc "placc where theego is destroycd [thc crematorium] signi{ies thestate wherc illusion and deeds are burnt away."33Siv^'s jatus (hair) fow outwarrl roward the rimof flane and bcar a representation ofrhe goddessGanga, an allusion to the desccnt of the Gangesand pcrhaps hcrc a symbol of purification aswcll. Other elen.rents of tire irnage such as theearrings and othcr adornments also have syn-bolic meaning, rendering the image a complexassemblage of ideas.

Ako popularly represented in Cola metalirrragery arc depitions of rhe Krrna incamarionof Vis4u- Krsna is sornctimes shorvn as a youngboy dancing upon thc serpent Kaliya (Fig. 2r.35),who had bccn contaminating the waters of apond at Vrindavana, wherc Krsna lived as achild. By dancing on the hoods of the serpent,

Page 32: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

THE COIA AND REIATED SCHOOI,S JJ7

:-rividual is

- .L- ^t^^-

: : ld, but in-: --.' rr herc the

,::nif ies thej a:ri a1vay."33

..:rJ the rin.L: ::r.' goddess: :he Ganges::::rcation as

: ,:rch as the' rave sym-

:- l complex

Cala metal::ncarn2tloll--- rs a young: F i g . 2 r . 3 5 ) ,'.'. aters of a

, i ived as a

2r.35. Krsna on Kaliya. Fron Tamil Nadu, India. Cdlapcriod. Ca. terrh century. Bronze. H: 59 cDr. NatioualMuseum, New Delhi.

he rcduced Kaliya to helplessness, causing theserpent ro repeni. It is tempting to draw rparallcl to the Nataraja imagery, although theKrsna icon is lcss complicated, for herc KrsnadeGan Kaliya, whosc namc is a variant of theword kala, mcaning rine. In this act, thcn,Krsna is thc ovcrcomcr of time, and hencc theprovider of ir.nmorality, and his dcGat ofKaJiy.r may bc contparcd botlr ro Durga'sdelcar of Mahis.r nnd Srv,'. derrrucrion oflhetriple fctters by his dance. The image showndates fiom around the tcnth century.34

In addition to representations of deitics anddeiry groups in Cola bronzes, a number ofhuman devotecs and saints arc also popuiarlyportrayed. One of the most dramatic of suchimages shows the female Saivite saint KaraikkalAmmaiyar, whose ernaciated form and hideousappearance testify to the severity ofthe penancesand dcvotions she pcrformcd in order to sce thebeatific vision of Siva dancing (Fig. 2r.36). Two-arncd, as is general for human devotces, she

2r.36. Karaikkal Amnaiyer. FroDl Tanil Nadu, India.C0la period. Ca. twelfrh century. Bronze. H: 4r.5 crn.Nelson Gallcry-Atkins Museurn, Kansas Ciry (NelsonFund).

holds a pair ofcyurbals and appcars absorbed inher dcvotions. Her boly body, scant garb, andfangs suggest the negation of physical beauty infavor ofthe vision ofthe divine.

Another mctal imagc shows the saint MaqikkaVasahar (Manikka Vachaka), who is believedto have practiced austcrities at Cidambaram anclmiraculously to havc given the gilt of speechto t ) rc n r r r te d . r r rghrc r o fc Co la k ing ( f ig . -z r .3z) .Thc image datcs from about the twclftl.r ccntury,although thc issue of whcn thc seint himselfactually iived is debatecl. Manikka Vesahar'sdevotional appeal is among the strongest of theTamil Saivite saints, possibly becausc the hyrnnshe composed givc great importance to the ex-pression of emotion. In one verse, for example,he implores Siva's blessing:

O Siva wreathed with honeyed blossours,"When shall comc rhe monr

When Thou wilt grant Thy grace to me?"I cry with anguish torn.s5

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5-td rATER SCHOOLS Or THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTr{

2r.37. Manikka Vasalur. From TarDil Nadu, India.Cola period. Ca. twelfth cenrury. Bronze. H: Jr cn.National Museun, Ncrv Delhi.

In this image, as in others of saints frorn thc lateCola pcriod, sometling of thc naturalism andgrace found in early Cola-period art seems topcrsist, for the figure stands in a rclaxed (thoughstandardized) pose and thc artist has taken greatcare to emphasize the smooth contours of thebody.

Buddhist metal imagcs, though less wellknorvn than those of the Hindus, wcre alsoprociuced during the Cola period. At Nagapag-tinam in the Tanjore district, which had been anirnportant tsuddhist site at least since the Pallavaperiod, numerous mctal imagcs of the Colaperiod were found in hoards in the monastery

2r.38. Bodhisattva Maitreya. From Negapattinam,Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period. Ca. eleventh ccnrury.tsronze, I:l: :9 cm. Madras Govcrnmerlt Mus€um,Madras.

area and near the Chinese brick pagoda.so Manyof the images show a striking similarity in styleto contemporaneous Hindu sculptures, as dem-onstrated by a figure of Maitreya (Fig. 2r.38).This imagc shows the bodhisattva holding arosary in his upper right hand; his upper lefthand may once have held. a nagal<esara flower,whilc the lower left hand is in urada mudra, andthe iowcr right is in thc abhaya mudra. He rsrecognizcd by the stupa in his headdress. In thetreatment of thc facial features and details of thecostume and jewelry, the sculprure stronglyresemblc Cola Hindu images of about theeleventh century.

CoNcrusror . r

The COla period may be seen as one ofconsider-abie artistic unity, yet a great deal ofrichness anddiversity is also present. Within the Cola period,south lndian art underwent a major alteration.

Whilc works fiom the early Cola period main-tain something of the simplicity, naturalisn,and more personalized scale that were character-istic ofearly south Indian idioms, as those of the

Page 34: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

Pallavas and other dynastids, later Cola worksare often rnarked by a greater formality in thedepiction of figures and by monunentaliry andambitiousness in the architectural schemes, suchas the tall vimanas ar'd. gopuras of temples. By thelate Cola period, the Hindu pantheon manifested

THE CdlA AND R.ELATED SCHOOTS Jrg

in art had gready expanded and many forms thathad not been seen earlier began to appear. Incontrast vr'ith a number of contemporary artschools in the north, virtually no

"roti" ,uLi..t

appear in Cola art.

century.,\4useum,

36 Manyin' in style

as dem-2r .3 8 ) .

holding aupper lefto fower,

eudra, andHe isIn the

ils of thesrrongly

about the

maut-

raturalism,c-haracter-

of the

Page 35: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

Pallavas and other dynasdirs, later Cola worksare often marked by a greater formality in thedepiction of figures and by monurnentality andambitiousness in the architectural schemes, suchas rhe taTl yimanas and goputas of temples. By thelate Cola piriod, the Hindu pantheon manifested

THB Co[A AND RELATTD SCHOOLS Sjtg

in art had greatly e*panded and rnany forms thathad not bean seen earlier began to appear. Incontrast with a number of contemDorarv arrschools in the north, ,rimr"lly no eroic subl""tsappear in C6!x ert.

36 Manyin style

as dem-(Fig.2r .38) .

holding aupper left

fower,madrn, and

He isIn the

&tails of thestrongly

about the

main-naturalism,

character-&ose of the

Page 36: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

* : - - : a ' :

: ! - : :

---,- : : :r

: i : , _ : __ :

: -:'::a-._:

CHAPTER TWENTY-Tvr 'O

Later Deccan Schools

: ::a--: ii:,i j

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: ] . . ' . - inin:,

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elrhough n

ano. ln _qenor studicd

perhaps be

and can'in

Although rlrauy of the most fanous and impor-tant monulnents of South Asian art are locatedin the Dcccan, the artistic dcvclopr.ncnts of tl.rcregion as a whole, from the earliest to dre latcstperiods, arc rarely discussed and poorly undcr-stoocl. At lcast since the time of tl.rc Early Wcst-ern Calukyas, rltonurrrerrts in purely northernand southern styles lvcre built in tl.rc Dcccan,a fact that is rlot surprisillg considering thegeographic position of the region. In addition,many temples were built that bore Gatures ofboth nordrern and southern typcs at oncc alongwith individualizing characteristics that defytraditional classification. These temples belongto what nust be considcred to be a broadlybased "Deccan style," within which, of course,there is considerable variety. It is likely thatthe Deccan style encompasses the uesara formdescribed in textual sources.l Frequently, thesetexts descdbe the three major architecturaltypcs of ancicnt India as tagarc, drauila, ar'duesara. Ndgaru, which literally means "pertainingto the city" (posibly indicating the origins of

the form), is rvidely acccpted as referring to thetemple types lnost commonly found throughoutnortherlr India; &avi/a, as thc namc implies,rcfers to the southcru, or Dravidian, style;uesara literally rrcans "rn e" and, by irnplica-tion, a hybrid, and thus might be an apt descdp-tion of the mixed arclitcctural forms of theDeccan. However, it is difficult to apply thetcrn-r to specific examples instead of just to ageneric typc, although thc aesara designation isusually assumed to be most appropriatc to thebuildings of dre Later Calukyas of Kalyar.ri andthe Hoysalas.

In spite of tlre mixed character of Deccana.t, to view it as simply a bridge between thenorthem and southcm styles or as no ll]orethan a con.rbination of those two better under-stood stylc groups lvould be to overlook thesignificant devclopnents in both tcmple buildingand sculptllre that are preservcd in the Deccan.Within this geographic area, nLrmerous formaldistinctions may be made, at least somc of whichare depcndcnt upon regional factors. Late

Detai l oJ, , .21.

540

Page 37: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

sculpture styles of the western Dcccan, forexanple, tend to depict a full-bodicd, robustfigure typc, probably rcllective of earlier tradi-tions in that arca sLrch as that of the Vakarakas.Conversely, in thc cast, following the carlicrpatterns establishcd undcr the Satavehanas andIksvakus, sculpted figures tend to bc lcan and

IATER DtrCCAN SCHOOTS 541

slender. The full raruifications of thc stylisticdevelopments of the Deccan are yet to be nradeknown and it is posible at this time only toprovidc a bricf outlinc of the major develop-ments. As in othcr rcgional styles, religiouspatronage and other factors had great beadngon the evolution of the forms.

THE IVESrERN GANGAS oF TA IAK ID (T lN r I r C r l r r uqy )

:::rring to the-: rhroughout

. . , , . , . . . . , t - .: . . . i , - - - l i - ^

: r:nrs of the:,. rpply d1eri -just to a

- : ' i iqrlatioo is-':irtc to thc\ .LLr in i . rnd

:: oi Deccan, :a!\l een the

.:i t10 n1(Jre_::rer unclcr-', rrlook the

:..:re br-rilding' :t:a Dcccan.:::.r lrs fotmal

: : ; o f rvh ich: : :ao15. La tc

From the sccond to the eleventh centruy A.D.,kings of the so-callcd Ganga line rulcd ovcrparts of r,vl.rat is now Karnataka (formerlyMysore) statc, usually as fcudatories of morepowerful ruling families. Onc branch of thisfamily, the hstcrn Grngas, came to be powcrfulit Orissa rnd, as 1vc bave seen, clistinguishcdthcr-nsclvcs thlough the impressivc nlonllneDtsrhcy built. The Wcstcfn Gxngas had their capitalat Talakad and \4'cre pron.rincnt pxrticularly inthe tcnth ccntury. This fanily playcd an impor-tant rolc in thc polidcs of the Dcccan duringtl.re last period of Rastrakuta mle bur wcrcsubjugatcd in roo4 when the Colas capturedTalakad.

Historical and political information about theGangas survivcs in thc nun-rerous hero stoncs(r,trag,r/s) ploduccd to commcnorrtc the deathsof warriors and m.:n-rbcrs of the royal linc inkeeping with a prxctice that s.as prevalcntthroughout the Deccan sincc carly tilles. Onccxar.r.Lplc, fron.r l)oddrhundi in I{arnaLakr, shorvsthe dcath of thc Western Garisr kins Nitimarga(lI) and dates lrom arould 9zo (Fig. zz.r).Reclining on a couch, thc king is attended byt$''o mxlc figurcs. Thc rathcr aninated forlDsof tl.re three figures, inciucling that of thc dyingking, are typical of Wcsteru Ganga hero stoncdeptc t rons . Js a re the cos tL , rncr . con . i . t i rLgprimarily of loincloths, and thc hairstyle, rvitbits distinctive topknot.

Important Wcstcrn Ganga renains are foundrathcr cxtcrlsivcly at their capitxl city, Talakad,

" l t l ' oug1 ' m. rny o f t l r c r r ronr r r r .n t . . . l c i r r ru i r ) .aocl, in general, none havc been rn iclcly publishedor sttdicd. Instead, the Western Gangas arcpcrhaps best known fot a nunlber of sffucturcsand carvings at thc ,Jain holv sitc of Sravena

ez.r. Hero stone showing dcath ofKing Nitirnarga (II).Frorn Do{{ahundi, Kernataka, India. Westem Gdlgaperiod. Ca. 92o. Granjle. H: r46.J crr. Statc Archaeo-logical Muser.rm, Bangalore.

lSelgola in Kamalaka, a center rcputcd to havebeen irnportant at lcast since thc tir-r-re of theMaurya dynasty. ln 982, thc ministcr of thcWestcrn Ganga king Rajan:rlla IV, ClnundaRaya, dcdicated an inpressive Jain terrple atSravana Belgola, commonly known as theCamunda R-ya ,aJli (Fig. zz.z), and at thc samcplace in the loilorving year, 983, he dedicatedthc colossal strtue of Behubali, popularly calledGommaqe(vara (Fig. zz.3)., A dcvout Jain,

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J42 LATER SCHOOLS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

22.3. Behubaii (Gornmate(vara). Sravana Belgola,Karnataka, India. Westen Ganga period. Dedicated in983. H: ca. r8 m.

22.2. C^tu]\da Raya temple from southeast. SravalraBelgola, Karnataka, India. Western Ganga period.Dedicatcd in 982.

Cdrrrund.r l(ayr was a distinguished gcncral. aLnowledge:rblc gcnrlemrn *h"o kncw a nrrmberof languages, and the author of the CanundaRayn Pura4a. a work dared 978 in rhe I; lKannada language. The granite temple (6asrl)is cssentially southern in form, as secn in thetiered superstruct[re over the shrine and thepilastered walls. The absence of figure sculpturebetween thc pilasters or in nichei in the wallsis a feature often found in Jain ternples in theDeccan and the south, although is not exclusivcto them. Such treatment continues one trendvisible at lcast sincc the time of the Early WesternCalukyas (Fig. r5.r).

The colossal statue of Gommateivara (Fig.zz.3)

_is_ said to be the largesr free-standingmonolithic sculpture in the worid, reaching aheight of abor.rt eighteen meters. By virtue ofits location on top of a hill, it can bc seen forgreat distances around. In form, the figure iscluractcrized by high, squarc shoulders, curlyhair, a flat nose, thick lips, and a small waisi.

: : : : : : :- .--:;-::_. 1

: . : : - . - : . . : : i

- . : i , - ; a

' ' - . . . . . :

: : : : - : : - l : : :

Page 39: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

As in thc casc of many other Jaln ln-tagcs, astiffness pervades the statte. This, however, isnot a stylistic or artistic deGct but rathcr rcflcctsthe communicative content of thc imagc. Itmight be suggestcd that thc dry, sometimeslifcless, effcct ofJain art is due to the fact thatthc Jain saints and ttrthaikaras are considered tobc bcyond the material, sensual world and itsattachments. Instead, they represent the realnlof pure objectivity. Gommate6vara, thc son ofRsablranadra, the first tirthaikara, was a Jain

LATER DECCAN SCHOOLS J 4Ji

saint who stood so long in meditation that vincsgrew up around his unnoving body. Hisposture is a spcci{ic standing meditation poseknown as kayotsarga, which is characterized bythe firmly planted fcet, unbent knces and arms,and thc positioning of the arms so that they donot touch the body. The slight smile on thcface of the saint indicates his inner tranquility,and it docs not interrupt the sense of concentra-tion that tbe inage convcys.

THE LArER Caruxvas oF KALvANi (973 ro ca . r r89)

::i:ast. Sravana-:nga period.

- . : ^ - - - -^ l "::: .r' a nulnbet: ::te Camu4(a: : n t h e l o c a l

:. seen in the---:rne and the:::re sculpture,, in the walls

; :.ot exclusive-.s onc trend::rly Wcstern

:iee-standing- - - " - l - i -^ -

Br- virtue of::. be seen for

. small waist.

In approximately 973, the Rastrak[gas, who ]raddominated the Deccan for norc than twohundred years, were finally overtbrown by TailaII, founder ofthe Later Calukya line, ruling fromKalyani in what is now Andhra Pradesh. Thisfamily claimed dcsccnt from the main line ofthe Early Western Calukyas of Sadami. nxceptfor a brief interregnum of approximatelytwenty-five years, when their Kalacuri feuda-tories wrested control frorn thcm, thc LaterCalukyas of Kalya4i remained in power untilaround rr89. Thc Later Calukyas of Kalyaniare irnportant not only politically and artistically,but also because one oftheir kings, VikramadityaII, was the patron of thc famous poet Bilhar.ra,author of tlre Cawapaicalika.

The art of the Later Celukyas of Kalyani isoften seen as a kind of link between thc arttraditions of the Early Western Calukyas andthose of thc Hoysalas. This is suggcsted bythe fact that sorne of their earlier monLrncnrsare built in sandstone, continuing the earliertradition, while thc later ones arc invariablymade of a finc-grained chloritic schist that lcntitself to finer carving and greater detail andpavcd the way for the intricacy of Hoysalasculpture. However, Later Calukya art andarchitecture is more than just a link betweentwo other art schools; it repr€sents a ra'idespreadtradition that had important effects on Deccanart. More than fifty extant temples havc bccnidentified as belonging to the Later Calukyaperiod, ranging in location from Andl.rra Pradeshin thc east to Karlataka in thc wcst, with many

of then.r conccntratcd in the vicinity of Gadag,nor l irr From rhe Early Wc'tern C.rlrrkya sicesof Aihole and Badami. Unfortunately, few ofthcsc temples have receivcd rnuch notice, andnone has been fully studied and intcgratcd intothe body of knowledge concerned with southAsian artistic developments. Further, Kalya4i,the dynastic capital, which undoubtcdly con-taincd some of the most important art rnonu-ments, is largely in ruins and has not beenreconstructed. Thus, though the importance ofLater Calukya art is evident, it is not fullyunderstood.

Howevcr, the Mahadeva tenplc at Ittagi,near Gadag, cxcmplifies the developed style ofthe l - r te r Ce iukyr . o I Ka lyanr (F ig . z : .a ) . Bu iJ rby Mahadeva, a military oflicer of VikranadityaVI, and callcd "emperor amoug tcmpies"(deualaya ukrauarti) in ir ' forrnd.rtion inscriprion.the ternple was dedicated in Saka ro34 (a.o.rrrz).3 Thc main structluc faces east and is thccentral unit ofa group ofstructures on a tenacc.It consists of a pillared hall wit]r a porch oneach side of it, an antechanber, and shrinc(Fig. zz.5). A pil lared na4dapa to thc east of itcomplctes the temple schemc. Thc antechanberlocated bctwccn thc pillared hall aud thc shrine isnot visible fron.r thc cxtcrior except that ir is de-marcated above by a projecting elemcnt of thcsuperstructurc atop the shrinc. The supcrstrlrctureis ticrcd in typicaily southcrn fashion althoughthc uppermost portions have becn rebuilt andtheir original appcarance is not known. In-creased elaboration in the trcatment of the

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544 LATER SCHOOLS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

IDt

22.6. I)etall, wall treatnen! ofMahadeva temple. Illagi, Karqa-taka, India. Period of LaterCalukyas of Kalyani- Dedicatedin Saka cra ro34 (A.D. rrr2).

a

.-'-

22.4. Mahadcva ternple, rearsections fron llorrh. Illagi, Kar-

4,!aka, India. Pcriod of LaterC,lukyas of Ka1ya4i. Dedicatedin Saka era ro34 (A.D. rrr2).

relr

z.:.,s. Plan of Mahedeva tenple. Ittagi, Karnataka,India. Period of Later Calukyas of Kalyani. Dedicaredin Saka era lol4 (A.D. rrr2).

l

.l

-

Page 41: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

.ll Eealment of >le. hlagi, Karna-enod of LaterhaDi. Dedicated(-LD. r 112).

6ple, rearIqragi, Kar-d oi Later- Dedicatedrt12).

exterior wall surfaces, moldings, and superstruc-ture indicate a departure from Early WestemCalukya traditions and anticipate the Hoysaladevelopments. Wall treatment includes pilasters,deeply carved niches (rnany of which have towerforms above them as repetitions of the mainforrn of the viuarc ttself), ar.d figurative sculp-ture (Fig. 22.6). Because of the projecting bayson the limafla especially, the form of the struc-ture appears to be scalloped ratkr than simplyrectangular. The large na4d.apa to the east of thetemple odginally contained morc than sixtypillars. Many of them, like some on the exreriorporches of the temple, are so perfectly shapedthat it is sometimes said that they were lathe-turned, a claim also made regarding many otherpillared structures in the Deccan. Like almost alltemples of the Later Calukyas, this structuredoes not have an interior passageway for cir-cumambulation.

IATER DECCAN SCHOOTS 54J

An approximately contemporary or perhapsslightly later example of a Later Calukya monu-ment is the Dodda Basappa temple at Dambal,also near Gadag (Fig. 22.7). Unlike orherstructures ascribed to the Later Calukyas, thistemple has a stellate plan (Fig. zz.8), similarconceptually to a type frequently seen in Hoysalamonuments (Fig. 22.38). However, it differsfrom even the Hoysala examples, in which onlythe uimina is stellate, for here both the matl/apaar.d vimana are stellate. In this casc, thc sanctuaryis based upon a twenty-four pointed star andthe mandapd upon a thirty-four pointed star,although the actual number of points is smaller,since some are omitted due to the juncturebetween the separate halls and the addition ofentry stairs into the natl(apa. The angles of thestellate plan are right, not acute, indicating thatthe design ofeach star was formed by rotating asquare around a central point. Stellate templeswere not an innovation at this time, as exan-rplesare known from much earlier periods of Indicarchitecturc. However, the complexity andrichness of the form is characteristic of the latestyle to be brought to culmination under theHoysalas. Temples such as this and the previousexample clearly suggest something of the com-bination of northern and southem elernentsthat characterizes much of Deccan architectureand may represent the ,esara type. The tieredtreatment of the superstructure of the vimana,for example. is clearly .ourhern in origin. yetthe profile created by the diminished n.rasonrycourses and delicatc carving suggests the typicalnorthen-style iikhara (Fig. zz.7). In particular,this superstructure has a soaring and vcrticalprofile, reminiscent ofnorthern forms. The wallpattern, consisting of pilasters, niches, and otherrepeating architectural elements, but generallylacking fi gurative scnlpture. indicates as5ociarionswith southern Indian architectural styles.

The sculpture style of the Later Calukyas ofKalyar.ri evolved over tirne and was subject toregional variation, just as was the case in otherimportant art traditions of South Asia. Anexample offigurc sculpture is found in a carvingfiorn Jalasangavi in Karnataka, which dates fromaround t roo and depicrs a womJn wriring aSanskrit inscription in the Kannada soipt (Fig.

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J46 LATER SCHOOLS OI THE DTCCAN AND THE SOUTH

'

: : .9. -Wonlanlndia. PeriodStone. i\'luserResesrch lnsll

' : ': ] _-_\;22.7. DoQll Basappa temple. Pambal, Kerrr.Fkr, Indir.of Later Ca lukyas of Kal l a nr. Early twelfth centurl .

Fo_ ro 5q 6lr

.Q F rp 1,5 Za

22.8. Plan of Dodda Baseppl temple. Dambal, Karnalaka, India.Period oflater Calukyas of Kaly,rli. Early twelfth century

Page 43: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

22.9.-Wonun wriliDg. Fron Jalasangavl, Kar4llaka,India. Period of Later Calukyas of Kalyeti. Ca. rroo.Stone. Museun of Arc and Archaeology, Karura{aRcscarch Institute, KarDetaka University, Dharwar.

22.9). lntcrestingly, the inscription itsclf mcntionsthe nanre of King Vikramaditya Yl$o76 ttz6)of the Crlukya family and thereby provides theapproximate date. Undcr Vikramaditya VI,during whose reign thc Mahadeva temple atIttagi was built, the Later Calukyas were saidto have cxpcricnced a florescencc in art andliterature. This sculpture, with its epigraphcleverly intcgratecl into thc composition andstory, demonstratcs thc skill ofthe Later Calukyaartist in rcpresenting a figurc in a twistcd, com-plicated pose. Thc gcncrous body proportionssuggcst tics to other $.estern Dcccan styles ofcarlicr pcriods, as seen in the round hips andthighs, br.rt the aimost contortcd pose and profileview of the facc suggest associations rvithnorthern sculpture styles of thc Solankis or

IATXR DTCCAN SCHOOLS J47

C.,ndell.rs. Hervily laden with ornanrentationrnd r je roe led g i rd le . rhe f ig r r re rn t i c ipa tes nranyof thc carvings of the Hoysala dynasty.

The downfall of thc Latcr Celukyas wasfacilitatcd by thc risc ofthe Kalacuris of Kalyanr,,r,ho were scions of the Cedi Kalacr,rris (Hai-haya$. These later Kalacuris seized controlfrom the Calukyas of Kalyani fiorn about r 156to rr8r, and by rr89, the Calukyas had beenweakened suficientJy to aJlow two other familiesto rise to power: the Yadavas, in the northernpart of thc cmpirc, and the Hoysalas, in thcsouth. A third dynasty, that of the Kakatryas,had already claimed scme ofthc eastern realms ofthc Calukyas. The Kalacuri interregnum, thoughbrief, v'as important culturally sincc tbis fan.ilypatronized the so-called Lingayat or Vira6aivareligious n-rovement. In particular, a rcvival ofthis religious group r''as led by one Basava (r rz5-

7o?), r ho became primc ministcr under theKalacuri king Bij jala (rt56-68). Sti l l a popularreligious forcc in this rcgion of India today, theVira(aivas arc ardcnt devotees of Siva who mayhave exerted what might be considered a"negative" influence on templc building and artin tiris region, since they do not believe inbuilding temples or in worshiping in thcm.Instead, cach devotee wcars a iiiga in a smallcase:lroLlnd his ncck and thus cach carrics hisown sign of thc god. In somc rcspccts, theVira(aivas nay havc been influenced by theIslamic rcligion, r'hich had dccply penetratedportions of hrdia by thc twclfth ccntury. Forexample, in contrast to the usual Hindu practiceo f c rcmr t ion . t l re Vr r . t ' . ' i ras b ruy t l re j r dc rd :in additiol, thcy do not beJievc in a caste systenlor in thc privilcgc of the brahnans,3nd they be-licvc in thc unity of a single god, Siva. Further,thcy rcject traditional rit.rals and Hindu forms ofworship. It is possiblc that thc iconoclastic con-ccpts of drc Muslims were known by the Vira-(aivas and ied to thcir anti-tcnple and anti-imagc practiccs. While it is of course not possibleto talk ofViraiaiva art or arcl tecture because ofthis, in the context of lndic art, such a rcligioussect is important as a rcninclcr that thc materialobjccts that wcrc originally produced and thosethat reurain providc only a partial picture ofcultural life in ancient India.

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54d IATER SCHOOTS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

T H E Y a D A V A s o F D E V A G T R T ( i r 9 i t o r 3 r r )

Upon the collapse of the Later Calukyas ofKalyar.ri, the Yadava line was founcled in rrgr,taking over the northern part of the formerLater Calukya lands. The Yadava capital was atDevagiri (Daulatabad) in Maharastra in thewestem Deccan. At timcs, thcir powcr was vcrygreat, for they rnade conquests to thc northin Gujarat, thus augmenting thcir holdings.Many of the tenples found in the regionsof thcir control bear similarities to other

rcgional sryles, such as those of Gujarat and theDeccan CSlukya rypcs. Howcvcr, perhaps themost characteristic of the Yadava temple typesis thc so-callcd Hcmadpanti style, namcd afterHemadra, a minister to the last two Yedavakings, Mahadeva (rz6o 7r) and R-macandra(rz7t-t 3t r), who reigned until the Muslinsconqucrcd them, Hen.radra is credited withhaving had three hundred such templcs built.Hemadpanti-style temples are characterized by

jSyertrGe,!€!::,

l ro,

zz.ro. Siddheivara temple. Lilnpangron, Mahtrtgfra, India. PeriodofYadavas ofDevagiri. Ca. late thirteenth ccntury.

u.---,,,,--19 0

9 r tM

zz.rr. Plan of Siddhcivara temple. Linpangaon, Maharaglra, India.P c r r u d u f Y a d r r r s o f l - r e v " g i r i . C r . l J r e I l r i r ( e e n r h ( e ' , r u r ) .

Page 45: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

l-: irdt and the::. PcrhaPs the: rcnlPle types:. named after: |\1'o Yedava: Remacandra

:hc Muslin.rs::l.lited with:rnrples built.

:,::acterized by

their heary form and by the fact that thcirextedon are nearly totally dcvoid of sculpturalembellishment. This undccoratcd style appar-cntly gained widespread popularity, replacingthe much more elaboratc stmctures that had beenbuilt previously. Such a rcversal in thc generaltrends of Indic art and architccture during thisperiod deservcs an explanation beyond rheuually hcld view that thc ncw form rcsultedfrom cconon-ric constraints. It miglrt bc sug-gested, instead, that the popularity of drcHemadpanti style may be linked to the facrthat the Yadava kingdorn was increasinglytlrrcrrened by Mu'l inr lorces cornirrg rntowestern India and the Deccan and that the stylewas chosen since the plain extedors right helpdeter the usual iconoclastic fervor of thc Muslimattackers. Templcs without figure sculpture onthe exterior were not ncw at this timc, since apopular style in the Deccan and portions of drcsouth was characterized by pilastcrcd walls orothcr simple exteriors. The Hemadpatti styie,rhen. s l rou ld nor bc v icucd rs ro t : r l l y j r r r rovar ivc .

but rather a rcvival or increased popularity ofand vadation on earlicr architcictural types.

LATIR DECCAN SCHOOLS J4g

An excellent exan.rplc ofthe Hernadpanti typeof tcmple is the Siddireivara temple at Lin.r-pangaon, probably a product of the late thir-teenth ccntluy (Fig. zz.ro). Although thc roof-ing may be a replaccmcnt ofa later date and theoriginal forrn n.ray havc hacl grcater heiaht,the overall appcarancc of thc main temple andthe dcr :c l re . l N . rndr p . r r i l i on p rcccd i r rg i r i s sqr r . r rand heavy. Extcrnal clecoration is confincd tostring courses, moldings, pillars, and to thcpicrced window scrccns with primarily gcome-t r i c r l cs ign : rhJ l uh i l r r . r rc ly 'nggcs l . rssoc i r t ionswith Early Wcstem Calukya monulr.rcnts such asthe L-d Kh.n temple at Aiholc (Fig. i5.23). Thesinplc plan (Fig. zu.r r), consisting ofthc dctachcdNandi pavilion, a small porch, wrde nnndapawith four central pillars, an antechambcr, andthe shrinc itself elso suggcsts tics to earlicrarchitectural nrodcs. The tectrtgriar u andap a,with fat cxtcrior walls, and the treatmcnt of theextcrior of tl.rc sirrine wall, rclievcd only by trvoprojections on cach side, is also unusual comparcdto templcs of a comparably latc date in otircrparts of South Asia.

T H E K A K A T i y A s o r H a N a l l r o N o l a N o W i n a N c a r( c a . M r l - E r r v r N T H C E N T U R y r o c a . r 3 : 5 )

Profiting from thc wcakness of both thc latcrCe l r r l y , " o f Ka lyen i . r r rd r l re Co l . ,s . th r K . ,ka-tiyas rosc to prominence in thc clcvcnth century.Their cnpire, rvith its capitals in Andhra Pr:rdcsh,first at Hanamkonda ancl l l ter ar Waratrgal,nbot t r s ix k i lo r f l c tc r . . rw i l y . . l r \ g rc i c \ r ex -tendcd as {ir south as I(anciprrram, thc oldPallava capital. Tltn, r'hilc thc Yadavas gaincclthe northcrn part of the later Calukya lancls,the K-katiy:rs were the inhcrirors of the easternrcalms. Horvevcr, during the time of SultanGhiyas-ud-Din Tughluq (r. r3zo z5), thc Kaka-t r1 ,Ls . J iLc r r . ,ny o t l rc r H in t l r r d1n l t i c , . wcrcforced to submit to thc Mus]irn rulers. Thiscastern Deccan dynasty, holvcver, has lcft anpleremains of architcctLlrc, sculpturc, and cvcnson-rc painting, enabling us to reconstruct rranyofthe najor artistic dcvclopmcnts ofthis period.Ties to thc artistic sty)es ofthc cast coast ofsouth-

crn India, with tl.reir charactcristically slelclcrfiqure typc traccrblc fronr thc period of theSatevahana :urd Iksvaku clynastics througl.r the arrof the Pallavas, Colas. ud othcrs, are hiehlyvisiblc in drc art of the Kakatiy:is, indicating tJLcpcrsistcncc of a stroug local traclit ion. In addition,similarit ics to othcr late Hindu stvlcs of rhcDeccan nray also bc sccn, perhrps rcflecting thcpolitical ties of thc Kakatiyas r,vith other Dcccanruling fanilies sr-rch as the Later Calukyas ofKalyani, whosc hcgcmony hacl rcached intothe Andhra Praclcsh rcgion. In contrast to rnosrothcr Indic art schools, a surprisingly largcnumbcr of Kakatiya nronlrnlcnts crn bc rclcrredto by specific clatcs by inscriptional cvidcnce.Bccausc of this, and the frct t lut rclatively fcu,of them havc bccl lully studiccl, Kakatiyatcrrplcs xrc ripe candidatcs for future study, asit is cxpcctcd that they could providc a very

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550 IATER SCHOOTS OF THE DTCCAN AND THI SOUTH

well documented sequencc of Dcccan buildingsprirnarily of the eleventh and twelfth centuries,the greatest period of building .rcriviry.

In general, Kakatiya temples are eithcr single-shrine or rriple-slrrinc (rri lr ira) in plrn.

'1 hc

so-callcd Thousand-Pillarcd tcn.rpic at Hanam-konda, (Figs. zz.rz-t6), the carly Kakatiyacapital, displays thc til<uta format. Built in116z by King Rudra I of the Kakatiya family,the tcmple was dcdicatcd to three dcities:Rudre{vara (Siva), Vasudevara (Visnu), and; -Sri Surya-Devara (Surya). Js known from rninscriptiona on a pillar at the modestly sizedeast gate of the large, walled compound thatencloses the temple. The two rnajor structures oftlre temple, a detached ma4/apa and the tcmplepropcr, arc conncctcd by a rclatively narrowplatform that has a rcpresentation of a recliningNarrdi of cnormous size on it (Fig. zztz).The n , rme Thou ' . rnd-P i lh rc . l t cnrp lc i s . r n r is -non.rer, for thc ten.rple proper does not have thisnrany pillars at all and the detached na4/apa hasonly around three hundred. The exterior wallsof thc dcraclred ttnndapa (fig. z.z.r:) .rnd themain tenrple proper (Fig. zz.t3) 'uc cxquisitelycarved with intricate moldings and projections

;=

z.z.rz. Detached na4lapa, "Tho'tsand-Pillarcd" tcrlplc, fromnorth. Hanarnkonda, Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period,reign ofRudra I. Buik in r162.

on both thc plinth and walls. While not devoidof figurative sculpturc, the main motifs consistof .rrchirecrural forms including miniaturetcrnple spires. suggesring sinri lariries to manyother Deccan styles. Unfortunately, the super-structures over all three shrines arc missing andtheir original appetrance is not known, It is inthe intcrior, however, that the carvrngs arcrichcst, for there, virtually every stone surfacehas been carvcd and polished to creatc highlyintricate and rcfincd pattems. A view into thecentral man/apa ofthe main temple, from whichthe tbrec shrincs radiate, fiom the entranceporch (Fig. zz.14) shows the ornateness ofthc carvings. In particular, the pillar designs,typical of nrany Deccan subsrylcs. are .rn irn-portant elemcnt. Likc many temples of the vari-ous northern stylcs, and those following thetradition of thc Early Western Calukyrs in theDeccan, the ceilings arc also ciaborately carvedin prinarily gcon.rctric and foliatc pattcms (Fig.zz.r5). Sone ofthe most beautiful carvrngs arcthose of the entranceways to the tlrrce shrincs(Fig. zz.r6), crch of which has an outcr pilastcrcdportico lcading to its own rnteciramber arrd thenthe door to thc shrine itself. Ample )ight is

Page 47: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

rATER DECCAN SCHOOTS I51

.-,-

22.13. Mein structure, "Thousand-Pillared" temple, from west.Hanamko4da, Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakadya period, reign ofRudra I. Built in 1162.

conslst

:J many::: suPer-

Erling and

r. It is in

i: surface

:: highly' -nto the:3 lvhich

: Jesigns,.ii: an l1l1-

:- :he vari-:-..rng the

; in the. ' , carved

c::.rngs ale

:i lastered-:nd then

22.14. View into certral ma4lapa, 'Jrainstructure, "Thousand-Pillared" ternple,from entrance porch, Hanamkonda,Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period,rcign of Rudra I. Built in r16z.

: a rance:::ness of

zz.r5. Carved ceiling, certral mapdapa,main temple, "Thousand-Pillared"temple. Hanamkonda, Andhra Pradesh,India. Kekatiya period, reign of RudraI. Built in 1162.

Page 48: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

I

I

552 LA'TEII. SCHOOLS OF THT DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

22.16. Entrance to one of the shrines, main temple,"Thousand-Pillared" temple. Hanamko4{a, AndhraPradesh, India. Kakatiya period, reign of Rudra I.Built in r 162.

admitted into the central mat.tdapa of the templeby porches at the junctures between the threeshrhes and the entrance porch.

At Pelampet, about sixty kilometers northeast

of Hanamko4da, further important remains of

Kakatiya builders rnay be found. Today, Palam-pct is simply a small village, although during theKakatrya period, it was a vital center of con-siderable importance. An inscription dated inthe year rri5 (Saka), equivaleni to A.D. r2r3,

on a pillar at Pelampet reveals that the city was

founded by Recerla Rudra, a general for the

king, Gar.rapati (r. 1198-rz6r).5 Rudra's inscrip-tion also reveals his gift ofa temple at Palampet,the renowned and justly celebrated Ramappatemole (also called Rudreivara after Rudra hinr-sel{-with .an intended double play on the wordas the temple is dedicated to Siva as Rudra).Often said to represent the high point ofDeccanarchitecture of this period, though it is not fully

typical of Kakatiya structures, the Ramappatemple is a single-shrine temple within a large,walled enclosure that also contains a number of

smaller structures. (Fig- zz.q). The temple faces

east and consists of a pillared ma4dapa withlarge projecting porches on three sides, an ante-chamber, and the shrine proper, all of whichrest upon a large plinth that repeats the roughly

cruciform shape of the combined sections of thetemple. From the exterior, the porches andua4lapa appert sharply angular with their pro-jections and fat roof, in contrast with the uimaxawith its brick tower on the west. Like otherDeccan examples, the tower reveals ties to bothnorthem and southem forms, having the tieredarrangelnent of southem towers but the com-plexity, detail, and overall shape of northemlihharus.

One of the most notable Gatures of this

temple is the quality of the carvings on theexterior and interior of the monument, partic-ularly those on the porches and under the roof.

Ultimately a continuation of the Early WesternCalukya practice of using bracket {igures, thePelampet temple bears a series of delicatelycarved, finely 6nished, and highly polishedbrackets with rampant lion and female figures,many of which are nearly life+ize (Fig. zz.r8).By this tir.ne, the motif of the beautiful woman

had been codified into the so-called.Alasa Kanyeor "Indolent Maiden" type. The Silpa Prakaid,an architectural text probably forrnulated by

this tirne, treats sixteen of the most inportant of

thesc, including types well known in earlier

artistic contexts, such as a majdcn ;n a lora1l

or do.rrway (Fig. z.r). a girl holding a mirror,the inage of a mother, a dancer, and a girl

playing, with a parrot (Fig. 8.28). Accordingro the Si1p4 Prakaia, the Alasa is vital to archi-tecture, for lvithout the image of a woman,the temple will bear no fruit. (This conceptdoes not necessarily explain the presence ofsuch figures on earlier monuments.) The ex-ample from Palampet (Fig. 22.18) shows the

typical vitality of the figures, each of whichis lxtraordinarily slender (following the Andhraregion stylistic preference) and has very smoothskin, which is played off visually by the detailof the ornamentation and garnents. Many of

- - - - 1r*+"r:cE t*:l::-- ir

ll

r t gsaaeEslECTE

fE- I

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rere.hEi}xi

- \ [ i:enph$-riDes

ltrineOae not Garmardioresembures-

"]icoos rsdf,er ilier de1e\aglP

Page 49: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

IATIR DECCAN SCHOOTS 55j;

- . - 1 " - - ^

: ::rnber of

i: i . rn antc-r -.i rvhich

r- --ns of the:::ches and

" -i.; ' ...-

:-- :le vindno. l ike other-. :i:s to both:: :he tiered'i: :l1c com-:: northern

-:::. of this::-gs on the

i:: dre roof.r:-r Wcstern

::iIL1rcs, lne-- , . t ̂l i - " ,^ l - ,

:r polished:--.:1e figures,

r r q . 2 2 . r 6 , ) .:: -. rl rvoman-, .lsa llanya

:: in earlier-rt t tor444

. ",1 " .;

:,--,1 to arcl.ri-: : rvoman,

:lesencc of: i . lne ex-

.hows thc:-- of rvhich: -e Andhra

_, r:\ SIllOOth". ine oetatl

:.. Many of

22.17. Rlmappa temple frorn northwest. P:lxnpct,Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period, reign ofGa4apati. Early thirteenth centory (before Saka crar I3J, or ,{ .D. r2r3).

the {igures are in very contorted positions,suggesting affinities to other highJy stylizedmodes currcnt in South Asia around the sametirnc, The figures are generally accornpanied byextremely detailed floriated bowers or vrnes,revcaling an interest in detail typical of theKakatiya carver.

An interesting fcature of the interior of thetemple is the presence of benches with smallshrines placed along them at intervals around theperimeter of the pillared nandapa (Fig- zz-ry).One miniature sbine contains a representationof Gar.re6a, another of Durge as Mahisasura-mardinr (Fig. zz.zo). ln style, these figures bearresemblance to the carvings of the bracket fig-ures, although as is generally true in the case oficons rather than subsidiary figures, they arestifer in appearance. In contrast with many ear-lier depictions of Durga Mahisesuramardini, thisexample shows the bull as a very minor element

zz.r8. Fernale brackct figure, Raruappa rernple. Palam-patJ Ardhra Pradesh, India. Kakatrya pcriod, reign ofGe4apati. Early thirteenth centrry (bcfore Saka erarr3j, or , \ .D r2r3).

Page 50: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

JJ4 TATTR SCHOOTS OF THE DICCAN AND THE SOUTH

22.19. Inte or, 1rdl4ap4, ftorn south, Rama?pa temple. PalanpEt,Andhra Pradesh, India. Katatiya period, reign of Ganapati. Earlythirteenth century (before Saka era rr3J, or A.D. r2r3).

22.2r. Ceilirg, nafdap|, R m ppaAndhra Pradesh, India. KtkatlyaGe4epeti. Eerly fhirteenth centuryr13J, or A.D. r2r 3).

temple. PalampEt,period, reign of(before Saka era

ofthe overall rdominates the ,arch behind ka number of I{it is decorated

!

Upon the coKalya4i, theirduee portionsbe ruled by threalm, whichKakatiyas; aDwere claimedDorasamudrafamily had beprior to the fzimperial indelrr9z, whenclaimed hims,own era of don rrgo ifftea

Geologicallruled by the 1plateau, YetHoysalas aregrowth of D(northem andhighly distinDeccal templmultiple shrirthree, four, artemples use aa feature fou.nkrrorvn as s'elexpected wheis knonn thr,eramples, noused to de6rHovsala teml-.he fint beinI-ater CaluliEOte ornate !ire "ornate sr-.\eir simplereven a major:Hc-rrr-erer. sin

22.20. Du:rgz Mahigasuramardini in srnall shrine inma4lapa, P(lnzppa temple. Pelampet, Andhra Pradesh,India. Ktkatiya period, ,reign of Ga4apati. Earlythirteenth century (before Saka era rr35, or A.D. t2r3).

Page 51: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

ofthe overall design, while the victorious Durgadominates the composition. The angular, pointedarch behind her head is a form which apoears ina number of Kakatiya sculptures, although ofrenit is decorated rather than plain. The rich carving

Upon the collapse of the Later Calukyas ofKalyani, their empire was essentially split intothree portions: the northern part, which came tobe ruled by the Yadavas ofDevagiri; the easternrealm, which came under the control of theKekatiyas; and the southern territories, whichwere claimed by the Hoysalas, who ruled fromDorasamudra (modern Halebid). The HoysalaFamily had been prominent for some rime evenprior to the fall of the Later Calukyas, but theirimperial independence v/as not proclaimed untilrr9z, when Ballafa II (r. ca. tt73-rzzo) pro-claimed himself emperor and commenced hisown era of dating (which was based, however,on rrgo instead of rrgz).

Geologically, the southem Kar4ataka regionruled by the Hoysalas is not part of the Deccanplateau. Yet the art styles fostered under theHoysalas are most properly viewed as an out-groy/th of Deccan styles, showing a mixture ofnorthem and southern elements, while beinehighly disincrive as well. Like many orheiDeccan temples, Hoysala structures often havemultiple shrines; exarnples are known with two,three, four, and even five shrines. Many Hoysalatemples use a stellate plan for rhe uimana, againa feature found in other Deccan art schools. andknown as well in northem India. But, as may beexpected when describing an art tradition thatis known through a large number of survivingexamples, no single set of characteristics may beused to define all Hoysala works. In general,Hoysala temples rnay be classed into two rypes,the first being a rather logical development ofLater Calukya forms, the second, a muchmore ornare style. Although Hoysafa temples ofthe "ornate style" are much better known thantheir simpler relatives, these do not compriseeven a majority of extant Hoysala monuments.However, since the style seems original to the

THE HoySALAS or Sour r r r rw KARNATAKA (ca . roo6 ro r346)

IATER DTCCAN SCHOOTS 5J5

is also seen in the ceiling of the ma4dapa (Fig.22.2r), The "lantern roof" convention is wellknown in northern-style architecture from anearly date, though the richness of the carvingtypifies the later style.

Hoysalas, and was not apparently used by otherdynasties, it may be considered, properly, the"Hoysafa sryle."

An interesting Gature of the individualcarvings on many Hoysala temples is the factthat many of them are signed works by specificaltists. Although this phenomenon of signingworks of art occurs in other Indic art schoollnowhere does it appear with such regularityor with so much seeming pride on the part ofthe artist as in the Hoysala tradition. Somealtists are known to have worked on severalHoysala ternples. Uftimately, it may be posibleto closely. study the sculptural styles as artistsprogressed trom monument to monument. onthe basis of a purely stylistic analysis, it hasproven impossible thus far to distinguish thework of one anist from that of anolher. Is-sentially, here, and in other Indic art schools,craftsmen, though perhaps proud of their ownachievements, worked in what rnust be called acollective rather than individual style, althoughdifferences in skill and expression undoubtedlyoccurred.

The ancestral home of the Hovsalas was atSosdvir, where Sala. the first chieFrain oIthe Iine,is reputed to have killed a tiger, using only adagger, to protect an ascetic (perhaps a Jain).Supposedly, the ascetic shouted "Poy, Salar'(Srrike. Sala), hence providing rhe name Hoysala(Poysala) of the lineage. A number of earlyHoysala artistic remains are found at Sosavir,However, it was not until the reign of the kingBittideva (ca. rro8-42), better known by hisVaisqavite religious name, Visr.ruvardhana, thatHoysala art, religion, and history become un-derstood. Inscriptional records clearly show thatVisquvardhana, his wiG, ofiicers, and ministersgenerously patronized the construction of tem-ples and other structures. Of the eighty or ninety

I

rple. P:lampEt,:od, reign ofrore Saka era

Page 52: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

J.i6 LATER SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

0 0

, 0 , . ? ' p t P

(.) io

[D3

extant Hoysah temPles in Karnagaka, several

irnportant ones have been identified as belonging

to the reign of Vis4uvardhana on the basis of

inscriptional and stylistic evidence.An example of a Later Calukya style Hoysala

temple is the Lak;midevi temple at Do4da

zz.zz. PTan of Laklmidcvi templc.Dod4a Gaddavalli, Karn.laka, India.Hoysala period (Later Calukya styie),rcign of Vi;r.r.uvardhana. Dedicated inI I I 3 .

Gaddavalli, a monLunent of Visltuvardhana'sreign dating from rrr3 according to inscriptional

evidence.o It is a cruciform, quadruple-sluinetemple (Fig. zz.zz) consisting of a pillared

tna4fapa shted by the four separate shrines,

each of which also has an antechar.nber. En-

:J:5_ :: , _

_ a : r : i : : :

Page 53: Art of Ancient India Ch 11

!:. India.

i r : srv le) ,: r . r .ed in

!irnuvardhana's: :o inscriPtional: -:rdruple-shrine: of a Pillared:::lrate shdnes,- : :chi l lnDct . !n-

LATER DECCAN SCHOOLS 5J7

22.23. \Vesr side of LaksDdcvi temple ffom northwest. DoddaCaddav;l ! i , Karlalrka. Indir. Hoy"rla periud (LJrer Catukla "ryie).reign of Visnuvardhana. Dedicared in rrrr.

trances are placed on the east and west sides ofthe ten.rple between the nq(dapa ̂ 1ad, the north-em shrine. The temple is enclosed in a rec-tangular conpound and there are subsidiaryshrincs iu each of the four corncrs, as well as asmrll rcrnple dedic.rted ro Blrair:rvr. a rerrifyingerpect ol Siv.r. to rhc norrheasr oF thc rnainstructure. Within the main shrines of thetemplc are images of Laksn.ridevi in the cast; alinga calIed, Bhiitanrtha on the wesr; Kah, afierce iakti of Siva, in the north; the south wasprobably originally dedicated to Visnu (sinceGaruda appears on thc pedestal, although theirnrge has bcen lost). As is cltar.rcreri.ric inLater Calukya inspired tcmplcs, the Laksmidevitemple does not have an encloscd circumambula-tory Passageway.

In contrast to Hoysala temples of the ornatcstyle, the Laksnidevi temple lacks thc sculptedfriezes and figurative carvings so characteristicof those rtonun-reqts. Instead, the treatraent ofthe bnrc. w.rl i. . 'nd .upcrsrrucrure (Fig. z.z.:j)may be compared to Later Calukya suucrures,'Lrch u' rhc Dodde Br.appa tenrple (Fig. z-2.7).

Both structures are highty embellished withnumerous projections and moldings; however,the_ decoration consists primarily of purelyarchitcctural designs, not the figurative r.u\,tur.,found ubiquitously in the Hoysala ornate style.Since this temple was created only four yearsprior to the highly ornate Ke6ava temple atBelnr (Figs. zz.z4-3t), it is evident rhat this isnot due to an "earlier" stylistic mode; rather,this temple shorvs a clcar association with othcrDeccan schools, especially those creatcd underthe Yadavas and Later Calukyas, indicating theDcccan/Calukyan heritage of Hoysala art. Thesuperstructures consist of dirninishing tierscapped by a iikhara and, kalaia and are based onsouthern forns. While the temple lacks thesculptnral decoration of tlte dnanq seen in theornate-style Hoysala tcn.rples, its individualsculptures, such as the duarap1las to the shrines,rcvcal thc same love of omamentanon scenthroughout Hoysala lvorks.

Perhaps thc nost il'nportAtlt monumcnt ofVisquvardhana's reign is thc Ke(ava (or CcmaKc(ava) templc at Belur, an cxample of the