TrevorYorke

COUNTRYSIDEBOOKSNEWBURYBERKSHIRE

Firstpublished2011©TrevorYorke2011

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ISBN9781846742477

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER1ARTDECOSTYLEDefinitionandOrigins

CHAPTER2ARTDECOHOUSES

ModernHousesandtheirArchitects

CHAPTER3ARTDECOHOUSING

Semis,FlatsandWorkers’EstateHouses

CHAPTER4ARTDECODETAILS

Doors,WindowsandDecoration

CHAPTER5ARTDECOINTERIORSRooms,DecorationandFittings

PLACESTOVISIT

GLOSSARY

INDEX

INTRODUCTION

Most styles of house fall into neat categories: there are the rustic timber-framed structures, symmetrical Classical façades and brick Gothic buildings,withdetailsfromeachbeingrevivedandreworkedeveryfewgenerations.Eventoday,newhousingestatesarefullofhomesthat,althoughaccommodatingthelatest technology, are inspiredby thesepast designs sincemost owners in thiscountry find comfort and pride in traditionalBritish building styles.Yet therewasonemomentwheninbetweenthesereassuringrusticfaçadescouldbefoundsomething stark, foreign and shocking: white, flat-roofed houses, with curvedmetalwindows and bold geometric patterns – the timewas the 1930s and thestyleisknownasArtDeco.There is far more to Art Deco, though, than these familiar and unique

buildings.ArtDecowasareactionagainsttraditionalformsandthetumultuoustimes. It could be luxurious, as represented in Hollywood musicals oradaptationsofAgathaChristie’sPoirotbooks,exoticasinspiredbythetombofTutankhamun,or streamlinedandmodernas shownon trains like theMallardandSaturdaymorningscreeningsofFlashGordon.Itencompassedallaspectsofdesigns,fromhugefactoriesdowntothehandlesonadoor,usingnewmaterialslike chromium and Bakelite and the latest tastes from Europe and America.ThinkoftheHooverbuildinginWestLondon,theChryslerskyscraperinNewYork,andthecurvingfaçadesofOdeoncinemasandyouwillstarttorecognisethisdynamicanddistinctivestyle.ThisbooksetsouttoexplainthebackgroundtoArtDeco,introducethemost

notable architects of the style and illustrate the unique features of Art Decohouses, using clearly-labelled drawings and photographs. The first chapterdefines the style, explains how it developed and its effect upon contemporaryandlaterculture.Thesecondchapterdescribesthefinesthousesandtheworkofthe leading architects, giving a brief biography of each and examples of theirwork.ThenextchaptershowsthemassproducedhousingthatimitatedtheworkofthesetopdesignersandthestreamlinedsemisthatarethefamiliarfaceofArtDeco in this country. The fourth chapter is packed with line drawings andphotographsofkeyfeaturesanddistinctivedetailsthatcanhelpidentifythestyleand provide guidance for those wanting to select authentic pieces whenrenovatingahouse.Thefinalpartlooksinsideattheroomsanddescribestheir

originalappearanceandthestyleofdecoration,furnitureandfittingsthatcouldbefound.For anyone who simply wants to recognise the style, understand the

contribution of key characters and appreciate what makes Art Deco housesspecial, thisbookwillbeacolourfulandaneasy-to-follow introduction to thesubject. If the reader is fortunate enough to own such a house, then theillustrations and textwill hopefully enlighten themas to its value and aid anyplanned renovation or redecoration. For those of uswho can but look on andadmire,Ihopethebookhelpsclarifythetrueessenceofthestyleandwhyitissuchauniqueandvaluablecontributiontoastreet,acommunityorevenatown;onethatisgraduallygainingappreciationandisindesperateneedofprotectionforfuturegenerations.

TrevorYorke

ARTDECOSTYLE

DefinitionandOrigins

FIG1.1:CARRERASCIGARETTEFACTORY,CAMDEN,LONDON:EgyptianstyledecorationinspiredbyHowardCarter’sdiscoveryofthetombofTutankhamunin1922andpopularisedbyHollywoodisdistinctiveoftheearlierphasesofArtDeco.

Art Deco is the style that reflected many of the themes from the inter-waryears.The1920sand30s,squeezedbetweenthecataclysmicworldwars,wereshapedbytheeconomiceffectsandgreatlossoflifeofthefirstconflictandthenagrowingfearofthesecondwar.Thiscontrastedwithafeelingofoptimisminthe initial belief that people had survived the ‘war to end allwars’ and couldescape from thedrudgerywithinwhichmany still found themselves trapped–moods that were captured in images of jazz, outrageous fashion, Hollywood

filmsandaloveofthesun.Manyfoundsolacebysurroundingthemselveswithtraditional forms, their homes imitating Tudor or Georgian structures. Others,however, lookedtothefutureandrevelledinmodernityandtheexotic,havinghouses with streamlined, white exteriors and bold, geometric patterns within,inspired by designs from across the globe and using newmaterials. It is thislatter group of buildings and objects that, although known at the time by avarietyofterms,aretodaygenerallybundledtogetherunderthetitle‘ArtDeco’.Yourchancesofenjoyingthebenefitsofanewhomein thisstyledepended

very much on where you lived and the class into which you were born. Theworkingmasses, especially those stuck in terraced slumswithin old industrialcentres,sufferedasfactoriesclosedinthewakeofnewglobalcompetition;theGeneralStrikeof1926andtheJarrowMarchof1936arevividremindersofthestrugglefacedbymillions.Yet,newopportunitiesinthecar,aircraft,electricalappliance and chemical industries, mainly in towns and cities of the south ofEnglandandtheMidlands,createdanexpandingnumberofwhitecollarworkersandmanagers. This was such that thosewhowould be termed ‘middle class’nearlydoubledinthespaceofafewdecadestoaccountforaroundathirdofthepopulationby1939.Itwasthisgroupwhowouldbetheprincipaldrivingforcebehindtherapidgrowthofsuburbiainthisperiod.

FIG1.2:ArtDecocouldcombinemodernityandluxury,givingmass-producedobjectsaluxuriousveneer.Itcouldbeglossyandexoticorstarkandmodern,butasintheseclocksdatingfromthemid1930stherewasanunderlininguseofgeometricshapesandhorizontallinesasopposedtothefloralandnaturalisticshapesofstylesbeforetheFirstWorldWar.

FIG1.3:AloveaffairwithmachinesandadelightinspeedinspiredthestreamliningdisplayedonthiscontemporarycarandsteamengineonviewattheNationalRailwayMuseumatYork.Thiswouldalsohavesomeinfluenceonthedesignofhousesandgoods.Thiswastheperiodinwhichsunbathingwasfirstseenasbeneficialandfashionable,henceacravingforlight,sun-trapwindowsandsunlounges.

This wave of new building, which engulfed the countryside around manytowns and cities, comprised partly select developments and detached housesbuilt by leading architects and talented local builders (some of the finest ArtDecostructuresandnotabledesignersaredescribedinChapter2),whiletherestof the stockwas private homes erected by speculative builders or new estatesrented by the working classes (those in this style are covered in Chapter 3).Despite the more extreme forms of modern buildings being devoid ofornamentation,mostArtDeco houses have characteristic doors, windows anddecorative features,which are illustrated inChapter 4,while inside the home,where the style was more readily accepted, the appearance of the rooms andtypesoffixturesandfittingsfoundtherearedescribedinChapter5.

ORIGINS

TheThreeArtsIt is typical thatyougetno‘Arts’ inovera thousandyearsofdesignand thensuddenly three come along all at once!Arts andCrafts,ArtNouveau andArtDecowerealltermsusedtodescribesomeoftheleadingdesignsintheperiodfromthelate1800supuntiltheoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWarandalthoughthese titles can often be confusing they had distinctive characteristics andsourcesof inspiration,whichclearlydifferentiate them.At thesametime, theysharedmany of the same principles and objectives. Before looking at amore

precisedefinitionofwhatweregardasArtDeco,it isworthbrieflydescribingtheseother styles and influences indesign,which laid the foundations for thisexplosionoftheexoticandmodern,principallyinthetenyearsfrom1925.TheArtsandCraftsmovementwasignitedbythewritingsofJohnRuskinand

thedynamiccharacterofWilliamMorris,witharchitectsanddesignersworkingindividually or within guilds, producing buildings that were inspired by oldfarmsandmanorhousesbutinnewformsusinglocally-sourcedmaterials.Inthelate19thcenturythedesignofdecorativegoodswasgenerallypoorandoneofthe key aims of Arts and Crafts practitioners was to raise the status ofcraftsmanshiptothatoftheFineArtsandimprovethestandardofBritishgoods.Their methods of doing so looked back to a mystical medieval past and arejection ofmachine andmass-produced goods.Thismeant, though, that theirproducts became expensive and rather elitist, failing to liberate the suppressedfactoryworkerasthismainlySocialist-inspiredmovementhadintended.Despitethis, the establishment of design schools, their honesty with structures andmaterials (not trying todisguiseabuildingassomething itwasnot), theirnewapproach to interior design, and their responsibility for all elements from thestructureofthebuildingdowntothesmallestdetailoftheinteriorwouldinspirethefollowinggenerationinBritain,ontheContinentandinAmerica.At the same time inEurope, themost distinctive form of decorative design

wasArtNouveau (namedafterLaMaisonde l’ArtNouveau,SiegfriedBing’sartgallery,whichopenedinParisin1895).Here,naturewasthekeytheme,withobjectsfeaturingtwistingplantstemsandexoticflowers,whichbecomepartofthestructure.ThedistinctiveletteringoftheParisMetroandTiffanylampsaretwoofthemostfamiliarexamplesofthisuniquebutshort-livedstyle,onethatonlymadeanimpactintheBritishhomeindecorativepiecesinsideandsomeofthecoloured-glasspatternsinwindows.Bythenatureofitssinuousforms,ArtNouveaudidnotlenditselftomassproductionandmanyofthosewhowentontoformnewgroupsandassociationsintheopeningdecadesofthe20thcenturydidsopartlyasarejectionof thisstyleandtraditional teachingsbutalsoinanattempt to reconcile the gap between art and industry. It would be this newgeneration of architects and designerswhowould be the leading lights ofArtDeco.

FIG1.4:AnArtNouveau-styleTiffanylamp(left)inwhichthefittingappearstobeorganicallygrowingoutofthebaseandinspiredbynature,asweremanyArtsandCraftsobjects,andalaterArtDecoradio(right)withstronggeometricshapesradiatingfromthesun-likedial.TheArtsandCraftsiconWilliamMorriswasoneofthefirsttobelievethatartshouldbedesignedtomeettheidealsofsocietyandthatthereshouldbenodistinctionbetweenformandfunction.

DevelopmentsinEuropeandAmericaUnlikeArtsandCraftsandArtNouveau,theinspirationforArtDecocamefromacrosstheglobe.CharlesRennieMackintoshwasoneofthefewinthiscountrytousegeometricformsinhiswork.Althoughnotwidelyappreciatedhereatthetime,hewasofgreaterinfluenceontheContinentespeciallywithregardtotheViennaSecession,whichwas formed inAustria1897asa reactionagainst theconservativelocalacademyanditspromotionofworkbaseduponhistoricstyles(secession is the act of withdrawing from an organisation). The WienerWerkstatte (Vienneseworkshops)co-founded in1903by JosefHoffmann,oneofthedesignerswhowouldleavetheViennaSecessionoverartisticdifferences,promoted the ideaofdesigningeverydetailof aproject and introducedanewabstractandgeometricstyleofbuildingsandgoods.Theprinciplesandworksofthe Arts and Crafts movement had been studied by the German HermannMuthesius, who back in his native country helped establish a state-sponsoredorganisation, the Deutsche Werkbund (German Work Federation), in 1907.UnliketheirEnglishforebears,thisgroupintendedtomakecloserlinksbetweenartandindustry,designingobjectswithfunctionalsimplicitysoastobesuitableformassproduction,principallytomakeGermangoodsmorecompetitiveontheworldmarket.ItincludedWalterGropiusandLudwigMiesvanderRoheinits

ranks,twoofthepioneersofmodernarchitecture.Atthesametime,inFrance,anewstyleofart inwhich thepainterdisassembledobjectsand then rearrangedthem in an abstract form, looked at from a number of viewpoints, was beingdevelopedinpartbyPabloPicasso.Cubism,asitbecameknown,hadinfluenceonlaterarchitectsduetothisnewapproachtodesignanditsintersectingplanesandgeometric,steppedandangledforms.

FIG1.5:Itwasnotuntilthe1930sthatdesignersstartedtounderstandthepropertiesofindustrialmaterialsandbeganmakingproductsthatcouldbebothattractiveandyetbemass-produced,achievingtheambitionsofearliermovementsthroughtheacceptanceofthemachineandmoderntechnology.TheseplywoodpiecesbythefamousFinnisharchitectAlvarAaltowerestilltoohardanduncompromisingformosttastes;Modernistdesignslackedthecosinessthatwaspreferredbythepublicandwereviewedasratherelitistandchic.

AftertheFirstWorldWar,twodistinctstylesdeveloped,bothofwhichsoughtcloserbondsbetweenartandindustryandformandfunction,andabeliefintheconcept of total art. Onewas inspired by primitiveAmerican andAfrican artand, after the 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb, by Ancient Egyptianpieces,resultinginhighlyluxuriousandexoticdecorativework;theotherwasacontinuation of the development of amore functional and accessible, modernstyle.Bothweredisplayedat the influentialExposition InternationaledesArtsDécoratifsetIndustrielsModernesheldinParisin1925(itwasaroundthetimeof the exhibition’s revival in 1966 that the phraseArtDecowas first coined).This was designed to help increase French exports of the decorative arts andintegratetheirdesignfurtherwithmachineproduction.Despitetheideals,muchof what was displayed reflected the new, exotic style that had developed inFrancesincebeforethewar.Itincludeddistinctiveluxuriousfurniturefeaturing

beautifulmarquetryanddecorative fittingscreatedbyskilledcraftsmen,whichwas clearly unsuitable for mass production. After the Exposition these exoticpieces still filled nichemarkets but it was themore functional and simplifiedmodern work that became, by the 1930s, the dominant style for furniture,interiordecorationandappliances;onesuitableforindustrialproductionsothatitwouldfulfiltheModernists’idealofhavinggooddesignavailabletoall.

FIG1.6:THECHRYSLERBUILDING,NEWYORK,USA:OneofthemosticonicArtDecobuildings,itwasdesignedbyWilliamVanAlenandcompletedin1930withitsdistinctivestainlesssteelsunburstsintheupperfloors.Thesteppedtopsofskyscraperswasduetozoninglawsfrom1916,whichforbadethemtobeasolidmass.

FIG1.7:GROPIUSHOUSE,LINCOLN,MASS,USA:WalterGropius,theformerheadoftheBauhaus,likemanyofhiscompatriotsfledNaziGermanyinthe1930s.HemovedfirsttoBritainandthentoAmericawherehedesignedthisModernisthouseforhimselfin1938,featuringfurniturefromhiscolleagueMarcelBreuer.Modernismwaslessadistinctgroupofdesignersandmoreatrendawayfromtraditionalformsofbuilding.ItsleadinglightwasLeCorbusier,theSwiss-bornarchitectwhowaskeyinmakingwhatatthetimewastermedtheInternationalStylepopularinEuropeandAmericaandforreferringtothehouseas‘amachineforlivingin’.Hisrejectionofdecorationandelitismwasratheratodds,though,withtheluxuriousstrandofArtDecothathaddevelopedinFranceduringthe1920s.

Themodernstyleinthepost-warperiodblossomedingroupsliketheDutchDeStijlwhoexploredgeometricandabstractformswithuseofstrongcolours,andRussianConstructivism,whichcelebratedthemachineasanintegralpartofitsart.Oneofthemostinfluentialgroupsincreatingthisnewmodernstylewasthe Bauhaus (meaning ‘School of Building’), founded in Germany 1919 byWalterGropius. They producedwallpaper, light fittings, furniture and textilesthatweresuitableformassproduction.Althoughtheyproducedlittleinthewayofhousing,Gropiusdid appreciate thenewdirection inwhichbuildingdesignwas going, stating that ‘we want an architecture adapted to our world ofmachines, radios and fast cars’. TheNazis, however, despised the school andwhat it saw as foreign influence and it was closed under political pressure in1933,withmanyoftheartistsfleeingtoBritainandtheUnitedStates.Americahaddeclinedtodisplayworkatthe1925ParisExpositionasitdidnotfeelithadartofsufficientoriginalitytomeettheircriteria.Insteaditsentexpertstostudytheexhibitsandbringbackideas toboost itsowndesignindustry.Hereanewstyle developed, epitomised by New York skyscrapers and the sets onHollywoodmusicals.Itwastermed‘JazzModerne’andlaysomewherebetweenthe exotic and modern. Buildings inspired by the machine, speed and theobsession of industry with streamlining becamemore dominant in the 1930s.

This, in turn,began tochangeunder the influenceof the immigrantModernistdesignersfromEuropelaterinthedecade.

BritishArtDecoDespitehavingbeenat the forefrontof technology in the19thcentury,Britainhad,atthesametime,developedaninsularandratherbackwardsapproachtothedesignofhouses.Weweresuspiciousof foreignstyles, insteadusingourownhistoricbuildingsforinspirationandonlyreallycreatingsomethinginventiveinthehandsofthefinestArtsandCraftsarchitects.Newitemsinthehouse,suchasbathroomsandradios,werefittedinwoodenboxestomakethemappearmoretraditional.This ingrainedattitudecontinued toa largeextent in the1920sand30swiththemoreextremeModernisthousesandproductsviewedaselitistandleftwingandonlycertainaspectsofEuropeanandAmericanArtDecofindingfavour in theaveragehome.Althoughsomedetailsof theexteriorand interiorfittingswerereadilyaccepted,theoverallstarkappearanceclashedwithourloveofcosinessanddecoration;andthesunloungingflatroofswereatoddswithourinclementweather!

FIG1.8:ThemostcommonArtDecoformofbuildingwascinemas,luxuriousandmodernstructuresoftenreferredtoas‘Odeon-style’,aswiththisextraordinaryexamplefromRaynersLane,London(originallydesignedtorepresentanelephant).

TheParisExpositionof1925wasthereforeviewedwithsuspicionbymany.Onlya fewofour leadingdesigners tookpart,withpeople likeAmbroseHeal(of Heal’s, London) and Gordon Russell exhibiting their furniture. There hadbeensomestepsalongthelinesofEuropeanattemptstointegrateartandmassproduction:theBritishDesignandIndustriesAssociation,foundedin1915,hadechoedothersinstatingthatsounddesignwasfirstlyaboutfitnessforuse,anditsownpublicationshelpedtopromotemodernarchitecture in theearly1930s.Wells Coates and Partners was established in 1929, two years later being re-brandedIsokon(fromIsometricUnitConstruction). ItproducedmodernpiecesoffurnitureandmostnotablytheLawnRoadFlatsinNorthLondon,whichareoften referred to as the Isokon Building (see Chapter 2). Walter GropiusdesignedfurnitureforthemafterhearrivedfromGermanyin1934,livinginoneof the apartments atLawnRoaduntil he left for theUnitedStates threeyearslater;withoneofhiscolleaguesattheBauhaus,MarcelBreuer,takingoverhisrole.ThemodernstrainofArtDeco,brandedhereatthetimeasUltraModernor

theInternationalStyle(afteranexhibitionof thesamenameat theMuseumofModernArtinNewYorkin1932),hadmadelittleimpactbythemid1930s.AnexampleistheDailyMailIdealHomeExhibitionof1934,whichcontainedthe‘Village of Tomorrow’. This featured white, flat-roofed houses by leadingdesignerswhoemphasised theadvantagesof this typeof structure: it gave theowneranextraroom(ontopoftheroof),theabilitytoeasilyaddanotherstoreyif required, and to make maximum use of available sunlight (see Fig 2.3).However,at theexhibitioninthefollowingyeartheyhadallbutgone:pitchedroofswerepreferredbythepublic.Astylethatfoundgreaterfavour,especiallywith the younger generation,was awatered-down version of the InternationalStyle mixed with aspects of American streamlined buildings, referred to asModerne (sometimes called Streamline Moderne or Sun-trap houses). It wasusually a form of surface decoration applied to standard semis, with whiterendered walls, characteristic curved glass ends to bay windows and a fewgeometricdecorativepatterns.ItwastheModernisthousethatwastohaveamorelastinginfluencethough;

the Streamline Moderne is just a distinctive feature of the 1930s. After theSecondWorldWar the crippled economy, shortages ofmaterials and a desireamongst some for a bright new future opened the way for a more generalacceptance of Modernism, at least a type softened by a facing of traditionalhangingtilesandweatherboarding.Asthechronichousingshortage,whichwastolastthroughintothe1960s,forcedtheauthoritiestobuildasmanyhomesasthey could in a short space of time, open-plan designsmeant houses and flats

couldbemadesmallerwithouttheoccupantsfeelingcramped.

FIG1.9:THEDELAWARRPAVILION,BEXHILLON-SEA,SUSSEX:Itwasinseasideresortsthattheplain,whitestreamlinedcurvesofArtDecoseemedmoreacceptable,aswiththisfamousModernistpaviliondesignedbyErichMendelsohnincollaborationwithSergeChermayeffin1934.

However,ourobsessionwithcosy, traditional,village-stylehousessince the1980smeansthatinter-warModernisthomesarestillshockingtoday.NewEcohouses,whichinvariablyaremoderninstyle,aremarvelledatontelevisionbutfewnewestatesarebuilt inthisform,whilethemortgageproviderandprivatebuyer have reservations about the durability of newmaterials and the dreadedflatroof.Ironically,someelementsoftheModerneandtraditionalstyles,whichsocharacterised the1930s’ semi, are finding theirwaybackontonewhouses,thesehavingreachedsuchanageasnowtobeanacceptableandreassuringpartofourculture.

FIG1.10:ArtDecoismostnotablydisplayedoncommercialbuildings,cinemasandshopswhereitsmodernformsuitedcertaincompanies’profiles.Earlyexampleshavesteppedprofilestothetopofthebuilding,whiteexteriorsusuallymadeupofglazedtiles(topexamples),monumentaldoorways(centreright)andstylisedEgyptianorClassicaldetails.Bythe1930s,exteriorsarelessdecorativeandhadstreamlinedcurvesandangledsteelwindows.Themostnotableexample,however,istheHooverBuildingalongtheA40inWestLondon,whichdisplaysallthefinestJazzandStreamlineModernefeatures(bottomleftandright).

ARTDECOHOUSES

ModernHousesandtheirArchitects

FIG2.1:LuxurioushousingestatesanddesirablestreetslinedwithMockTudorandNeoGeorgianhousessuddenlywokeuponemorningtofindstarkwhitemodernhousessuchasthisexampleontheirdoorstep,ascatteringofmodernitystillasshockingtodayasitwasinthe1930s.

Styles

Forthosewiththemoneytoemployanarchitectorinthemarkettobuyahousedesignedbyone,therewasawidechoiceofstylesfromwhichtochoose.Inthe1920s,NeoGeorgianwith symmetrical frontedbrickhouses, usually featuringhipped roofs, short casement windows with leaded glass and prominent

rainwatertrapsanddown-pipesoneachsideofthefaçade(actuallyinspiredbyhousesbuilt in thedecadesbefore theGeorgianperiod),andMockTudorwithdistinctive dark brickwork, timber-framing (usually cladding) and anasymmetricalfrontoreclecticmixesofrusticfeaturesinspiredbytheArtsandCraftsmovementwere thepreferredchoices.On thegrandesthousesaplayfuland colourfulClassical style inspiredby theworkof architects likeSirEdwinLutyensshortlybeforetheFirstWorldWarwaspopular.Despitethetraditionalexterior,however, the insideof thesehousescouldhave luxuriousandmodernfixturesandfittings,whichwewouldtermArtDecoinstyle.By the early 1930s, thesemore traditional houseswere joined by the latest

trendsfromEuropeandAmerica–theInternationalandModernestyles–oftenslightly watered down to suit our more conservative tastes. They arecharacterised by their use of modern ideas and materials: white walls, steel-framedwindows,glassbricksand theoptionofhavinga flat roof intendedforuseas a sun loungingarea.Thedomestic faceofModernismwasbranded theInternationalStyle,withthefunctionofeachroomtakingcontroloftheexteriorarrangement, and a strong horizontal emphasis occasionally intersected by averticalfeature.Surfacesweredevoidofdecorationsotheeyecouldappreciatetheir dramatic, sharp-edged form,with distinctive long rows of darkwindowsandtheoccasionalgroupingformedintoapatternbreakinguptheplainwalls.

FIG2.2:ELTHAMPALACE,LONDON:ThisrathereclecticandlivelyfaçadefulloftraditionalandClassicalfeatureshidesoneofthemostmoderninteriorsofthe1930s.Thebuildingwascompletedin1936forStephenandVirginiaCourtauld,withstunningandluxuriousroomsandthelatestelectricalfittings.ItnowbelongstoEnglishHeritageandiscurrentlytheonlyArtDecohouseopentothepublic.

FIG2.3:AnInternationalStylehousewithlabelsofitsdistinctivefeatures.ThisBritishversionofModernism(alsoreferredtoastheHorizontalStyleorUltraModern)wasnamedafteranexhibitiontitled‘TheInternationalStyle’heldattheMuseumofModernArt,NewYorkin1932.

TheModerne(orStreamlineModerne)wasamorepopularstyle,usingdetailsfromModernistbuildingsandstreamlinedstructuresfromAmerica.Mostwerecharacterised by the use of curved glass sun-trap windows, horizontal bandsacrossthewalls,andtheuseofthesun-ray,chevronorboldgeometricpatterninthe glass. Some, however, were inspired by houses from the west coast ofAmerica and seen on films. ThisHollywoodModerne stylewasmore exotic,often with a conventional structure and tall, hipped roof but covered indistinctive bright green, or occasionally blue, tiles with white walls below,decorativemetalrailingsacrossbalconiesandoftenapalmorsimilartreeinthegardentocompletethepicture.It was also common for builders to make houses with an eclectic mix of

features so although it is these Moderne styles that we now term Art Deco,elements of the International Style could be incorporated. Today, the term‘Modernism’ has limited appeal to the public and many of these purelyfunctionalhousesareconfusinglybeingbrandedArtDecobyestateagentsandownersbecauseofitsgreaterappeal!

FIG2.4:HollywoodModernestylehouseswereinspiredbyhomesfromthewestcoastofAmericawithdistinctivegreenglazedrooftilesoftenontopofaconventionalsymmetricalplannedstructureandtheoddpalmtreetocompletetheeffect.

MaterialsArtDecostructureswerecharacterisedbytheuseofmodernmaterialsoratleastonesthatwerenewtothisformofhousing.ConcretehadbeeninventedbytheRomans andwas reintroduced in the second half of the 19th century butwasonly considered for exposed walling here in the inter-war years. Poured inbetweenwoodenshutterswithmetalreinforcementrodsormesh,concretemadedurable and quick to erect walls and floors (this form of house was notnecessarily any cheaper than a brick structure at this date). In many cases,however, concrete was only used for part of the structure, such as thefoundations,floorsandsometimesprecastfeatureslikecurvedporches.Itwasasteptoofarformanyownersandbuilderswhowerenotconfidentwiththisnewmaterial,soconventionalbrickstructureswererenderedoverandpaintedwhitetoappearmodern!

FIG2.5:AStreamlineModernehouse,withlabelsofitsdistinctivefeatures.Although,asinthisexample,thefaçadewasgenerallyplain,threeormorehorizontalbands(betweentheupperwindows)orraisedgeometricdesignswereoftenadded.

The Internationalandmanyof theModerne-styledhousesweredesignedbythe architect or builder to incorporate a flat roof although this was optional.Despitetheappealofalargeareaontopofthehouseforsunbathing,theideaofbeingonpublic show toone’sneighbours clashedwithourgenerally reservedand private nature.Also, the realism over our climate and problemswith rainpenetratingthroughaflatsurfacemeantthemajorityofhouseswerebuiltwithapitchedroof.ThesewouldusuallybecoveredinsmallclaytilesorlargerRomantilesbutbrightgreenglazedpantiles(oftenimportedfromSpain)werepopularonmoreexclusiveModernehouses.

FIG2.6:Brickswithawavypatternpressedintotheirsurfacewereadistinctivefeatureof1930s’housesthatremainedpopularintothe1950s.

Steel was another new material available, being used for window frames,railingsandverticalpolestoholdupoverhangingroofsandporches(seeChapter4). A distinctive feature of Art Deco houses was the use of glass in a widevarietyofformsandfinishes.Fromthe1890sthroughtothe1920s,ithadonlybeenusedasplainsheetsorpiecesinwindowswithcolouredfloralorheraldicpatterns in the topsof traditional style houses.By the1930s, however, simplegeometricpatternsreplacedthesestylesandtheglassfittedcouldhaveatexturedfinishratherthancolourtodefinethedesign.GlassbricksbycompaniessuchasLenscretewerealsousedinthe1930sforthefirsttimeinthedomestichousingmarket.

FIG2.7:Crittallwerethemanufacturersofthemetal-framedwindowsthataresodistinctiveofArtDecohouses(seealsoSilverEndinChapter3andexamplesinChapter4)

Despite these experiments with new materials, the vast majority of housesbuiltintheinter-waryearsweremadefromtraditionalbrickandtimber.ThesestructureshadevolvedfromtheirEdwardiancounterparts,withcavitywallsnow

widespreadandsteeltiesholdinganinnerandouterfaceofbricktogether;andthe space between providing an air gap to aid insulation and reduce damppenetration.Foundationswere improvedupon,withconcreteused toprovideafirmbaseforthebrickwalls,whichweresteppedoutuponittospreadtheloadbetter.Reducing rising damp in a house had always beenproblematic and thefavouredmethodinthisperiodwastousealineofbitumenwithinthewalls,justabove the ground floor. Slate set in cement or a couple of courses ofStaffordshire blue brickswere older solutions thatwere also used. Before theFirstWorldWarthetimbergroundfloorwasraisedabovethesoilandairbricksventedthespacetoreducetheproblem.Althoughthismethodwasstillusedinthe1920sand30sitbecamecommonforconcretetoformasolidgroundfloor,sometimeswithtimberboardssetinbitumenacrossthetop.Althoughmuchoftheinternalstructurewasformedusingtimber,anewproduct,breezeorcinderblock (made from waste from gasworks or similar and compressed into abuildingblock),was increasinglyused for internalwalls.Thevertical sides ofdoorframesextendinguptotheceilingisasignwheretheywereused(thiswasdone to strengthen the wall, which otherwise was not keyed into the woodenjoists).

FIG2.8:Glassbrickswereintroducedintothemostmodernhouses.

FIG2.9:Greenpantiles(left)andRomantiles(right)aredistinctiveofinter-warhousing,althoughsmallerclaytileswerestillthemostcommonformofroofingtile.

PlansTheInternationalstylewithitsstarkwhitewallswasnotjustavisualshockbutheraldedadifferentapproach toplanning.Byusingconcrete,whichcould restuponcolumnsorbecantileveredout,theinteriorcouldbefreedfromtheneedtohave load-bearing walls. Hence, long lines of windows, glass bricks andmovable partitionsmade rooms light and flexible. The use of a flat roof alsogave thearchitect further freedomas it couldcoveranyshapeor formofplanwhereas a pitched roof put certain restrictions in place in order to support itsgreater load and because of the limitations on dimensions due to the pitch atwhich ithad tobeset.Despite theadvantagesof theseconcrete structuresandopeninteriorsadvertisedbydesigners,especiallyintheearly1930s,theplanofmost houses was still largely conventional, with social changes rather thanarchitects’opinionsaffectingthearrangementofrooms.

FIG2.10:Twoplansofmodernhousesfromthemid1930s,withelementsofopenplanningbetweenreceptionroomsandagaragebuiltintothestructure.

Housesbuiltinthesuburbswherelandwascheapcouldspreadoutovertheirplotandgivethearchitectgreaterfreedom.TheInternationalStylehousecouldrange from a plain horizontal block to a series of intersecting units, althoughsome of the more exceptional examples featured wings at different angles.HousesbuiltinaY-shapewithtwowidearmswelcomingvisitorshadfirstbeendevised by Arts and Crafts architects and were widely used on large houses,mainlyinthe1920s.Thegreatersizeofthesuburbanplotalsomeantthewidersideofthehousecouldfacetheroad,thusmakingthehouseappearlargerandmoreimposingthanearlierterracesandsemiswheretheshortendwasseenbythe public.Architects ofModerne and International Style houses also liked tomaximise sunlight so made a big point of using large expanses of glass andensuredthattheprincipalroomsforrelaxingwerefacingsouth.Themostnotablechangetothehousewascausedbecauseservantswhohad

beenplentiful in the late19thcenturywerenowsohard tofind.Thisshortagemeant thatmosthouseswerenowdesignedwithonlyadailymaidor cook inmindandnospaceallowedforlive-instaff.Asaresult,theserviceroomshadto

bemorepresentable and easier tomanage than those in lateVictorianhouses.Nowtheladyofthehousewasexpectedtobecomemoreinvolvedwithcookingandcleaning.Theoldrearextensionswithsculleryandstorageweregone,andthekitcheninlargerhouses,usuallystillwithasculleryorwashroomoffit,wasnow incorporatedwithin themain body of the house. Although still small bymodernstandards,thekitcheninArtDecohouseswouldhavebeenastepupformostnewownersusedtocooking,eatingandlivinginacramped,old-fashionedlivingroom.

FIG2.11:FRINTONPARKESTATE,FRINTON,ESSEX:In1934theSouthCoastDevelopmentCompanypurchased200acresoflandaroundFrinton,ontheEssexcoast,andemployedtheyoungarchitectOliverHilltodesignahousingestatefeaturingavant-gardedesigns,largewindowsandflatroofsforsunbathing.HeinviteddesignsfromtheleadingarchitectsworkingintheInternationalStyle,includingWellsCoates,FrederickGibberd,F.R.S.Yorke,andAmyasConnell,todesignssectionsoftheschemeandworkcommencedonaround35housesdesignedbyHillandlocalarchitectsclosetothesea.However,thebuildingswereclearlytoodaringforlocaltastesandby1935thecompanywasnearlybankruptandHillresignedthepost,leavingFrintonParkEstatetodayasasmallbutrareexperimentinModernisthousing.

LEADINGARCHITECTS

Duringthe18thand19thcenturiestheroleofthearchitecthaddevelopedfrom

anamateurgentlemantoahighly-respectedprofessionalcontrollingnotonlythedesignbut also themanyandoften complexpartsof the constructionprocess.However,inthe20thcentury,theincreasingvarietyinbuildingtypes,materialsandmoredemandingregulationsencouragedmanytoformpartnershipsand tospecialise, with fine houses built by these less well-known groups and localpractices rather than the independent architects whose names stand out inhistory.Thereweresomeofnote,however,whowereattheforefrontofdesigninBritainandintroducedtheModernstyletotheseshores,creatingsomeofthemosticonicbuildingsofthe1930s.

FIG2.12:LAWNROADFLATS,HAMPSTEAD,LONDON:DesignedbyWellsCoatesandIsokonin1934andintendedtobethefirstwordinmoderndesigninthiscountry.Thebuildingwasaimedattheyoungprofessionals’marketinLondonandcomprised29apartments,alongwithstaffaccommodation,kitchensandalargegarage.Althoughitremainedauniqueexperimentinitsday,itwassuccessfulinbecomingthecentreofintellectualsociallifeintheareawithAgathaChristieoneofitsresidentsandleadingartistssuchasBarbaraHepworth,BenNicholsonandHenryMoorevisitorstoitsbar,whichwasaddedin1937.

WELLSCOATESWells Wintemute Coates, OBE, was a remarkably multi-talented Canadianarchitect who also designed Art Deco Bakelite radios, the ‘D’ handle forfurniture, a microphone for the BBC, a catamaran and a monorail system –projects that were ahead of their time and, like his buildings, too daring for

many.Hewasborn in Japan in1895 toMethodistmissionaryparents, studiedforhisdegree inCanadaafter serving in theRAFduring theFirstWorldWarandmovedtoEnglandinthe1920s.In1928hesetuphisowndesignbusinessandwasaco-founderoftheModernArchitecturalResearchGroup(MARS).Heemployed his appreciation for Japanese simplicity in living spaces and for LeCorbusier’s ideaofahousebeingamachine to live inathis1934LawnRoadFlats in Hampstead (the Isokon Building). With its graceful white reinforcedconcrete walls, long cantilevered balconies and tower it was compared at thetimetoanoceanlinerandfeaturedacommunalkitchenwithmealsdispatchedupto theflatsviadumbwaiters!Thisexperiment inmodernlivinghadcentralheating,hotwaterandbuilt-infurniture,whichCoatessawasanintegralpartofthedesignineachof the29apartments.Hewasalsoresponsiblefordesigningthe Sunspan House with David Pleydell-Bouverie, with its distinctive curvedglasswindowsdesignedtocatchthemaximumlight.Itfeaturedatthe1934IdealHomeExhibitionandalthoughonlyafewofthedesignwereeverbuiltitisstilldistinctive of British Art Deco. Other projects included Embassy Court inBrightonand10PalaceGate,Kensington,inwhichhepioneeredtheideaoftwoprincipal rooms, one above the other, with high ceilings joined to lowerbedrooms stacked three high, an ingenious 3:2 design that created spatialvariationwithin a rectangular block.During theSecondWorldWarhehelpedwith thedesignof fighterplanes and for thisworkhe later received theOBE.After theconflicthewentontoplannewhousingschemes,amonorailsystemandtheTelekinemabuildingfortheFestivalofBritainbeforehisdeathin1958.

FIG2.13:TheSunspanHousewasdesignedbyWellsCoatesandPleydell-Bouverieandispicturedhereatthe1934IdealHomeExhibition,withfurnishingssuppliedbyGordonRussellLtd.ThecurvedfaçadewithelongatedwindowsmaximisingsunlightiseverythingweassociatewithArtDecobutthismoderndesignwastoodaringformostandonlyafewwereeverbuilt.

AMYASCONNELL

AmyasDouglasConnellwasapioneeringarchitectwhobuiltoneoftheearliestModernisthousesinBritainbutintegratedelementsofClassicalarchitectureinhis work. Born in New Zealand in 1901, he was brought up by his artisticparents in an area where new buildings using reinforced concrete were beingerected.HecombinedthisknowledgeofconcretewithhistrainingatthehandsofaleadingNeoClassicalarchitectbeforestudyinginEuropeandsettinguphisofficeinLondonin1929.WorkingwithStewartLloydThompsonhedesignedthe first notable concrete Modernist house in Britain: High and Over inAmersham,Buckinghamshire.Alarge,white,Y-shapedstructuredominatingthehillsideabovetheoldChilterntown,itcausedquiteastiratthetimewithinthisstripofrespectabilityalongsidetheMetropolitanRailway,madefamousbyJohnBetjeman in his BBC documentary Metro-land. One of the problems withdesigningahouseinreinforcedconcretewasthatalargelyconservativebuildingindustryhad little experience inworkingwith it, and the few large companiesthatdidwerenotinterestedinsuchasmallproject(althoughHighandOverwasonce branded as ‘the last great country house’). Therefore Connell andThompsonhadtochangethedesigntoonewithaconcrete load-bearingframewith brick and block-workwalls.Thesewere then rendered over to create thedesired smooth, white finish. The innovative design and construction methodwascomplementedbyaqualityinteriorwithwoods,marbleandfittingsthatarestill in good condition today and by a distinctive sun terrace along the top.Althoughuponitscompletionin1931itarousedmixedreactions,itwaspivotalinintroducingthestyletoawiderpublic.In1933Connellsetupapracticewithhis brother-in-law Basil Ward and Colin Lucas. The partnership of Connell,WardandLucasproducedanumberofnotableModernisthousesandflatsintheyearsuptotheSecondWorldWarbeforetheywenttheirseparateways.ConnelllaterdesignedbuildingsinNarobi,Kenya,beforereturningtoBritainwherehediedin1980.

FIG2.14:HIGHANDOVER,AMERSHAM,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:ThisdaringdesignforthenotablearchaeologistProfessorBernardAshmolewascompletedin1931byConnellandThompson.Originallyitwasalmostasmallcountryhouseinscale,withitsownwatertowerandgeneratorsetinlandscapedgardensbutthesehavenowbeenencroacheduponbylaterdevelopment.

FIG2.15:THESUNHOUSES,AMERSHAM,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:Oneofarowofspeculatively-builtmodernhousesdesignedbyConnell,WardandLucasontheroadleadingtoHighandOverbetween1933–35.

FREDERICKGIBBERDSir Frederick Ernest Gibberdwas one of themost prolific architects after theSecond World War. He was responsible for numerous large-scale municipalschemes and housing projects, as well as notable buildings such as ‘Paddy’sWigwam’, the Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral. However, he was also aninnovativedesignerofmodern flats in the1930s.Hewasborn inCoventry in1908 and studied architecture in Birmingham, where he became friends withF.R.S.Yorke, and set up his own practice in 1930.His firstmajorworkwas

Pullman Court, Streatham Hill, London, completed in 1936. It was a whiteModernistcomplexdesignedasaffordablehousingandwasfollowedbyfurtherworkatParkCourt,SydenhamandEllingtonCourt,Southgate,bothinLondon.HealsocollaboratedwithYorkeontheinfluentialbookTheModernFlat.It ishispost-waroutputforwhichhewillbebestremembered,especiallyhisworkinthenewtownofHarlowwherehealsolivedupuntilhisdeathin1984.

OLIVERHILLOliverHillwasaslightlyeccentricandunconventionaldesigneroflargehouseswho not only baffled guests with unscheduled bouts of nudism but alsoarchitecturalcommentatorsinhisswingfromtraditionaltothemodernandbackagain! Born in 1887, he was a family friend of Edwin Lutyens and begandesigning country houses and gardens in a style similar to the great architect.However, in the early 1930s, he became one of the leading exponents ofModernism in this country, embracing the constructional possibilities ofconcrete, the fancifulgeometricandstreamlinedshapes it couldcreateand themixof textures inmodernmaterials.Hedesigned the iconicMidlandHotel inMorecambe,with its distinctive sweeping, streamlined profile, for theLondonMidland&ScottishRailwayCompany.He alsoworkedon a number of largehousesincludinghismostnotable,LandfallinPoole,andwasresponsibleforthedesignofoneoftheonlylarge-scaleestatesinamodernstyleatFrinton,Essex(seeFig2.11).HewaslessproductiveaftertheSecondWorldWarandreturnedtomoretraditionalstylesinhislaterworkbeforehisdeathin1968.

FIG2.16:THEMIDLANDHOTEL,MORECAMBE,LANCASHIRE:WiththeDepressionofthelate1920sthewealthycouldnolongeraffordforeignholidayssotoattractthisclassofclienttheMidlandRailwaycommissionedHilltodesignthismostmodernofhotels,whichopeneditsdoorstogreatacclaimin1933.

FIG2.17:FRINTON,ESSEX:TheRoundHousedesignedbyHillfeaturedaplanoftheFrintonParkEstateinthefloorwithin.

BERTHOLDLUBETKINBertholdRomanovichLubetkinwasoneof themostradicalarchitectsworkinginBritainduringthe1930sand40s.Henotonlycreatednotablemodernhousesandflatsfittedwiththelatestfeaturesbutalsomadethemavailabletoeveryone.Hewasbornin1901inGeorgia,anddevelopedhisarchitecturalskillsfirstlyinMoscowwherehewasinfluencedbyConstructivismandtheninPariswhereheestablished his first practice and came into contact with some of the leadingdesigners, such as Le Corbusier. He moved to London in 1931 and, in thefollowingyear,alongwithotherradicalyoungarchitectswhosharedhisviews,he founded the architectural group Tecton (shortened from ‘architecton’, theGreekword for architecture). Theywere responsible for buildings at London,Whipsnade and Dudley zoos where they had a free hand to demonstrate theconstructional possibilities of concrete and the graceful simplicity of theircurving,whitestructures.AnotherprojectwasHighpoint1inHighgate,aseven-storey block of flats raised up on columns with white concrete walls andbalconies, built for them by Ove Arup (founder of Arup, the world-famousdesignandengineeringconsultants)whoworkedcloselyfor thegroupontheirprojects.TheywereresponsiblefortheonlyModernistterracebuiltatthetime,inPlumstead.LubetkinalsodesignedauniquehouseinGideaPark,whichwasusedbyKellogg’soncerealpacketstorepresentthesunshinehouseformodernliving.DespitehisCommunistandModernistidealsthatthesebuildingsshould

beclassless,theywerenearlyallsnappedupbythewealthymiddleclassesandstilltodaycommandahighprice.His most notable work was for Finsbury Council for whom he designed a

much acclaimed health centre in 1938,whichwas available for all to use tenyearsbeforetheNHSwasestablished,andaseriesofflatsinthepost-warperiodfittedwithliftsandcentralheating,thefirstofwhich,SpaGreen,hasnowbeenGrade II* listed. However, in the latter part of his career, he becamedisillusionedwiththeauthorities.HequitasthearchitectofPeterleeNewTownwhenitbecamecleartheywerenotgoingtobuildhisdreamofaminers’capitalfortheworkingmenhegreatlyadmired.HismoredecorativeandinventiveformofModernismwasreplacedbythebrutallookinghighriseblocksthatgavethemovement such a bad reputation in this country. He spent his last years inBristol,acityhesawasahomeofscientificandengineeringexcellence,whichwaswhatfirstattractedhimtoBritain,andhecampaignedtopreservetheviewsofBrunel’sCliftonSuspensionBridge.Sincehisdeathin1990hisworkinthedecades either side of the SecondWorldWar has been rightly appreciated asexamples of what might have been, and a theatre in Peterlee and a series oflectures by the Royal Institute of British Architects have been named in hismemory.

FIG2.18:Theratheraustere,white-paintedconcretewallsofthisL-shapedhousedisguisetheattractiveandprivategardenareaattherear.Itwasaprize-winningentrybyTectonintheGideaParkModern

HomesExhibitionof1934andisnowGradeIIlisted(theporchontherightisamodernaddition).

THOMASTAITThomasSmithTaitwasalreadyanestablishedarchitectwhen,inthe1920s,hebecame one of the first to design houses in a Modern style, including anoutstandingestateforworkersofCrittall,themetalwindow-framemanufacturer.HewasborninPaisleyin1882andformostofhiscareerworkedforthenotablearchitect Sir John James Burnet. In 1930 the practice changed its name toBurnet,TaitandLorneandbecameoneoftheleadingarchitecturalfirmsinthefollowing decade. Tait’s work includes the pylons for the Sydney HarbourBridge (the tall masonry supports at each end), a number of offices andhospitals, andwork on Selfridges, Oxford Street. Hewas also the judge whochose the final design for the De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhillon-Sea. Hedesigned a number of notableModern houses from the late 1920s, somewithdistinctivecurvedArtDecofeatures,othersweremorenotablyModernist.Theworkers’ estate houses at SilverEnd,Essex are probably hismost unique andstrikingcontributiontothestyleandtheyarestillstandingtodayintheiroriginalform.Hewas responsible formuch of the design of theEmpireExhibition inGlasgow in1938andworkedduring thewar asDirectorofStandardisation intheMinistryofWorksbeforehisdeathin1954.

FIG2.19:HAMILTONTERRACE,MAIDAVALE,LONDON:ThischaracteristicArtDecosemiwasbuiltfortheMarquesandMarquesadeCasaMaurybyTaitandcompletedin1938.

FIG2.20:LECHATEAU,SILVEREND,ESSEX:OneofthemostnotabledevelopmentsinfluencedbytheInternationalStylewasatSilverEnd,designedbyTaitfortheCrittallwindowcompany.Itremainsauniqueexampleofworkers’housingbuiltinamodernstyleduringthisperiod(seealsoChapter3).Partoftheschemewasthreedetachedhousesforthemanagers,includingthisexample,whichisalsobyTait.

F.R.S.YORKEFrancisReginaldStevensYorkewasasprolificandinfluentialwithhiswritingon modern architecture as he was in actually practising it. After the SecondWorldWar, hiswork and knowledge of the newmaterials required to rebuildcash-strappedBritainwasaninspirationandthesourceofasuccessfulbusiness.Thesonofanarchitect,hewasbornin1906inStratford-upon-AvonandcameintocontactwithmanyoftheleadingEuropeandesignerswhilewritingarticlesfortheArchitects’Journal.Thisfamiliaritywiththeirworkwasthefoundationofaseriesofhighlyinfluentialbooksthathepublishedinthe1930s,introducingModernist ideas and the use of new materials in domestic building to a stillconservative trade; The Modern House, published in 1934, and The ModernHouse inEngland,published in1937,beingperhaps themostnotable.Hewasalso a founder member of theMARS group and worked withMarcel BreuerfromtheBauhauswhenhefledGermanyaftertheNazis’risetopowerin1933.Heonlyproducedafewbuildingsduringthistime,hisfirstin1934beingafineexample of themodern style he preached although hewas still equally happyworkingwithamoretraditionalEnglishpaletteonafewofhisprojects.In1944hefoundedanewpracticewithEugeneRosenbergandCyrilMardall.Together

theywentontodesignawiderangeofprojects,includingschoolsandcolleges,forwhichYorkewasmainly responsible, and large schemes likeStThomas’sHospitalandGatwickAirportbeforehisdeathin1962.

FIG2.21:SEALANEHOUSE,EASTPRESTON,SUSSEX:ThisdistinctivehousewasdesignedbyMarcelBreuerandF.R.S.Yorkeandwascompletedin1937.

FIG2.22:TORILLA,HATFIELD,HERTFORDSHIRE:F.R.S.Yorke’sfirstModernisthouse,completedin1935,builtofconcreteandlatercoveredinrender,withanotabletwo-storeylivingroom.Thelargefirst-floorwindowwasmadebyLenscrete,acompanywhowerenotableatthetimeforproducingglasslensessetinconcreteandglassbricksthatwereusedforstaircasewindows,skylightsandpavementlights.

Despite the advantages these buildings had with their concrete structurecreatingflexibilityandfreedomof interiorspace, theywerestillseenbymany

people as too impractical for this climate and clashing violently with theirsurroundings.ItisnotsurprisingthatmostwerethereforebuiltinLondonwheretherewasaverycosmopolitanclientbaseandalongthesouth-eastcoastwherethe buildings’white façades fitted in betterwith the seaside location.As theywereoftenweekendretreats,ownerswerelessconcernedabouttheirratherharshappearance.Althoughitwouldbeafterthewarthattheabilitytoconstructthesetypes of houses cheaper enmasse, usingmaterials thatwere readily available,madethemtheanswertothehousingshortage,theydidhavesomeinfluenceonthespeculatively-builtestates in the1930s.Inthenextchapterwelookathowthese,combinedwiththestronginfluenceofAmericanmoderndesign,helpedtocreateastyleofhousethatisdistinctlyArtDeco.

FIG2.23:ExamplesoflargehousesbuiltbyotherlesswellknownarchitectsandpartnershipsintheInternationalStyle.Theywerenotonlydaringintheirappearancebutinventiveintheinternalarrangement,oftenwithslidingpartitionstoturnlivingareasintoalargerorsub-dividedspace.Thehousesfeaturedsofarwouldmostlyhavebeencommissionedandhencecouldbeadaptedfortheowner’stasteandexpecteduse.However,thenextchapterlooksatspeculatively-builthomesinwhichthestructureremainedfairlyfixedbuttowhichdetailsmadepopularbythesearchitectscouldbeapplied,creatingthefamiliarsemidetachedArtDecohouse.

ARTDECOHOUSING

Semis,FlatsandWorkers’EstateHouses

FIG3.1:ProbablythemostrecognisablefaceofArtDecohousingistheModernesemi,asoftenedversionoftheInternationalStyle,whichstillformsubstantialpartsof1930s’estatestoday.

Suburbia

If theVictorian rush to the cities hadbeen largely absorbedby tightly-packedterracedhousingwrappedaroundoldurbancentres, then the inter-war shift ofpopulation to the capital and new industrial centres was characterised by thesemis.Thesedistinctivestoutbuildings,withtheirspaciousplotofland,spread

in anuncontrolledwave across the countryside, turning fields andold countryestatesintosuburbia.Mostoftheimpetuswascreatedbythoseseekingjobsinthe new light industries mainly in the Midlands and South but especially inLondon,whichsawitspopulationgrowbyaroundamillioninonlyadecade.The creation of the suburbs to absorb this rapid influx (or at least to house

those who wanted to move out of the city centre, making their old homesavailablefornewcomers)wasonlypossiblebecauselandwasverycheap.Thiswasduetotheaftereffectsof theagriculturaldepressionandthesellingoffofcountryestatesnow that thegentry,crippledby landandhereditary taxes,hadalsolosttheirheirsintheFirstWorldWar.Anacreofbuildinglandcouldcostaslittleasafewhundredpoundsin1920andalthoughitmorethandoubledinpriceby1939itwasstillaverysmallproportionoftheoverallcosts.Theotherprincipalreasonthesuburbsgrewwasthedevelopmentofatransportnetwork.Inthe1800smostpeoplewalkedtoworksohousingnaturallysqueezeditselfinas close to the sources of employment as possible. By the turn of the 20thcentury, however, the bicycle, tram and cheaper train tickets had madecommutingaffordableforthemassesandignitedthespreadofsuburbia.Bythe1930s the growth of car ownership and creation of newmain roads attractedribbons of development along them. In London it was the spread of newunderground lines thatwas themajor factor indeterminingwherehouseswerebuilt, some developers snapping up land around stations even before the lineshadbeenconstructed.

FIG3.2:Modernesemis,withdistinctivecurvedsun-trapwindows,white-renderedbrickwallsandconcretesemicircularporches.DespitetheappearanceoftheInternationalStylethestructurewasidenticaltoothersontheestateinaMockTudorstyle;thiswasonlyaveneerofmodernity.

FIG3.3:Thesehousesbuiltin1935weredesignedbyDouglasWoodArchitectsandwerepartofanexclusivedevelopmentlaidouttothenorthofthenewundergroundstationatStanmore,NorthLondon.

The demand for housing immediately after the First World War had beencreated by returning soldiers expecting an improved standard of living afterrisking their lives for their country. Fearful of the sort of revolution that hadgrippedRussia,theGovernmentsoughttoprovide‘HomesFitForHeroes’.Thisshort-livedschemewaseconomicallyimpossibleandwaswoundupafterafewyears with the Government looking to the private sector to drive the house-buildingboombyoffering themfixedsubsidies.Previously,mosthousinghadbeenerectedbysmall-scalebuildersusuallyconstructingashortrowofhomes,andsellingor renting themout,beforemovingon to thenextpartof theroad.After the First World War, however, the boom in housing created theopportunity for builders to expand and establish some of the large-scaleconstructioncompanieswithwhichwearefamiliartoday.Althoughlandwascheapandtherewerefewrestrictionsthatwouldcostthe

builder much money, the price of materials was still high due to post-warshortages.Despiteattemptsat stateownershipofbrickworksand timberyards,the cost of building a house actually increased during the 1920s, whileexperimentswithmoreeconomicformsofhousingandtheuseofconcrete,ironand steel had little effect on buyers who still preferred traditional brickstructures. It was only when the timber, bricks and fittings were able to bebought en masse by the new larger private building companies and localauthoritiesthatthepriceofahousewasreduced.Fallingpricesmeantthatbythemid 1930s the cost of the cheapest properties had dropped by nearly half, to

approximately£400.ThiswasstillalotofmoneyatthetimesotheGovernmentnotonlyaidedtheconstructionindustrybutprovidedbuildingsocietieswithtaxconcessionstoenablethemtooffermortgagesonmorecompetitiveterms.Thus,by the1930s, downpayments of as little as £5 could secureyou a home, andweeklyrepaymentsfromaround10shillings(50p)encouragedtheshiftfromapopulation that mainly rented to one of largely owner occupiers by the late1980s.

FIG3.4:Amock-upofatypicaladvertforhousesinthe1930s,withtheemphasisonhealthandsunshineatalowrateofpayment.

CouncilandWorkers’EstatesBefore the FirstWorldWar theVictorian doctrine of self-helpmeant that theauthoritiesonlyreluctantlybecameinvolvedinprovidinghousingforthepoorestinsocietyandmostof theschemes thathadbeendevelopedofferinghomes totheworkingclasseswereprivateventures.Intheaftermathofthewar,however,attitudes changed and with financial incentives from the Government, localcouncils began to build houseswith the intention of clearing theworst of theinner-cityslums.Mostwereerectedoncheapsuburbanland,withBecontreeinEastLondonbeing the largesthousingestate inEuropeat the time.Somehadtheirownrailwaylinetobringimportedmaterialsontosite,whilstothersweresmaller,withsemisandshortrowsofterracessetinattractivetree-linedstreetsinspiredbytheGardenCitymovementfromtheturnofthecentury.Asaresult

ofthehighbuildingcosts,largeplotsandtypesofhousebuilt,thesefirstcouncilestateswere still rather expensive for tenants to rent and itwasoftenonly thebetter-off workers who could afford to live there. There was something of adownmarketexclusivityaboutthem,reinforcedbyinspectorswhomaderegularvisits tomake sure the strict rules onmaintenance and behaviour were beingadhered to. However, despite the fact that they were now living in spacioushomes with hot water, electricity and their own toilet, many tenants foundthemselvesmiles away from their families andwith thehigh cost of rent theyfledbacktotheiroldcrampedhomes!

FIG3.5:AcontemporaryadvertforhousesbuiltfortheMetropolitanRailwayastheydevelopedthelandadjoiningtheirnewstations.

Despite the advantages that new materials and Modernist designs couldpotentiallyprovideincuttingthecostsofhousingforthepoor,therewereonlyafewestatesofnontraditionalhousingbuiltbeforetheSecondWorldWar.Mostwere designed along the lines of anArts andCrafts cottage orNeoGeorgianhouse,usuallywith tall,hippedroofsandafewbitsofdecorativemoulding inthe form of projecting bricks above and below windows and a simple porch.These estates came in formuch criticism from those campaigning to clear thestillappallingslumconditionswithinwhichalargeproportionofthepopulationwerestilltrapped.TheestateswereseenasabackwardandexpensiveoptionandmanyadvocatedtheapproachtakenontheContinentwhereapartmentswithhotandcoldwater,bathroomsandcentralheatingwerebeingbuilt. ItwasthoughtthatflatswouldprovideamoreeconomicsolutiontotheproblembutitwasnotuntilaftertheSecondWorldWarthatthiswasattemptedonalargescale.

FIG3.6:SILVEREND,ESSEX:InApril1926FrancisHenryCrittall,theownerofCrittallWindows,startedbuildingahousingestateforhisworkersnexttothenewfactoryheestablishedbetweenBraintreeandWitham.Thehouseswereinamodernstylewithflatroofsandhisownmetal-framedwindows(seealsoFig2.20).Over150werecompletedbythetimetheDepressionattheendofthedecadereducedCrittall’soriginallygranderscheme.Todaytheystillstandasauniqueandwell-preservedexampleofamodernstyleworkers’estate.

Flats

FIG3.7:ApartmentblocksfromNorthLondonthathaveretainedtheiroriginalArtDecorailings,glazedpantilesandgreenandwhitecolourscheme.

Inthe1920sand30s,flatswerestillsomethingofanexclusiveformofhousing.

Low-riseblockshadbeenbuiltinthelateVictorianperiod:afewbrutallyplaintypesfortheworkingclassesinanumberofcitiesand,moretypically,so-calledmansions, smart red brick apartments surrounded by gardens in the better-offareas. In the inter-waryears theseprivate apartmentsbecameapopularoptionfor cosmopolitan andbusiness types and they sprangup inmanymajor townsandcities,butespeciallyinLondonandalsoalongthecoastinseasideresorts.ItisperhapsonthisformofbuildingratherthanconventionalhousingthattheArtDecostylecanbemorereadilyfoundtoday.

FIG3.8:ExamplesofArtDecoflatsfinishedinbrickorwhiterender.Notetheuseofcurvedwindows,greenpantilesandasteppedmonumentalentrance(bottomleft),whicharedistinctiveofthisperiod.

AlthoughsomecomplexeslikeHighpointandLawnRoadFlatsmentionedinthe previous chapter had encapsulated theModernist ideals through the entirestructure, themore numerous speculatively-built, low-rise blockswere usuallyconventionalapartmentswithlittleinventionintheirinternalplanningandjustaModerne cloak covering the exterior.Many had plain brick orwhite renderedwalls, pitched roofs covered in the 1930s by glossy green glazed pantiles,balconies with curved ends and steel rods or striking geometric patternedrailings, a monumental style communal entrance and smart, laid out gardensoftenfeaturingexoticplants.

TheSemi

High-rise living and the thoughtofbeing tightlypacked into small apartmentswas still alien to most people in this country, so of the approximately fourmillion homes built during the inter-war years, the majority were three-bedsemis. These suburban properties provided their new ownerswith a front andbackgarden,gasandelectricitylaidon,hotandcoldrunningwater,abathroomwithaflushingtoiletnexttoit,andadrivewayforsome.AdistinctivefeatureofthesesemidetachedhouseswastohavethefrontdoorssetontheouteredgesofthepairratherthannexttoeachotherinthecentreashadbeenthenormbeforetheFirstWorldWar;thisincreasedthefeelingofprivacyfortheowner.Thehallwas wider in most standard housing, compared with Edwardian houses. Thisextraspacemeantthatthestairscouldbebroughttothefrontofthehouse,withdecorativebalustrades,ratherthanbeingsquashedinattherearortrappedinthemiddlebetweendividingwalls.Rearextensions forservice roomsandstorage,whichhadbeenastandardfeatureofVictorianandEdwardianhouses,werenowgone; thekitchen, larderandcoalstorewerebuiltwithin thestoutbodyof thehouse, with a dining room and living room downstairs and three bedroomsupstairsbeingthemostcommonarrangement.Asmarginsbecametightandcompetitionvigorous,speculativebuilderscould

not afford to have properties standing unoccupied for long.Not only did theyoffer houses with inducements like extra fittings, new appliances or financialoffers, theyalsomadesuretheywerebuilt inastylethatwouldattractbuyers.For most this meant brick structures with a large square or semicircular baywindow,abitof fake timber-framinganda steephipped roof. Itwasonly themoreadventurouscompanywhowouldbuildinaModernstyleandonlytheninareas likeLondonandcoastal resortswhere theyknewtheyweremorereadilyaccepted.

FIG3.9:ExamplesofModernesemisanddetachedsuburbanhouseswithdistinctivecurvedandcornerwindows,hippedroofsandconcreteslabporches.

FIG3.10:ExamplesofsuburbanhousesbuiltintheInternationalStylewithflatroofs,astronghorizontalemphasisandrectangularinform.Somewerelittlemorethanaconventionalsemi(topleft)butothershadmoreinventivelayouts.

FIG3.11:Manyhousesbuiltinthisperiodhadeclecticmixesofstyles.ThisexamplehasaModernegreen-tiledroofandcornerwindowsbutalthoughthesteppedgableatthefrontisArtDecoinformitlooksasifitwasinspiredbyaScottishcastle!

ThedistinctiveformofhousethatweknowasArtDecotodaywasmostlyawatereddownversionofJazzModerne,StreamlineandHollywoodstyle,placed

upon the standard semidetachedor detached structure andoftenwith elementsfromanumberofstylesmixedupinonedesign.Somehadcurvedendstobays,concreteslabporches,steel-framedwindows,andrenderedbricksurfacepaintedwhite,withperhapsafewhorizontalbandsorgeometricpatternbreakingupthesurface.Builderswouldoftenoffer thehousewith a flat roofhiddenbehind alowparapetorrailing,butdespitebeingcheapermostbuyerspaidextratohaveaconventionalhippedroofbuiltorhadonefittedlater.Brightgreenpaintworkandcolourfulsplashesofglassinthedoorandwindowsmadethesehousesstandout from the traditional crowdaround themandcreated a littleoasisof exoticmodernityamongsttheirmoreconservativeneighbours.

FIG3.12:Itisnotuncommontofindafewhouseson1930s’estatesthatstillhavetheiroriginalwindowsanddoors.AlthoughestateagentsoftenrecommendownerstoputinUPVCwindows,asthiscangiveatemporaryliftinvalue,theyoftenspoiltheappearanceandneedreplacingafteradecadeortwo(thinkhowoutofdate1980s’aluminiumwindowsnowlook).Originalmetal-framedwindowslastmuchlongerand,withtheirhorizontallines,fitinwiththestyleofhouseandaddtoitslong-termvalue.However,theydorequiremaintenanceandwillneedsecondaryglazingfittinginsideifnoiseisaproblem.Thereareanumberofcompaniesnowproducingauthentic1930s’styledouble-glazedwindowsandtheyareworthlookingupontheinternet.

ARTDECODETAILS

Doors,WindowsandDecoration

FIG4.1:TheArtDecothemesofbold,colourfuldesignsandhorizontalandgeometricpatternsareclearlyevidentinthelimitedbutdistinctivewindows,doorsanddecorativefittingsappliedtohouses.

Although the plain white and curving walls of Art Deco housesmake theirformdistinctive, therewerealsouniquecharacteristics to the fittingsbuilt intothem.Thewindows, doors andporcheswereoften theonlypart of the façadewheretheboldgeometricpatternsthatsodistinguishthestylewerefound.Thesedetailswerealsomorewidelyavailablethanbefore,astheirsimpleformscouldeasilybemass-producedwhilemanypartsoncheaperhousingwereimportedin

bulk from countries like Czechoslovakia to further reduce costs. Due to theeffect these fittings had in creating a strong horizontal emphasis ordistinguishinganotherwiseplainfaçadetheyare importantformaintainingtheArtDecocharacterofthehouseandtheirremovalcanhaveamoredestructiveeffect than on earlier houses. This chapter shows what the original windows,doorsanddecorativefittingswouldhavelookedlikeandsohelpinidentifyingthestyle,findingsuitablepartswhenrestoringahouseanddecidingtheworthofkeepingthosethatarestillinsitu.

FIG4.2:Thechevronpatternwasoneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesofmetal-framedwindows.ThesehadbeendevelopedandmanufacturedbyCrittall,acompanyestablishedin1849butwhich,underthefounder’ssonF.H.Crittall,rapidlyexpandedinthedecadesbeforetheFirstWorldWar,specialisingintheproductionofmetal-framedwindowswhichwerefitted,amongstotherplaces,ontheTitanic!Duringthe1920sand30stheirsteelframesbecamewidelyused,inpartduetothemetal’sstrength,whichmeantthebarscouldbemuchthinnerthanothermaterialssoincreasingtheareaofglassandtheeasebywhichitcouldbeformedintoacurvedprofile,butalsobecausetheywerecheaperthanmanyothertypesandwithregularpaintingcouldlastforgenerations.(Therearenowcompaniesthatcanbelocatedviatheinternetwhowillmakeauthenticreplacementmetal-framedwindows,whichare‘A-rated’,iftheoriginalsarebeyondrepair.)

FIG4.3:ExamplesofCrittall-typewindows,manywiththedistinctivecurvedsun-trap.

FIG4.4:BoldgeometricpatternsinthetopsofcasementwindowswerecharacteristicofArtDecohouses,someusingstrongcolours,othersdifferenttexturesofglass(above),thislattertypebeingverydistinctiveof1930s’windows.

FIG4.5:Themostcharacteristicemblemof1930s’housingwasthesun-raypattern;theradiatinglinescanbefoundongableends,gatesand,asinthisexample,glasspanels.ItisworthnotingthatfittingswerejustaslikelytobechangedinthepastastheyaretodayandyoucanoftenfindaVictorianhousewithArtDeco-styleglassinitswindowsasitsownerstriedtomodernisetheproperty,sodonottaketheuseofthesepatternsonitsownasadatingtool.

FIG4.6:Windowsthatcutthroughthecornerofahouse,thinverticalopeningswithsteppedbasestomatchthestaircasetheyilluminatedandportholesusuallyclosetodoorsareallcharacteristicofArtDecohouses.

FIG4.7:ExteriordoorsweregenerallysimpleonModernehouses,withverticalgeometricpatternsandtexturedglassthemostcommonform.Originallymostwouldhavebeenpainteddarkcolours(bottomleft),yellowwasmorepopularinthe1950sandwhiteonlypracticalinthecleanerrecentdecades.

FIG4.8:Porcheswereoftennomorethanaslabofreinforcedconcrete(oracoveredwoodenframe)cantileveredoutfromthefaceofthehouseonArtDecohouses.

FIG4.9:The1920s’fashionforallthingsEgyptianorAztecwasapparentaroundthedoorwheremonumentalsurroundsinspiredbybuildingsfromtheAncientWorldwereoftenfitted.

FIG4.10:ConventionaldoorscouldhaveArtDeco-stylepatternsinserted,asonthisexample.Letterboxeswerealsocharacteristicallygeometricinformwithshallowpointedtops,steppededgesandachromiumfinish(forhandlesseeChapter5).

FIG4.11:GutteringcouldbeprominentontheexteriorofModernehouses.Rainwatertrapswereusuallydecorated,eitherwithangulardesignsorsimplecurvingforms,asinthesetwoexamples.

FIG4.12:Railingsandgateswereoftendecoratedwithdistinctivegeometricpatterns,whichareakeypartofthestyleandcharacterofthebuilding.Someweresimplyhorizontally-setsteelrods,othersmoreelaboratedesignsoriginallypaintedinstrongcolourssuchasvividgreenorblack.

FIG4.13:AlthoughthemostardentModernistsupporterswouldhavepulledtheirhairoutwhentheysawplainwhitewallsbeingdecoratedwithpatterns,mostspeculativebuildersknewthattheirclientswouldwanttheextremelyplainfaçadebrokenupbymorehomelyfeatures.Somehadboldhorizontalbandsraisedabovethesurface(right),othershadpatternssetintherender–wavylines,geometricdesignsorcolouredtiles(left)

FIG4.14:ThethemeofcelebratingthesunwasrepresentedontheexteriorofArtDecohouseswithbalconies,asinthisexample(right),behindcharacteristichorizontalrailingsorsunloungesontheroofhiddenbehindasolidwallparapet,sometimeswithaglassroomandconcreteslabcover.

FIG4.15:Chimneys,whichhadbeenamajordecorativefeatureonlateVictorianhouses,werehiddenfromviewonModernehouseswherepracticableastheydidnotfitinwiththeidealofamodern,cleanandsunlithome.Bythe1930s,houseswerebeingfittedwithfewerfireplaces–theremighthavebeenachimney

onlyforthelivingroomfireandkitchenboiler–andinthemostmodernflatsnoneatall.

Art Deco houses are only now being appreciated for their distinct periodcharacter and the fittings illustrated above should be preserved where theysurvive;thereisnodoubtthatthevalueoforiginalpropertieswillincreaseasthestylegrowsinpopularity.Thisishelpedbytheiruniqueappearanceandinmanyareastheirrelativerarity;inmyhometownofLeekthereisonlyoneModernepairofsemisleftamongstthehundredsthatwerebuiltintheperiod.However,this total style with its shocking modern geometric forms was more readilyacceptedintheinteriorandnowwemuststepbeyondthefrontdoorandseehowtheroomsinsidewouldhaveappearedintheinter-warhouse.

ARTDECOINTERIORS

Rooms,DecorationandFittings

FIG5.1:Boxysettees,beigetiledfireplacesandgeometric-shapedpelmetsabovecurtainsweresomeofthedistinctiveelementsofArtDecointeriors,asinthisboldexample.

Art Deco interiors are a familiar image from film and television, withluxurious ocean liners, the Orient Express, fashionable hotels and exclusiveapartmentsfeaturinginadaptationsofbookssuchasthePoirotseries.Theyareexotic andmodern, spacious andbright,with patternedglossywood furniture,chromiumandplywoodchairs,largeexpansesofmirrorsandglass,andsplashesofgeometricpatternsandstylisedfigurines.Theyofferbold,stylishandexciting

surroundings in complete contrast to the dark, cluttered and busy interiorsweassociatewiththeVictorianperiod.Yet,despitethewidespreadavailabilityofthistotalstyleandtheexistenceof

a few fully-fitted examples in premium houses, commercial buildings andexclusiveflats, it isdebatablehowmanycompleteArtDeco interiorscouldbefound at the time in the British home. Although some of the young andcosmopolitan types would have welcomed this fresh, new style, mosthouseholdersweremore restrained and traditional, still organising their houselike their Victorian predecessors, albeit with a lighter and more open feel.Modernist architects showed what was possible as concrete freed the interiorfrom load-bearingwallsand introduced theopenplan;yetmost in thecountrystill desired a parlour – an enclosed roomwith the best furniture reserved forspecialoccasions.

FIG5.2:Homeownerscouldgaininspirationfromanumberofnewmagazinesdisplayingthelatestfashionsininteriordesign,suchasIdealHome.HereisadistinctiveArtDecolivingroomfeaturinggeometric-patternedfabricsandrug,box-shapedchairs,steppedfireplaceandmetal-framedFrenchdoors.

Although a lucky few made a fortune in this period, most suffered someeffectsfromtheeconomicproblemsthatblightedtheinter-waryears.Thosewhobenefitedfromjobsinthenewindustrieswereoftenstretchingtheirfinancesinordertobuyahousesothefixturesandfittingswithinmightbeamixofhand-me-downs,renovatedbargainsandafewnewpieceswhererequired.Numerousmagazinesandbookswerepublishedshowingtheownerhowtomakefurniture,tacklesmallbuildingjobs,andredecorate thehouse.Therewerelimitationsonwhatcouldbedone,however,asintheseyearsbeforetheDIYcrazetherewasnot thewiderangeofproductsavailablethat thereis today.Forinstance, therewerenocolourchartsforthelimitedrangeofready-mixedcolouredpaints;mostpeople still used professionals whomixed their own colours when it came toredecorating. Although the theme of the period was light and sunshine, withlargewindowsandbrightercoloursfresheningtheinterior,mostownersstillhadheating provided by coal fires, so furnishings, walls and floors would havepatterns,grainedeffectsormottledfinishestodisguisethedirt.Thischapterwillshowthefixturesandfittingsthatcouldbefoundatthetime

intheBritishhome–tohelpthosewhoarerenovatingorcreatinganArtDecointerior to recognise thepiecesandput togetheradesign. If,however,youaretrying to understand what the inside of a house looked like at the time, it isimportant to remember that although some pieces such as radios, settees andmirrors were widely accepted in a modern style it is likely that most peoplemixed them with older traditional pieces, due to budget or taste. The changefromthedarkandbusyVictorian interior,withnumerousroomsallocated toaspecificroleandamarkeddivisionbetweenfamilyandservants’quarters,tooneof light, spacious andmore open planning,withmodern appliances integratedwithin the home,would take a number of generations and to some extent hasneverbeencompletelyadopted.

FIG5.3:InthemoremodestsemidetachedhousetherewasstillscopeforArtDecofixturesandfittings.However,mostfamilieswouldnothavebeenabletoaffordacompletemakeoversofurniturewasboughtonepieceatatimetomakeamoreeclecticcollection,asinthisexample.

FIG5.4:AmericanbornMarionDornmovedtoLondonin1923,wheresheestablishedherselfasoneoftheleadingdesignersoffabricsandcarpets,withhertextilesappearinginleadinghotelsliketheSavoy,Claridge’sandtheMidlandHotel,Morecambe(seeFig2.16).SheproducedmoderndesignsforWiltonrugs(right),establishedherowncompanyin1934andgainedcommissionsfortheQueenMarylinerandfabricsforundergroundtrains.

ArtDecoInteriorsThe epitome of the style is seen in the luxurious interiors created by leadingarchitects and designers for hotels, ocean liners, offices and the finest homes.Somemadeuseofglossyandreflectivesurfacestocreatevibrantnewschemes,withsilverandbronzemetalworkandthenaturalgrainofthewoodputonshow(this reflected the honesty in designwherebymaterials usedwere left in theirnaturalstateandnotpaintedorgrainedto looklikesomethingelse,whichhadbeentypicalofVictorianinteriors).OtherswereModernist,withbrightroomslitbywindowsthatfilledawallandminimalisticfurnitureandfittings.Whicheverform they took, these Art Deco interiors were linked by the use of modernmaterials–chromium,mirrors,glassandplywood.StylishchairsbyAlvarAaltoor Jack Pritchard, furniture by Betty Joel and Arundell Clarke and rugs byMarion Dorn were fitted within the most exclusive properties, while thosewishing to emulate the finest interiors seen in magazines such asHouse andGarden or Ideal Home could shop at Heal’s, one of the few outlets wheremodernfurnitureandfittingswereavailable,orvisitexclusivecollectionssuchasCurtisMoffat’sgalleryinFitzroySquare,London.

FIG5.5:ThedaughteroftheBritishdiplomatandartcollectorSirJamesStewartLockhart,BettyJoel,wasbroughtupintheFarEastandcombinedthesimpledesignsfromherewiththeethicsofArtsandCraftswhenshebegandesigningfurnishingsandfabricsinEnglandfrom1921.Sheproducedpiecesforawealthyclientelebutwaspracticalandcommerciallyastuteinherapproachandmanyofherdesignswerecopiedforthemassmarket.Herearlyfurnituretendstobemoretraditionalininspirationbutbythe1930sshewascreatingdesignswithcurvedelementsandmodernmaterials,apopularblendofoldandnew.Inadditiontofurniture,shedesignedfabrics,rugs,theatresets,radiocabinetsandevenkitchenstoves,beforeshesteppedbackfromworkin1937whileherhusband,DavidJoel,continuedthebusiness(hisnavalbackgroundhadmeantthatthecouplehadanunderstandingofboatbuildingtechniques,whichwasusefulindesigningfurniturewithcurvedshapesandlaminatedwoodsasusedonthedresserpicturedhere).

FIG5.6:Oneoftheleadingdesignersofsteel-framedandplywoodfurnitureinBritainduringthe1930s,JackPritchardwaskeyinintroducingthemodernstyleinthiscountry.SeeingtheopportunityforfunctionaldesignedfurnishingswhilehewasmarketingmanageratVenesta,amanufacturerofnewplywoodgoods,heproducedhisowndesigns,receivedcommissionsfromleadingarchitectssuchasWalterGropiusandMarcelBreuerandhelpedformIsokon,alongwithhiscolleagueWellsCoates(seeChapter2).ThebookcasepicturedherewasdesignedbyEgonRissandPritchardwhilehewasinchargeofIsokoninthelate1930s.

TheRoomsWiththelargerplotsavailableoncheapersuburbanlandtheentrancetoeventhemostmodesthousewasmorespacious thanbefore.Largerdetachedpropertieswereusuallyapproachedfromunderaporchorloggia,mostrecessedwithinthebuilding but those onmodern houses often having a projecting concrete slab,with simplified or smaller versions on semis. The hall was wider than mostbeforetheFirstWorldWar,withawindowtothesideofthedoorratherthanafanlightaboveitnowthattheceilingheightinhousesbegantobereduced.Thestairswerebroughtforwardintothisspace,withawoodenbalustradeupthesidetomake amore impressive display thanwas possible in the narrowVictorianhouse.Itwasstillcommonforthehalltohaveadadorail,though,withapaintedorvarnishedembossedpaperbelowsoasnottoshowupthemarksinthisbusyandoftendirtypartofthehouse.Inthelargermodernhousetheoldparlourorwithdrawingroomwasreplaced

byasizeableloungeorlivingroom,onewithoutaspecificroleunliketheir19th-centurycounterparts,andwhichhencehadnosetfurnitureorstandardplan(thelivingroomhadformerlybeenaroominwhicheverydaytaskslikecookingandeatingtookplaceinsmallerproperties).However,mostpeoplestillpreferredtohaveseparate roomsora roomreservedforspecialoccasions. Inmoremodest

houses, therefore, therewerealways twomainrooms,usuallya livingroomatthefrontdividedofffromasmalldiningroomattheback.Thislatterspaceoftenmadeuseofdrop-down-leaftablesandlimitedfurnitureduetoitsmorecompactdimensions,whileinlargerhousesthediningroomremainedreservedformealsandspecialoccasionsandcouldalsobeusedasaquietspaceforworkingwhereaseparatestudywasnotprovided.

FIG5.7:Ahallfromasemidetachedhouse,withArtDeco-stylecolouredglassinthedoorandwindowandaprominentstaircasewithaplainwoodenrailandpaintedsquareprofilebalusters.Insomeofthemoreluxurioushouses,ironworkpaintedtolooklikemarbleorspiralstaircaseswassometimesused(thespiralbeingapopularformwithModernists).

FIG5.8:AnexampleofanArtDecolivingroomwithdistinctivezigzagandwavypatternsonthe

furnishings.Notethepatternedsectionofthewallframingthefireplace,apopularfeatureinmagazinesbutlesssointheordinaryhome.

Theinter-warkitchenrepresentedamajorchangeindomesticplanninginthisperiodnowthatservantsweresohardtocomeby.Ratherthanhavingseparatespacesforcookingandwashing-upintheserviceendoftheVictorianhouse,the1920s’ home now had the two combined into onemodern room containing asink, cooker, hot water boiler, storage, worktops and a small table with anenamelled top (largerhousesmight stillhavea separate room, referred toasawashroomorscullery,fordoingthelaundry).Itwasthefirstroomofthehouseinwhich built-in furniture became popular, although at this date itwas still aluxury,withwhite-paintedwoodenbaseunitsinonlythefinesthouses,whileinmoremodesthomesatallutilitycupboardwithpull-downironingboardorpull-outtablewasacommonfitting.Ingeneraltheroomstillhadafree-standingfeelto it, with appliances and storage lining the walls, which were tiled on theirlower half and oil painted above,with little consideration for ergonomics.Asrefrigeratorswerestillrareatthisdate(peoplestillhadthetimetoshopdailyforfreshfood),mosthouseshadalarderorpantrybuiltoffthekitchenalthoughitspositionwaslesscriticalandthesizeoftensmallerthaninolderhousesastinnedfoodbecamepopular.

FIG5.9:Modernarchitectstriedtotearthefocusoftheroomawayfromthefireplace,oftenusingwall-mountedelectricfireswithnosurroundsandcreatinglargeexpansesofglasstofillawall.Inmosthouses,however,traditionreignedasinthisexamplewithapicturerailandchairsfacingthefireplace.Despitethepopularityofradio,apianowasstillcommon.

FIG5.10:AnArtDecodiningroomwithstrikinglights,pelmetandfireplace,whiletheservinghatchwasamodernfeaturethatdidnotbecomecommonuntilthe1950s.Inmosthouses,however,thediningroom,aspicturedhere,wasarathercompactareaatthebackofthehouse,oftenwithFrenchdoorsopeningoutintothegarden.Flexiblefurniturelikedrop-down-leaftableswasusefulformakingthemostofthespace.

FIG5.11:Despitemagazinesandadvertspicturingbuilt-inkitchens,moststillhadafree-standingfeel,withthefurniturelimitedtoasinkunit,asinthisadvert,andatallutilitycupboard.Duckeggblue,lightgreenorjustcreamwerepopularcolours.

Upstairs the bedroomswere lighter in feel, partly helpedby thewidespreaduseofportableheatersorbuilt-inelectricfires,evenwhereafireplacehadstillbeenfitted.Familieswerehappytospendalargepartoftheirincomeongood-quality bedroom furniture, withmost having a suite containing a wardrobe, achest of drawers, a tallboy for the gentleman and a large dressing table withtripleframelessmirrorfortheladies,whiledivanbedswithapaddedorwooden

headboardbecameverypopularinthisperiod.

FIG5.12:Built-inkitchenslikethisexamplewerelimitedtothemostmodernhousesandapartments.However,theutilitycupboardontheleftwasacommonfree-standingfeature.

FIG5.13:AnArtDeco-stylebedroomsuitewithalightcolouredwood(triplemirrorsondressersweremoreusualthanthesingleoneshownhere).

FIG5.14:Althoughthefurnitureseemsdarktomoderneyes,woodslikewalnutwerelighterthanpreviouspieces.Somemixeduptwodifferentwoodstocreategeometricpatternsinthesurface.

FIG5.15:Anadvertforacontemporarybedroomsuite.Aswithmostfurnitureitwasgenerallyboxy,somepieceshavingsteppedcrestsorcurvedcorners.

FIG5.16:Themodernstylewaswidelyadoptedinthebathroomirrespectiveoftheexteriorstyle,asinthisratherluxuriousexample.Chromewasusedfortapsandfittings,bathswerepanelledin,therewereplainglossytilesandmirrorsonthewalls,andboxypedestalwash-basinswerecommon.Inmosthouses,thetoiletinthenextroomhadahighlevelcistern,thebesthadnewlow-levelsilentones.

The bathroom was small, with just a bath and hand-basin in most, tileshalfwayupthewallsandapaintedsurfaceabove,andaseparatewaterclosetinanadjacentroom.Howeverhumblethiswouldlooktoday,itwasamajorstepupformanyfamilieswhohadpreviouslyhadbathsdownstairsinfrontoftherangeorcopperandhadhadtosharetoiletfacilitieswithneighbours.

DecorationandFurnishingsDespite the influence of the leading designers of the age, the interior ofmostmiddle-classhouseshadtobemorepracticalforeverydayfamilylifeandreflectthemore reserved nature of the owners.While the housewas heated by coalfires, the interior surfaces had to be dark or patterned to disguise the dirt.Aselectric fires andportable heaters provided a cleaner atmosphere, so plain andlight finishes and less elaborate window treatments became acceptable.Expensivepiecesoffurnitureandfittingswerelikelytobeinaplaincolour,butthe vibrant, colourful and geometric patterns of Art Deco were more readilyacceptedfordecorationintheformofwallpaper,curtainsandrugs–thingsthatcould be easily changed as fashionsmoved on. Itwas also usual to see itemssuchas radios,vacuumcleaners andkitchenappliances shapedby themodernstylewhilefireplaces,clocksandmirrorsaresomeofthecommonlyseenpiecesinArtDeco.MostfurnitureinBritishhomeswasfree-standing,notablyclosetotheground

duringthisperiodratherthanonhighlegs.Built-inpieceswerenotverypopularexceptinsomemodernpropertiesandapartments,despitebeingchampionedbyleadingarchitects.ItisinfurniturethatthefirstluxuriousphaseofArtDeco,thatemanatinginthemid1920s,principallyfromFrance,isbestseen.Everysurfacecouldbepatternedbyusingthenaturalbeautyofdifferentandgenerallylighterwoodsandcreatingdesignswithmarquetry,whilethesamecarewastakenwiththefinedetailsandintheoveralldesign,whichoftenincorporatedcleverswing-outorfold-overpartstomaketheitemmulti-purpose.Thesehigh-qualitypiecesof craftsmanshipwereaffordablebyonlya select fewand itwasnotuntil the1930sthatmass-producedmodernfurniturefeaturingcurvingfrontsandcorners,steppedfeaturesandplainlighterwoodsbegantomakeanimpressionwithintheaverage home. These distinctive pieceswith oval or kidney shapes, Art Decohandles and settees and chairs with a chunky, square, box-like form aredistinctiveoftheperiod.

FIG5.17:ThefinestArtDecopiecesfromthe1920swereintricateexamplesoffinecraftsmanship,withinlaidpatternsusingdifferentwoodsandmaterialslikeebonyandivory(aboveleft).Bythe1930s,however,thesurfaceswereplainanddistinctivecurvedprofilesbecamecommon(aboveright).

FIG5.18:ClubchairsfromMintyweretypicalofmodernfurnitureinthattheywereboxyandclosetothefloor.

FIG5.19:AnArtDecosetteeandchairwithgeometricalandchunkyformsandlow,widebacksandarmrests.Anothermodernpiecethatwaspopularwasthedivan,abacklesssetteeorchaiselongue;theViennadivanwascurvedupwardsatbothends.Contrastingmaterialsweresometimesusedonupholstery,withleatherandsilksatinonsomeofthefinest.Inmanyhomesloosecoverswerestillcommon,usuallywithfleckedorstripedpatternstodisguisethecoaldust.

Furnishingfabricscameinawidevarietyoftypes,notonlyinthevarietyofpatternsbetweentraditionalfloralsandmoderngeometricdesignsbutalsointhematerial itself. Leather, velvet andmoquette (deep-piled, hard-wearing fabric,also used for upholstery on trains) and new synthetic products gave buyersgreater choice.EarlyArtDeco designs followed the exotic themewith bright,colourful patterns; these were replaced in the 1930s by less vibrant maroons,brownsandgreensinplainorgeometricdesigns.Thetraditionalarrangementofmulti layers of fabric covering the window began to change in this period,althoughfrillyvalancesandnetswerestillwidelyused,withnewmaterialslikeviscose rayon replacing traditional laces and muslin. In Art Deco interiors ageometric-designed pelmetwith a simple curtain arrangementwas popular; insomeofthemostmodern,aplainopeningwithavenetianblindorjustpatternedoropaqueglassinbathroomswasseenassufficient.

FIG5.20:Acontemporaryadvertforoccasionalmodernstylefurniturefromthemid1930s.

FIG5.21:ExamplesofArtDecofabricsbyleadingdesignersofthetime.

FIG5.22:Awiderangeoffloorcoveringswereavailableinthe1930s,likethiscordcoveringformedintocolourfulpatternsandchecks.

Fitted carpetswere still a luxurious rarity;most had either linoleum,whichcould be patterned to look like marble, a carpet piece (often flowered in thebedroom)ortheyhadpaintedorstainedfloorboardswithrugsspreadoverthem.Thedaysofhighceilingswithelaboratecornicesandroseswere leftbehind

bythe1930sandinmostinter-warpropertiestheroomheightwaslowerandthesurfacewasplainandpaintedwithawhitedistemper.Thewallsbelowcouldbebareinthemostmodernpropertybutwereoftenbrokenupbyapicturerail insuburbanestates.Paintsforwallscouldbedurableoil-basedmatt,eggshellandglossordistemper,whichwasstillpopularandcheaper,withawiderrangeofcolours: ivory,coral, terracotta,geraniumred,emeraldandceladongreenwerecommon choices (blue greys were popular for floorboards in more modernschemes). Mottling, combing and scumbling treatments could be used to addtextureandhidethedirtwheretherewasstillacoalfire.

FIG5.23:Parquetorimitationtileswerepopularinhallsandlivingrooms,whilelinoleumdesignedtolooklikeacarpetcouldbeusedindiningrooms.Moderndesignsonlinoleum,asinthisexample,wereintroducedinthe1930s.

FIG5.24:Rugswereseenasmorehygienicthanfittedcarpetsastheycouldbeshakenoutside(theywerealsocheaper).Moderndesigns,asinthisexample,couldbefoundinthemostup-to-dateinteriors,withtheexposedfloorboardsarounditpainted,grainedorcoveredinlinoleum.

FIG5.25:ExamplesofwallpaperswithArtDecodesigns.Exoticpatternswerepopularinthe1920s,using

thestrongcoloursofred,blueandgreen.Tonesweremoremutedinthe1930s,withbeige,oranges,reds,browns,pinks,bluesandgreysbeingpopularcolours.

Wallpaperwasavailablewithfloralandfoliagedesignsbutgeometricpatternsgrewinpopularity,fromthetraditionaltartanpatternstomoremoderndesigns,whileembossedpapersremainedinwidespreaduseinthesuburbs.Theinteriorwoodworkwas usually painted a flat stone colour or grained on top of this, apatternimitatingahigh-qualitywood,somethingthatwouldneverbedoneinaModernist home. Internal doors could have a similar traditional treatment butpainting them with two contrasting tones or colour combinations was verypopular.

FIG5.26:Booksandmagazinesbegantoshowthepublichowtheycoulddecorateroomsthemselves,asinthisexampledemonstratingdistemperingandwallpapering.

FixturesandFittingsFor all the modernity that could be found inside the 1930s’ home it seemsstrangethatacoalfirewasstillthemainsourceofheatintheprincipalrooms.AlthoughthemechanicsofthegratehadchangedlittlesincetheLateVictorianperiod, the fireplace had. It didn’tmatterwhat the external style of the housewas, the old-fashioned wooden or stone surround, with recessed tiled inserts,was replaced by plain, modern-looking pieces with no frame but a steppedprofilemadeupoflargeglazedblocksorcoveredintilesindistinctivecreams,beigesandbrowns.Therewasalwaysafireplace in the loungeor livingroom,and theremayhavebeenone inother roomsbut, increasingly,portablegasorelectric heaters were used, especially in bedrooms. In the kitchen the old-fashionedrangewasbeingreplacedinsuburbanpropertiesbyagascookerandafree-standingsolidfuelboiler,whichwouldprovidehotwaterforthehouseandgive off enough heat to keep the roomwarm. Itwould often have a tall, thinchimneyon thebackcornerofhipped roofs to serve it although thesebecameratherprecariousandwerelaterremoved.

FIG5.27:Aselectionofnewwomen’smagazineswerealsokeentoshowhowtoredecoratetheinterior.

However,thedaysofthecoalfirewerenumbered.Blocksofflatsandsomeofthemostmodern houses had no chimneys and electric panel heaters or crudecentral heating systemswith bulky radiatorswere fitted instead of a fireplace.The relatively low price of electricity now made this form of heating costeffective although it would be gas-fired boilers connected to central heatingsystemsthatwouldfinallyreplacesolidfuelheatinginthelate1960s.Ifelectricitywasonlyjuststartingtorevolutioniseinteriorheating,thenithad

already transformed theway the homewas lit. Although electric lightingwasstandard now in new houses, it was still a relatively new science andmanufacturerswereconstantlyimprovingtheperformanceofthelightbulbandproducingnewtypesofshadesandfittings.Theamountof lightproducedwaslowcomparedwithlaterbulbssoglassandmirrorswereusedtoreflectthelight.Numeroussourceswererecommendedsoinadditiontothecentralceilinglight,therewouldbewall,tableandstandardlamps.Therewasawiderangeoffittingsintraditionalforms,aswellassomeinArtDecostylesinchromium,lacquerandcrystal,while theshadescouldbe inetchedorpatternedglass, silky fabricsorpaper. In the finest interiors concealed lightingwas all the rage, especially inbathroomsandinsomepiecesoffurniturelikedressers.

FIG5.28:AnadvertforafireplaceinadistinctiveArtDecoform.Somewerecoveredinglazedtiles,othersweremadefromlargeglazedblocks,asinthisexample,whichcouldbeshapedintocurvesandhavebandsofhorizontaldecoration(notethemodernrugandclock).

FIG5.29:ExamplesofcontemporaryArtDecofireplaces.Mostwereplainwithsteppedforms(bottomrightexamples)anddecorationusuallylimitedtohorizontalbands(topleftexamples)andstaggeredsidestothefiregrate(toprightexamples).

FIG5.30:Anadvertforportableelectricheaters,whichwerepopularinupstairsrooms.

FIG5.31:Anadvertforgasfirespromotinghowtheywerehealthierandmorecomfortablethansolidfuel.

FIG5.32:Atypical1930s’fireplacewithamodernelectricbarheater,anappliancethatwasusuallylimitedtothemostmodernhousesandapartments.

FIG5.33:ExamplesofArtDecohandles.ManyweremadefromBakelite,athermosettingplasticnamedafteritsinventor,BelgiumbornchemistLeoH.Baekeland.Itsdarkbrownglossyfinishwasreinforcedwithafilleroffibreandwoodflour;itsresemblancetowoodandthewayitcouldbecheaplymouldedintofashionablecurvedshapesmadeitverypopular.

FIG5.34:PartofanadvertforAgacookers.Theyhadbeeninventedin1922byGustafDalen,theSwedishNobelprize-winner,andwerelicensedforproductioninBritainin1929.TheAgawasverycheaponfuelandpaiditselfbackovertime.Itwaseasiertocleanthanoldranges,hadacookingtankof45litres,alsoaboilingplate,andasimmeringplatewithcoverstopreventheatloss.

FIG5.35:Anadvertforgascookers,whichnowhadthermostaticcontrolsfortheoven;thisexamplewasavailableinablueandwhiteenamelledfinish,aswellasthecolourschemeshownhere.

Themostsignificantchangeinthehome,though,camewiththeintroductionofelectricalappliances.FromalateVictorianinteriorwithheatingandlightingprovided by solid fuel and gas, and entertainment limited to the piano, themodern1930s’householdnowhad an electric iron, a vacuumcleaner, a radioandagramophone.Themainmotivationbehindmanyofthesedeviceswasthatmostmiddle-classhomesno longerhada live-in servant.Anoldermemberofthefamily,adailyoratreasurewhopoppedroundatcertaintimestohelpwiththechoresofcleaningandcookingwasnowtheusualarrangementforsuburbanfamilies. In thekitchen theold rangecooker,whichneededconstant attention,wasreplacedinmosthomesbyafree-standinggascooker,amuchcleanerandeasy to control device once Regulo controls were introduced after 1923, andsomecookerscamewithaglassdoortoviewtheoven–somethingunheardofbeforethewar.Theiron,whichhadformerlybeenheatedfromahotplate,was

nowreplacedbyanelectriconethatprovidedaconsistentheat.Itwaseasiertouse and cleaner, and by the end of the period more than three out of fourhouseholdswith electricityhadone.Thevacuumcleanerwas equallypopular,with a variety of upright and cylinder types available from names such asHoover, Electrolux andGoblin,which are still familiar today, and some evenreflected the Art Deco fashion for streamline forms and bold lines in theirdesign.

FIG5.36:Agascooker(left)andfree-standingsolidfuelhotwaterboiler(right),astandardcombinationinmosthomes.

FIG5.37:VacuumcleanerslikethisHooverwereoneofthepopularnewappliancesintheinter-waryears.

FIG5.38:RadioswereoneofthemostdistinctiveArtDecofeaturesinthehouse.Somewerearchedorcircularand,aswiththisexample,theyweremadefromBakelite,whichmeantthatmodernshapescouldbeformedatanaffordableprice.

PerhapsthemostdistinctiveArtDecopiecewastheradioandgramophone,orthetwocombinedintoaradiogram.Asamoderndeviceitwasseenappropriate

for it tobehousedinanup-to-datecasingandleadingdesignerscameupwithinnovative streamline and circular types although thesewere oftenmade fromBakelite,aplasticthatsimulatedwoodandaddedamoreacceptabletraditionalfinishbutatthesametimemadethemcheapertoproduce.Largergramophonesandradiogramswerehousedinwoodenfurnitureandwerefree-standing;theseagainwereofteninamodernformwithArtDecodetailing.

FIG5.39:DespitetheladyinthisadvertlookingdisinterestedassheidlytwiddlestheknobsonthisArtDecowooden-casedradiogram,theywereaverypopularapplianceinthemoreluxurioushome.

FIG5.40:ExamplesofArtDecoclocks(seealsoFig1.2).

FIG5.41:AratherchillingadvertfromaBritishmagazineinvitingreaderstovisitGermanyin1937toseehousesbuiltduringthe‘greatnation’sstupendousreconstruction’undertheNazis.WewillneverknowhowArtDecocouldhaveevolvedhaditbeengivenafreerein,butwiththeoutbreakofhostilitieswithGermanytwoyearslaterthosewhohadbeeninvolvedwithfurnitureproductionandinteriordesigndevotedthemselvestothewareffort.ModernistdesignersmadetheirmarkwiththeUtilityfurniturethatwasavailableforbombed-outfamiliestowardstheendofthewar,pavingthewayforamoregeneralacceptanceofmodernfurnitureanddecorationbythemid1950s,astylemoreinfluencedbythespaceagethantheAncientWorld.

PLACESTOVISIT

Despite thepopularityofArtDeco there are surprisingly fewplacesopen tothe public where you can see the style on display. There is nowhere with anexteriorandinteriorcompletelybuiltinanArtDecostyleanditisperhapstimethat the leading building conservation groups started to look at preservingexamplesofmodestStreamlineModernehouseswhiletherearestillsomeintactexamplessurviving.Belowarelistedafewplacesthathave1930s’interiorsandthe best examples of Art Deco furniture and fittings: Coleton Fishacre,Brownstone Road, Kingswear, Devon TQ6 0EQ. Telephone: 01803 752466;www.nationaltrust.org.uk

Eltham Palace, Court Yard, Eltham, Greenwich, London SE9 5QE (EnglishHeritage). Telephone: 0208 294 2548 or 0870 333 1181; www.english-heritage.org.uk

Upton House, nr Banbury, OX15 6HT (National Trust). Telephone: 01295670266;www.nationaltrust.org.uk

Therearealsoanumberofplaceswhereexceptionalhousesandbuildingsinthisstyle can be viewed from the street (please respect owners’ privacy whenvisiting): Frinton Park Estate, Frinton-on-Sea, Essex CO13 9PG (bestexamplesalongCliffWay,WalthamWay,QuendonWay,andCentralAvenue).

HooverBuilding,WesternAvenue,Greenford,MiddlesexUB68DW.This isnowaTescosupermarketwiththefaçaderetainedsoitcanonlybeappreciatedfromthefrontandside.

SilverEnd,Witham,EssexCM83QQ(mainpartofestatealongSilverStreetandatitsjunctionwithBoarsTyeRoad).

The best selection of Art Deco houses, flats and buildings are in London,although they are too scattered and numerous to list here so check thesewebaddresses to find out more details and suggested tours:www.londoncountrytours.co.uk/londonartdeco.htm

www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1157_art_deco/about/buildings/www.london-footprints.co.uk/artdecobldgs.htm

GLOSSARY

ARCHITRAVE:Themouldingaroundadoor,windoworniche.ASBESTOS:Afire-resistantboardingmadefromafibroussilicatemineralusedinhousesthroughoutthisperiod.Althoughsafewhenintact,itcanbeverydangerouswhenbrokenandthefibresareinhaled.BAKELITE:Athermosettingplasticwithafinishthatresembleswood;itcanbemouldedintoanyshape.BALUSTER:Plainordecoratedpostsupportingthestairrail.Abalustradeisarowofbalusterswitharailalongthetop.BARGEBOARD:Externalverticalboardsthatprotecttheendsoftheslopingroofonagable;oftendecorated.BAYWINDOW:Awindowprojectingfromthefaçadeofahouse,ofvaryingheightbutalwaysrestingontheground.BITUMEN:Apetroleumderivativeusedforwaterproofingflatroofsandformingadampprooflayerinwallsorunderfloors.BONDING:Thewaybricksarelaidinawall,withthedifferentpatternsformedbyalternativearrangementsofheaders(theshortends)andstretchers(thelongside).CASEMENTWINDOW:Awindowthatishingedalongoneside.CAVITYWALLS:Wallsformedfromaninnerandouterskinofthesameordifferentmaterialswithathingapbetween.CORNICE:Adecorativemouldingaroundthetopofanexternalorinternalwall.DAMPPROOFMEMBRANE(DPM):Awaterproofbarrierincorporatedwithinwallsandgroundfloorstostoprisingdamppenetratingthestructureabove.Inthisperiodliquidorsheetbitumenwaswidelyused.EAVES:Thesectionoftherooftimbersunderthetilesorslateswheretheymeetthewall,usuallyprotectedbyafasciaboard.FAÇADE:Themainverticalfaceofthehouse.FLUE:Theductforsmokefromthefireplaceupintothechimney.GABLE:Thepointeduppersectionofwallattheendofapitchedroof.HIPPEDROOF:Aroofwithaslopeonallfoursides.

INTERNATIONALSTYLE:AcontemporarytermforhousesbuiltundertheinfluenceoftheModernmovement(namedafteranAmericanexhibitionin1932).JAMBS:Thesidesofanopeningforadoororwindow.JOISTS:Timber,concreteorsteelbeamsthatsupportthefloor.LINTEL:Ahorizontalbeamthatisfittedaboveadoororwindowtotaketheloadofthewallabove.LOADBEARING:Awallthathastosupportaload,usuallyfloorsandaroof.MODERNISM/MODERNIST:TheModernmovementofarchitectureandarchitectsworkinginthisstyle.Britishhousesofthe1930sinthisstylegenerallyhadabox-likeappearance,withflatroofsandplainwhitewalls,withthepriorityontheirinternalarrangement.MOULDING:Adecorativestripofwood,stoneorplaster.PARAPET:Thetopsectionofwallasitcontinuesabovetheroof.PITCH:Theanglebywhicharoofslopes.Aplainslopingroofoftwosidesiscalledapitchedroof.PLASTERBOARD:Sheetingmadefromaplastercore,withaheavy-dutypapercoating,whichwasusedfromthe1930sforceilingsandwalls.PLYWOOD:Asandwichofthinlayersofwoodandadhesivetomakeaboardthatisflexible,strongandresistanttowarping.PREFABS:Shortforprefabricatedhouses,referringtothosetypeserectedjustafterthewarfromsurplusmaterialssuchasaluminium.PURLINS:Largetimbersthatrunthelengthoftheroof,supportingtherafters.RAFTERS:Timbersthataresetinarowalongtheslopeoftheroofwithlathsrunningacrosstheiruppersurfaceontowhichthetilesarefixed.RAINWATERTRAP:Themetalbucketatthetopofagutteringdownpipe,whichcollectswaterfromhorizontallengths.RENDER:Aprotectivecoveringforawall,madefromtwoorthreelayersofcement.REVEAL:Thesides(jambs)ofarecessedwindowordooropening.SCREED:Amixofsandandcementusedtopouroverandformtheupperlayerofthegroundfloor.Tilesorcarpetwerefitteddirectlytoitsdriedsurface.SCUMBLING:Apaintedeffectforwalls,withanopaquecolouredglazeappliedoverasolidcolourtogivearoughtexturedorpatternedappearance.SPALLING:Theflakingawayofpiecesofsurfacematerial,inthiscase,

concrete.STREAMLINED:Theshapingofcars,planesandtrainstomakethemmoreaerodynamic,andmirroredonbuildingsforstylisticreasons.STRING:Thesidesupportpanelforastaircase.STRINGCOURSE:Ahorizontalbandrunningacrossafaçadeandusuallyprojecting.STUDWALL:Athinwallmadefromatimberframeworkandcoveredwithplasterboardorsimilar.Usedfornonload-bearingwallsandthefrontandrearofcrosswallhouses.THERMOPLASTICTILES:Acoloured,flatsynthetictilemadefromaplasticresin,mineralsandapigment.TRUSS:Anarrangementoftimberorsteelpiecesincorporatingtrianglestoformalongbeamorsupportforaroof.Whencarefullydesigned,theycanstretchfurtherthanasinglebeam.ULTRAMODERN:AcontemporarytermforhousesbuiltintheModernstyle(seealsoInternationalStyle).VERNACULAR:Buildingsmadefromlocalmaterialsinstylesandmethodofconstructionpasseddownwithinadistinctarea,asopposedtoarchitect-designedstructuresmadefrommass-producedmaterials.

INDEX

A

Aalto,Alvar12,57ArtNouveau10,11–12ArtsandCrafts10,11,12,15,19,24

B

Bakelite71,73bathrooms43,63Bauhaus14,15bedrooms43,62–63Breuer,Marcel14,15,33,34,58

C

carpetsandrugs57,66–67CarrerasCigaretteFactory,Cambden,London8Chermayeff,Serge16chevrons20,21ChryslerBuilding,NewYork13cinemas(Odeon-style)15,17Clarke,Arundell57

Coates,Wells15,25,26–27,58concrete21–22,24,28,30,34,38,43,45,50Connell,Amyas25,27–29Constructivism14,30councilhousing39–41Crittallwindows22,32,40,47,48Cubism13

D

DeLaWarrPavilion,Bexhill-on-Sea16,32DeStijl14DeutscheWerkbund12diningrooms43,59–60doors50–51,68Dorn,Marion57

E

ElthamPalace,London19

F

fabrics65–66fireplaces(andheaters)54,60,61,62,63,68–71flats15,26,27,41–42floors23,66–67FrintonParkEstate,Frinton,Essex25,30furniture55,56,62,63,64–65

G

Gibberd,Frederick25,29glass22,48glassbricks22–23,34Gropius,Walter13,14,15,58

H

Heal,Ambrose15HighandOver,Amersham,Bucks27–28Hill,Oliver25,29–30Hoffmann,Josef12HollywoodModerne20,21,45HooverBuilding,WestLondon17

I

InternationalStyle(UltraModern,Horizontalstyle)14,16,20,22,24,25,32,35,37,44

Isokon15,27,58

J

JazzModerne14,45Joel,Betty57,58

K

kitchens25–26,27,43,60–62,72

L

LawnRoadFlats,Hampstead,London15,26,27,42LeCorbusier14,27,30lighting70livingrooms43,59,60Lutyens,SirEdwin19,29Lubetkin,Berthold30–31

M

Mackintosh,CharlesRennie12Mendelsohn,Erich16

MidlandHotel,Morecombe,Lancs29Modernarchitecture(Modernism,Modernist)12–14,15,16,21,26,27,29,32,33,34,42,52,56,58,59,60,68,74

Moderne(StreamlineModerne,SuntrapHouses)16,20,21,22,24,36,37,42,43,44,45,53

Morris,William11Muthesius,Hermannn12

P

paint67Picasso,Pablo13Pritchard,Jack57,58

R

radios11,57,60,63,72railings41,52roofs(flat)7,16,20,22,24,44,45Ruskin,John11Russell,Gordon15,27

S

SilverEnd,Essex22,32,33,40sunray20,21,49sunroof(sunlounge,sunterrace)20,22,28,53Sunspanhouses27

T

Tecton30,31tiles,glass22–23tiles(roof)21,22,23,42Tutankhamun′stomb8,13

V

vandeRohe,LudwigMies13ViennaSecession12

W

wallpaper63,68WiernerWerkstatte:12windows(metal-framed,sun-trap)7,16,17,20,37,45,47–49

Y

Yorke,F.R.S.25

FurtherReading