Army LifeArmy Life

Life in and around the campsLife in and around the camps

Remains at Vindolanda in Remains at Vindolanda in BritainBritain

Reconstruction of a wooden Reconstruction of a wooden tower/gatetower/gate

Vindolanda, occupation Vindolanda, occupation periodperiod

Military Fort in Britain; occupied between AD Military Fort in Britain; occupied between AD 85 to c. AD 13085 to c. AD 130

Presence of 3 cohorts: the First Cohort of Presence of 3 cohorts: the First Cohort of Tungrians, the Third Cohort of Batavians Tungrians, the Third Cohort of Batavians and the Ninth Cohort of Batavians and the Ninth Cohort of Batavians

the Tungrian cohort will have garrisoned the Tungrian cohort will have garrisoned Vindolanda after the enlargement of the Vindolanda after the enlargement of the fort. The strength report shows that its fort. The strength report shows that its nominal strength was 752, including 6 nominal strength was 752, including 6 centurions, but of these only 296 were centurions, but of these only 296 were present at Vindolanda when the report was present at Vindolanda when the report was compiled. compiled.

Vindulanda, dedication to Vindulanda, dedication to Roman legionsRoman legions

Dedication to Dedication to Roman legions Roman legions stationed at stationed at VindulandaVindulanda

S.P.Q.R.S.P.Q.R. SSenatus enatus ppopulusopulusqque ue RRomanorumomanorum

The senate and the The senate and the people of the people of the RomansRomans

The Impact of Roman Military The Impact of Roman Military Forts and the local economyForts and the local economy

CanabaeCanabae: Temporary settlements around : Temporary settlements around camps; as they grew became permanent camps; as they grew became permanent settlements; many turned into colonysettlements; many turned into colony

Roman military camps provided many Roman military camps provided many opportunities for locals: farmers, opportunities for locals: farmers, merchants (local and Romans), merchants (local and Romans), shopkeepers, builders, artisans, womenshopkeepers, builders, artisans, women

Attracted also many Roman merchants Attracted also many Roman merchants and artisans – excellent opportunities and artisans – excellent opportunities

Vindulanda, (reconstructed) Vindulanda, (reconstructed) civilian house in civilian house in canabacanaba

CanabaeCanabae growing up at legionary camp at growing up at legionary camp at Vetera (made a colony by Trajan)Vetera (made a colony by Trajan)

““In response to these threats of In response to these threats of concentrated war, the legionary concentrated war, the legionary commanders Munius Lupercus and commanders Munius Lupercus and Numisius Rufus strengthened the Numisius Rufus strengthened the rampart and walls. They demolished the rampart and walls. They demolished the buildings which because of the long buildings which because of the long peace had grown up close to the camp peace had grown up close to the camp and had assumed virtually the and had assumed virtually the proportions of a town, in case they proportions of a town, in case they proved of assistance to the enemy.” proved of assistance to the enemy.” ((Tacitus, Histories 4.22, Campbell # 240Tacitus, Histories 4.22, Campbell # 240) )

Inscriptions from Moguntiacum Inscriptions from Moguntiacum (Mainz) in Upper Germany(Mainz) in Upper Germany

““To Tiberius Claudius Caesar To Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, chief priest, in Augustus Germanicus, chief priest, in the third year of his tribunician power, the third year of his tribunician power, imperator for the fourth time, father imperator for the fourth time, father of the fatherland, consul for the third of the fatherland, consul for the third time, time, the Roman citizen the Roman citizen businessmen engaged in bag businessmen engaged in bag manufacture (set this up)manufacture (set this up) when when Gaius Vibius Rufinus was legate Gaius Vibius Rufinus was legate with propraetorian powerwith propraetorian power.” (.” (CIL CIL 13.6797, Campbell # 241)13.6797, Campbell # 241)

Buying Power of Roman soldier Buying Power of Roman soldier in the Provincesin the Provinces

Imperial soldiers were relatively well paidImperial soldiers were relatively well paid Large part spent on food and clothing ; much Large part spent on food and clothing ; much

buying power in provincesbuying power in provinces Good portion of pay left for depositGood portion of pay left for deposit Many stayed in province; able to purchase Many stayed in province; able to purchase

substantial area of land; some also inherited from substantial area of land; some also inherited from fellow comradesfellow comrades

By AD 218 soldiers received free food and other By AD 218 soldiers received free food and other goods (some payments still in oil and salt)goods (some payments still in oil and salt)

In 3In 3rdrd century also century also donativadonativa as source of income: as source of income: payments to celebrate significant events payments to celebrate significant events (accession of emperor, victory.(accession of emperor, victory.

Life and Community in Life and Community in the the

Military Fort Military Fort The Vindolanda EvidenceThe Vindolanda Evidence

The Vindolanda TabletsThe Vindolanda Tablets

Documents written on thin wooden Documents written on thin wooden leaf-tablets with carbon-based inkleaf-tablets with carbon-based ink

Fragmentary remains but still much Fragmentary remains but still much informationinformation

Tablets date to the 1Tablets date to the 1stst and 2 and 2ndnd centuries centuries Include acquisitions for food and Include acquisitions for food and

supplies; petitions; private letters supplies; petitions; private letters providing insight into life of occupants providing insight into life of occupants at the Fort at the Fort

Vindolanda Tablet 302: a letter to slave of Vindolanda Tablet 302: a letter to slave of

Verecundus (prefect of Vindolanda Verecundus (prefect of Vindolanda ))

"... bruised beans, two "... bruised beans, two modiimodii, , chickens, twenty, a hundred apples, chickens, twenty, a hundred apples, if you can find nice ones, a hundred if you can find nice ones, a hundred or two hundred eggs, if they are for or two hundred eggs, if they are for sale there at a fair price. ... 8 sale there at a fair price. ... 8 sextariisextarii of fish-sauce ... a of fish-sauce ... a modiusmodius of olives ... of olives ... (Back) To ... slave (?) of Verecundus." (Back) To ... slave (?) of Verecundus."

Vindolanda tablet 302, letter of Vindolanda tablet 302, letter of acquisitionsacquisitions

Vindolanda Tablet 344Vindolanda Tablet 344 "... he beat (?) me all the more ... goods ... or pour them "... he beat (?) me all the more ... goods ... or pour them

down the drain (?). As befits an honest man (?) I implore down the drain (?). As befits an honest man (?) I implore your majesty not to allow me, an innocent man, to have your majesty not to allow me, an innocent man, to have been beaten with rods and, my lord, inasmuch as (?) I was been beaten with rods and, my lord, inasmuch as (?) I was unable to complain to the prefect because he was detained unable to complain to the prefect because he was detained by ill-health I have complained in vain (?) to the by ill-health I have complained in vain (?) to the beneficiariusbeneficiarius and the rest (?) of the centurions of his (?) and the rest (?) of the centurions of his (?) unit. Accordingly (?) I implore your mercifulness not to allow unit. Accordingly (?) I implore your mercifulness not to allow me, a man from overseas and an innocent one, about me, a man from overseas and an innocent one, about whose good faith you may inquire, to have been bloodied whose good faith you may inquire, to have been bloodied by rods as if I had committed some crime." by rods as if I had committed some crime."

(most likely the complaint of a trader, probably to the (most likely the complaint of a trader, probably to the provincial governor (your majesty) who had been punished provincial governor (your majesty) who had been punished by perhaps a centurion and now asks for redress for what by perhaps a centurion and now asks for redress for what he considered an injusticehe considered an injustice

VindolandaTablet 291VindolandaTablet 291an invitation to a birthday partyan invitation to a birthday party

"Claudia Severa to her Lepidina greetings. On "Claudia Severa to her Lepidina greetings. On 11 September, sister, for the day of the 11 September, sister, for the day of the celebration of my birthday, I give you a warm celebration of my birthday, I give you a warm invitation to make sure that you come to us, invitation to make sure that you come to us, to make the day more enjoyable for me by to make the day more enjoyable for me by your arrival, if you are present (?). Give my your arrival, if you are present (?). Give my greetings to your Cerialis. My Aelius and my greetings to your Cerialis. My Aelius and my little son send him (?) their greetings. (2nd little son send him (?) their greetings. (2nd hand) I shall expect you, sister. Farewell, hand) I shall expect you, sister. Farewell, sister, my dearest soul, as I hope to prosper, sister, my dearest soul, as I hope to prosper, and hail. (Back, 1st hand) To Sulpicia and hail. (Back, 1st hand) To Sulpicia Lepidina, wife of Cerialis, from Severa." Lepidina, wife of Cerialis, from Severa."

Women at the FortWomen at the Fort

Tablets reflect presence of women: tablet Tablets reflect presence of women: tablet 291: at least one in the letter was wife of 291: at least one in the letter was wife of an officer; also evidence of officers’ childrenan officer; also evidence of officers’ children

Soldiers below equestrian officer level were Soldiers below equestrian officer level were prohibited from contracting legal marriage prohibited from contracting legal marriage while in servicewhile in service

Soldiers contracted ‘military concubinage’ in Soldiers contracted ‘military concubinage’ in place of legal marriage; such women could place of legal marriage; such women could not inherit from their spouses, children were not inherit from their spouses, children were illegitimate; Unions often legalized at end of illegitimate; Unions often legalized at end of service;service;

Vindolanda’s ground planVindolanda’s ground plan

Vindolanda, the Vindolanda, the praetoriumpraetorium

funerary relief of a Roman soldier named Ares, funerary relief of a Roman soldier named Ares, dead at age 29; Roman, 160-80 CEdead at age 29; Roman, 160-80 CEdetail of the two male figures—one wears a toga detail of the two male figures—one wears a toga and rests his hand on a military helmet, and the and rests his hand on a military helmet, and the other wears a long-sleeved tunic and a other wears a long-sleeved tunic and a lacernalacerna (a (a military style cloak fastened at the shoulder with military style cloak fastened at the shoulder with a a fibulafibula); both figures may represent the ); both figures may represent the deceased.deceased.The Greek inscription reads “His military service The Greek inscription reads “His military service completed, Ares dedicated his weapons and his completed, Ares dedicated his weapons and his period of service to Ares [the god of war]. Having period of service to Ares [the god of war]. Having left these things, he was taken to a world without left these things, he was taken to a world without order, where nothing but darkness exists.”order, where nothing but darkness exists.”(at Vroma)(at Vroma)