Ark Globe Academy Post-16 Transition Work

History A-Level

Summer Term

Welcome to A-Level History!

We study two key time periods:

Britain 1906-1957

Russia 1955-1964

The tasks below are designed to give you an introduction to those two time periods. Complete them all and get in touch if you need any help.

Team History

Title Task Detail 1. Major

problems and questions facing Britain in 1900

Reading and comprehension

Read the information and complete the second summary table

2. Strengths and Challenges in Britain in 1900

Mind Map Create a Mind-Map or diagram showing the strengths and challenges Britain faced in 1900.

3. Key terms Learning of definitions

Learn the 20 key terms related to Britain.

4. Welfare Reforms

Essay Analysis

Read through the Intro and 1st paragraph on ‘The welfare reforms of the Liberal governments, had only limited success in dealing with the causes of poverty between 1908-1914.’ Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.

1. Identify the argument being made and write this in your own words.

2. Highlight the Point, Evidence and Explanation used in the 1st paragraph.

3. Identify how this is different from a 16 mark GCSE question.

5. Russia in 1855

Background Reading

Complete the reading and 3 questions on what Russia was like in 1855

6. Strengths and Challenges of Tsarist regime in 1855

MindMap/ Diagram

Create a MindMap or diagram showing the strengths and challenges the Tsarist regime faced in 1855.

7. Key Terms Learn the Definitions

Learn the 20 key terms related to Russia ready for a test in the first lesson

8. State of Russia and Emancipation of the Serfs

Cornell Notes Watch the Learning Academy’s videos on Russian History: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bnq5--

SRDCw&list=PLXtShDmDvfwxFnkhubuy8ClH8NQrIPKDI Make notes, using the Cornell Method on:

Russia in 1855 Emancipation of the Serfs

Reforms under Alexander II

10 Alexander II’s Reforms

Essay Analysis

Read through the Intro and 1st paragraph on ‘Alexander II only introduced reforms because of Russia’s defeat in the Crimea.’ Assess the validity of this

statement

Identify the argument being made and write this in your own words. Highlight the Point, Evidence and Explanation used in the 1st paragraph.

Identify how this is different from a 16 mark GCSE question.

Task 1: Background reading

Complete the reading to answer these three questions in detail. Use the definitions from task 4 to help

you.

In terms of its economy during the 1800s Britain had developed from an agricultural nation with a

population of around 10 million to an industrial nation that could now boast a population in the excess of

30 million and growing still. Britain was now known as the ‘Workshop of the World’ and was leading the

way in industrial development. As a nation Britain was wealthy, powerful and strong. There were new

inventions which were pioneered in areas such as cotton spinning and weaving. However over the last 20

or 30 years of the 19th century other nations had started to catch up with Britain such as the USA and

Germany. Some were even overtaking Britain in certain areas – Steel in the USA and Germany. One could

summarise by saying that by 1900, on the surface Britain was still very powerful but there were

disturbing developments that lurked under the surface that would come to undermine Britain’s position

economically.

Both of the main political parties, Liberals and Conservatives, in the 1900s believed that Britain’s wealth

and power was down to its trade and industry which Britain had built a worldwide empire on. The

prevailing political attitude was ‘Laissez Faire’ or leave it alone with regards to the economy. This meant

leave business people to do business without restrictions, thus very little legislation or ruling by the

government – for example no taxes on imported goods (this was called Free Trade). There was no

interference with how businesses were run. All governments since the mid-19th century had followed this policy and reduced or abolished custom duties (taxes on imported goods).

Britain’s population in 1900 was a mixture of rich and poor. In 1900 at the top of the scale were

landowners and businessmen earning up to £700 per year. Next the small shopkeepers, teachers and

bank clerks who struggled to maintain a middle class image. At the bottom of the ladder you found

around 80% of the population who belonged to the working class. Within this group were some better

and some worse off workers – from example a printer could earn around £2.50 per week whereas an

agricultural workers had to survive on as little as 70 pence per week. About one third of the population

lived below the poverty line (that is the have less than the very basic amount needed to survive). Most

families spent every penny simply to survive, they were unable to save for emergencies or illness. There

were no pensions, sickness or unemployment benefit in 1900, if you were out of work this meant

destitution.

By 1900 there were a number of political developments that had occurred in Britain. Most men could

now vote but no women were allowed to do so. Some laws had been passed to try and improve

conditions in the new towns that were being built but again this was piecemeal and did not have the

desired impact. Most areas in fact had changed very little over the past 100 years. Politicians came from

the ruling classes, that is so say the landed aristocracy and wealthy businessmen. The House of Lords

(which was not voted for) saw itself as superior to the House of Commons (which was elected). There

were very few working class men in Parliament at this time and the Government was mainly formed out

of Liberal and Conservative parties. The Liberals main body of support actually came from the working

class who identified most closely with this party at the time. The Conservatives gained their support from

wealthy businessmen and country land owners. However it should be noted that neither side had

exclusive support from these groups and there were many ‘floating voters’ who voted on certain issues at

the time.”

1. How strong was Britain’s economy in 1900?

2. How fair was society in 1900?

3. What was the biggest challenge facing Britain in 1900?

Task 2: What were the major problems and questions facing Britain in 1900?

Britain in the late Victorian and Edwardian years faced great economic, social and constitutional difficulties

These main problems may be listed and will be examined as

Problem of poverty

Britain’s economy

Problems in industrial relations

Britain’s role as empire

The franchise question

The role and position of the House of Lords

The Ulster question

The problem of poverty

By the early 20th Century, Britain had experienced a remarkable increase in the

size and concentration of its population (see table 1.1). this was largely the

result of industrialisation and was strikingly evident in the growth of towns

and the formation of great conurbations.

In the 40 years since 1871, the population in those areas very nearly doubled,

which greatly increased demand for vital resources such as water supply and

sanitation. In most areas, however, the means of providing these were either

rudimentary or non-existent. The result was the intensification of social ills such as:

Overcrowding,

Malnutrition

Ill-health

Table 1.1 the growth of population in the conurbations

Year Greater London South-east Lancashire

West Midlands

West Yorkshire Merseyside

1871 3,890,000 1,386,000 969,000 1,064,000 690,000 1901 6,856,000 2,117,000 1,483,000 1,524,000 1,030,000 1911 7,256,000 2,328,000 1,634,000 1,590,000 1,157,000

Key words Victorian: Relating the years of Queen Victoria’s reign 1837 – 1901 Edwardian: Refers to the reign of Edward VII (1901-1910) but often extended to include the early years of George V’s reign (1910-1914) Constitutional: Issues relating to the conventions and methods by which Britain was governed Industrialisation: the spread of manufacturing, accompanied by the movement of workers from the land into towns and cities. Conurbations: concentrated urban areas of high population density Poor Law: as amended in 1834, a scheme for providing relief by taking the destitute into workhouses where the conditions were made deliberately harsh so as to deter all but the most needy from entering them.

Governments of the late Victorian and Edwardian ear:

1895-1902: Conservatives under Lord Salisbury

1902-1905: Conservatives under Arthur Balfour

1905-1908: Liberals under Henry Campbell-Bannerman

1908-1914: Liberals under Herbert Asquith

It is true that central and local government in the Victorian Age had begun to take measures to alleviate

the worst of the conditions, but their efforts fell far short of the needs; welfare and relief schemes were

wholly insufficient. It was the case that, although wage rates had risen, they were not yet at a level where

the majority of workers had sufficient surplus cash to improve their living conditions. Poverty was widespread.

The only major scheme for dealing with poverty was the poor law, introduced in 1834, when it was

believed that poverty could be contained by dealing with it on a local basis. However, the enormous increase in population made this system inadequate to deal with the problem.

The grim conditions that shaped the lives of the mass of the people who lived in towns and cities were

geographically revealed in a series of public reports. Outstanding pioneering studied were produced by

Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntree; their meticulously detailed analysis of social conditions in London and Yorkshire, respectively, gave evidence of the appalling squalor and deprivation.

SOURCE A – From Seebohm Rowntree, Poverty: A study of Town Life, Macmillan, 1902 p.133

The wages paid for the unskilled work in York are insufficient to provide

food, shelter, and clothing to maintain a family of a moderate size in a

state of merely physical efficiency. And let us clearly understand what

‘merely physical efficiency’ means. A family living on the scale allowed

for in this estimate must never go into the country unless they

walk…they must write no letters to absent children for they cannot

afford the postage…they cannot save, nor can they join sick club or Trade

Unions, because they cannot pay the necessary subscriptions. The

children must have ni pocket money…the father must have no tobacco,

and must drink no beer. The mother must never buy any pretty clothes

for herself or the children…if any of these conditions are broken, the

extra expenditure involved can only be met by limiting the diet; or in

other words sacrificing physical efficiency. In this land of abounding

wealth, during a time of perhaps unparalleled prosperity, probably more

than one-fourth of the population are living in poverty.

National Efficiency

The sheer extent of poverty in Britain reveled by such stark details convinced all but a few that something

had to be done. All parties agreed that government and Parliament had a duty to tackle the deprivation

that afflicted so many of the nation. This was not merely for humanitarian

reasons. In 1902, it was officially reported by the army high command that

nearly two-thirds of those who had volunteered to join the armed services at

the time of the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 had failed to pass their basic medical test.

Such revelations strengthened a widespread conviction in the Edwardian

period that Britain had to re-create ‘national efficiency’. This was a term often

used at the time to denote the level of well-being and health it was felt the

British people needed to achieve if the nation was to sustain its strength

industrially and militarily. The notion of national efficiency was closely linked

to eugenics, a science that attracted many adherents, particularly left-wing

intellectuals. A prominent voice amongst these was George Bernard Shaw,

Stretch – what picture of poverty emerges from source A?

Key words Eugenics: the science of impriving the quality of human stock by breeding out inherited weaknesses and deficiencies. Left-wing intellectuals: writers and thinkers who believed in radical social and economic change Gorge Bernard Shaw: celebrated playwright and social commentator.

who spoke in favour of ‘selective breeding’, by which he meant that only couples of a high level of

physical and mental health should have children.

Charles Masterman, an influential Liberal writer, represented the basic concern of the national efficiency

campaigners in Britain when he described the unhealthy conditions in which the mass of the people who

had migrated from the countryside o the industrial towns now lived. He wrote of their cramped

conditions and their long hours of work, and warned that it was on this unhealthy population that ‘the future progress of the Anglo-Saxon race’ would have to depend.

In 1904, a specially appointed Interdepartmental Committee on the Physical Deterioration delivered a

formal report to Parliament. Among its recommendations were:

The appointment of full-time medical officers of health and health visitors in urban areas

Local authorities to lay down standards of purity for all food and drinks

Regular medical examination of all school children

Urban overcrowding to be studied and addressed

Laws against smoke pollution to be introduced

Basic hygiene to be taught in schools

Local authorities to provide meals for school children

Not all these proposals were implemented immediately, but they helped to

define and clarify the problems. One particularly interesting response to the

need for national efficiency was the creation of a youth movement: The Boy

Scouts. Its founder, Lord Baden Powell, who expressed his ideas in Scouting for

Boys (1908), left no doubt as to his purpose: ‘Remember, whether rich or poor,

from castle or from slum, you are all Britons first, and you’ve got to keep

Britain up against outside enemies, you have to stand shoulder to shoulder to

do it.’ By 1914, the movement he had started had spread nationwide, and by 1920, worldwide.

While there was general agreement in Britain that the nation had to address its

severe social and economic problems, there were deep disputes between the

parties, and also different factions within individual parties, as to how these problems should be tackled.

These disagreements were to be a prominent feature of pre-1914 Britain.

Key words Robert Baden Powell: a military hero I the Boer War, he became a popular figure in Britain. Staple industries: Those enterprises on which Britain’s industrial strength had traditional been based, for example, textiles, coal mining, iron and steel production, and shipbuilding.

Britain’s economy

Between 1870 and 1914 Britain’s trade

and industry appeared to be shrinking

relative to other countries, such as

Germany and USA (see the graph). The

decline was most evident in the staple

industries. The British industrial growth

rate of 2.3% was only half that of the USA.

By the turn of the century, Germany and

the USA had overtaken Britain in the

volume of their iron and steel production.

By 1910, British industrial exports made

up only 10% percent of the world trade compared with figures of 20% for German goods, and 40% for American.

Modern revisionist historians have argued that the decline was exaggerated by contemporaries who

were unnecessarily frightened by the growth of Germany and the USA. The instead suggest that in fact

British industry was still growing healthily and was more cost effective than American and German industry, even though total output of those two countries was higher.

Revisionists further argue that it was the First World War that caused Britain’s’ twentieth century

industrial decline by shattering the international economy in which Britain held such a prominent place.

While noting the revisionists arguments, it has to emphasised that late Victorian and and Edwardian

industrialists truly believed that these trade figures showed that they were losing out to their American and German rivals in the open market.

New Industries

The decline of the staple industries was somewhat offset by the growth of the

‘new industries’. This was the term for those growing concerns and businesses

which began to develop in areas such as

Transport and communication

Distributive trades

Hotels and catering

Financial services

Health provision

Education

Public administration

Already by 1910, these activities accounted for 44% of the workforce, but, as yet, the profitability of the

new industries did not make up for the losses in the staple industries. However, as the century wore on

invisible earnings were to become increasingly important to the British economy. It was the profits

from the sale of Britain’s financial and insurance services, and the tax revenue that came from them that

helped to keep Britain solvent at critical times.

Key words Revisionist historians: those who challenge the accepted interpretations of historical events Cost effective: manufactured items produced more cheaply than in rival economies Invisible earnings: the sale abroad of services (usually in the financial sector) rather than tangible goods)

Problems in industrial relations

For much of the nineteenth century, the trade union movement had been

dominated by the ‘old’ unions. But the last quarter of the nineteenth

century witnessed a rapid growth in the number of mass-membership

trade unions composed largely of unskilled, or semi-skilled workers. These

‘new unions’ were eager to use their collective strength in a campaign for

better wages and conditions. By 1890, they had already won some major

victories; the gas workers had successfully gone on strike to achieve an

eight-hour day, and the ‘dockers’ tanner’ (sixpence a day basic pay rate) had been resultantly granted by the port authorities.

The employers had attempted to counter what they saw as a major threat to their interests by forming

federations, aimed specifically at resisting the strength of organized labour. The scene was set for major

conflict on the industrial front. So strong was the threat of industrial disruption that it raised the issue of

whether it was the role of government or Parliament to intervene in worker-employer relations. This was

to prove a critical question in the pre-1914 years!

Agriculture

Only 11% of the workforce in 1911 were agricultural workers. This is compared to 22% in 1841, and

17% in 1861. This decline is largely attributable to a serious agricultural recession that set in during the

1870s. in that decade foreign cheap corn came into Britain in large quantities from the newly developed

farm land in North America, Argentina and Australia. British farmers, who could not produce crops as cheaply as they could be imported, were also hit by a series of harvest failures.

The result was that only the largest farmers made reasonable profits. Many smaller farmers left the land

or had a much-reduced standard of living. In many cases rural poverty was worse than urban poverty.

Despite the establishment of a Board if Agriculture in 1889, the situation improved little over the next

four decades. It was not until the coming of war in1914, which, by greatly reducing imports, increased

demand for home-grown food, that British farming began to recover.

Key words ‘Old’ unions: established organisations representing skilled workers ‘New unions: representing large groups of workers, such as dockers, transport workers and miners

Britain’s role as an Empire.

In the last 30 years of the nineteenth century Britain had rapidly increased

the size of its existing empire. This was largely the result of its participation

of the European scramble for Africa, which had begun in the 1870s. the

Conservatives had been particularly associated with the development of

this new phase of imperialism. Although there were also some Liberals,

known as liberal-imperialists, who supported overseas expansion, the Liberal Party itself strongly opposed it.

By the end of the century, there was a considerable dispute between and

within the parties as to whether Britain should continue to pursue

expansionist policies, or whether the view, espoused earlier by such great

Liberal figures as W.E Gladstone, that imperialism was both immoral and

threat to international peace, should prevail. The two opposed viewpoints

were to be bitterly and violently expressed a the time of the Anglo-Boer

War, fought between 1899 and 1902.

The franchise question

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Britain was not yet a democracy.

Nevertheless, significant steps had been taken since 1832 to extend the

franchise. By 1900, some 60% of adult males had the vote. The question

now arose as to whether the nation should become wholly democratic. This

would involve, not only the granting of full adult male suffrage, but also, far

more controversially, the enfranchising of women. All the parties were

worried over the political implications of extending the vote to the female

population. For which party would women actually vote? It was a leap into

the unknown. The battle over this issue became a dramatic feature of pre-

1914 politics.

The position of the House of Lords

The issue of democracy lay at the heart of another of the major controversies of the time. The two-

chamber structure of the House of Lords (the Upper House) was constitutionally able to block the

Key words ‘Scramble for Africa: between the 1870s and 1914, the major European colonial powers, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal and Britain, separately took over large areas of the African continent. Imperialism : the acquiring of colonies principally for the purpose of prestige and economic exploitation Franchise: the right to vote Suffrage: essentially the same meaning as franchise, the right to vote. W.E Gladstone (1809-98): British statesman who dominated the Liberal Party from the 1860s until his death in 1898. Two chamber structure: the elected House of Commons and the unelected House of Lords, made up of hereditary peers; to become law, a Bill has to be passed by both Houses.

legislation sent up to it by the House of Commons (the Lower House). In

practice, it was only measure presented by the Liberal governments that the

Lords chose to reject. This was because Conservative peers were in an

overwhelming majority in the Upper House, which enabled the Conservative

Party to reject Liberal measures of which it disapproved. The most striking

example of this had occurred in 1894 when Gladstone’s Irish Home Rule

Bill, having passed through the Common, was then thrown out by the Lords.

As Britain moved towards democracy, the question was how much longer

the anomaly of an unelected assembly having an absolute veto over the

elected chamber would be tolerated.

The Ulster question

In the nineteenth century there had been a strong movement for home rule

amongst Irish nationalists, who wanted, as a first step to independence, the

creation of a separate government in Dublin, responsible for Irish affairs.

However, the demand for independence foundered on the position of Ulster,

whose largely Protestant population were not prepared to accept an Irish

settlement that gave Southern Catholic Ireland a controlling hand over

them. Gladstone, the Liberal leader, had introduced Home Rule Bills in 1886

and 1893, but both had failed to pass through Parliament. His attempts had split his party and had

hardened the resolve of the Unionists to reject home rule on the grounds that it undermined the unity of

the United Kingdom, and betrayed Ulster.

The issues and problems which have been introduced in the proceeding sections may be expressed as a

series of demanding questions confronting the government, Parliament, and the political parties in the

period between the beginning of the century and the outbreak of the Great War in 1914.

How could poverty be solved?

How far should the government be responsible for running the economy?

What were the best means of Britain earning it’s living?

How much power should the State have over ordinary people’s lives?

Should wealth be redistributed by the government’s taking it from the wealthy in taxes to give to

the poor?

How far should the government be involved in industrial disputes?

What was Britain’s relationship to Ulster?

How far should the right to vote be extended?

Was the House of Lords in need of radical reform?

What was the position and status of Ulster?

It is interesting to see how modern these questions seem. There were the key issues which were ton continue to demand attention throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.

Key words Home rule : a measure granting a colony or dependent region control over its own affairs Bill: a legislative proposal that has to go through separate stages in the Commons, before going to the Lords for a similar process. When this is completed the Bill receives royal ascent and becomes a binding Act (a law).

Summary – Britain in 1900

Poverty A declining economy Crisis in industrial relations The disputed role of empire The franchise The anomalous potion of the House of Lords The Ulster question

Task 3: MindMap/Diagram

Use the readings to create a mind map or table of Britain’s strengths and weaknesses in 1900.

Task 4: British History Key Terms Definitions – learn these!

1) Old Liberalism Wanted a limited role of the state, emphasised freedom of the individual to do things and self-reliance as the best way to promote the welfare of individuals and the state. Against the notion of ‘giving people something for nothing’ (e.g. welfare benefits) as it infringed personal freedoms.

2) New Liberalism

Adapted the concept of freedom to focus on ‘freedom from’ poverty and hardship. This justified state interference and legislation to improve people’s living conditions (e.g. Social reforms). Focused on ‘safety nets’ to prevent destitution for the hard working

3) Free Trade international trade left to its natural course without tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions

4) Tariff Reform Government taxes imposed on foreign imports, to protect domestic markets and the raise revenue for the government.

5) Lassiez Faire ‘Leave it alone’ economic principle that governments should not interfere in the economy

6) Balance the budget

Governments should only spend (expenditure) as much as they have (income). They should never put the country into debt by borrowing.

7) Gold standard The gold standard was a commitment by participating countries to fix the prices of their domestic currencies in terms of a specified amount of gold. National money and other forms of money (bank deposits and notes) were freely converted into gold at the fixed price.

8) Orthodox Economic Policy

Belief that Free Trade, Lassiez Faire, Balanced Budget and Gold Standard are the principles by which all governments should oversee the economy

9) Keynesian Economic Policy

Challenged Orthodox Economic policy, as the free market wasn’t working and therefore Keynes argued that the government should borrow money to spend on public works to create jobs and encourage economic growth (like the New Deal in America).

10) Independence Complete political freedom from Britain. Ireland would govern all affairs from a government in Ireland.

11) Home Rule Policy to reduce the political control Britain had over Ireland. Ireland would govern domestic affairs, whilst Britain would still have control over foreign affairs and trade.

12) Republicanism Reject monarchy in favour of a head of state elected/ appointed from the people of the country. Believed that Ireland should be an independent republic.

13) Nationalism Believed that the Irish were a distinct nation, separate from Britain and should be allowed self-rule.

14) Militancy the use of confrontational or violent methods in support of a political or social cause.

15) Syndicalism The theory that interests of owners and workers were completely opposed. They believed that the capitalist system could be overthrown through ‘direct action’ (general strike/ violence).

16) Deserving Poor

Idea that some people were poor through no fault of their own, eg children, the sick, the elderly. These people deserved help

17) Undeserving Poor

Idea that the poor were poor because they were lazy and ideal

18) First past the post

A voting system used in Britain, in which a person is elected because they get more votes than anyone else in the area that they want to represent

19) Mandate Support for action given to someone by the people voting for them:

20) Constitutional Crisis

The fundamental principles of the British government being challenged

Task 5: Example Essay

The welfare reforms of the Liberal governments, had only limited success in dealing with the causes of

poverty between 1908-1914.’ Assess the validity of this statement

Although the Liberal reforms were groundbreaking they were all limited in their success in dealing with the

causes of poverty as the Liberals were focused on only helping those they considered to be the deserving poor whilst also balancing the budget.

Old Age Pensions did not deal with the cause of poverty for elderly and therefore was it was limited.

Although I million people, received 5 shillings a week this was still not enough to keep them out of poverty,

this was 2 shillings less then Rowntree showed was required to prevent old age being a cause of poverty.

Nevertheless, Old Age Pensions were ground breaking as it was non-contributory. Lloyd George paid for this

increased taxation through the People’s Budget. This meant that, wealth was redistributed from the wealthy

to the poor, making it hugely successful at the time in dealing with some causes of poverty because it

established state intervention for the poor. However, only people that were older then 70, earnt less than £21

a year and had no criminal record were eligible for the pension. Therefore, it was unsuccessful in preventing

the causes of poverty because it only helped people the Liberals to considered to be the deserving poor. Also,

the average life expectancy was lower than 70 therefore, it did not deal with the cause of poverty because

not enough of those in poverty due to old age would benefitted from it. This shows that the Old Age Pension was limited in dealing with the causes of poverty as too few people benefited from it.

Task 6: Background reading

Complete the reading to answer these three questions in detail. Use the definitions from task 4 to help

you.

4. How was Russia ruled in1855?

5. How did Russia’s economy compare to other European countries?

6. What was the biggest challenge facing Russia in 1855?

Task 7: MindMap/Diagram

Use the reading to create a mind map of Russia’s strengths and weaknesses in 1855.

Task 8: Russian History Key Terms Definitions

21) Anarchy The absence of government or authority, usually leading to disorder.

22) Autocracy A system of government where there are no constraints on the power of the ruler; absolute rule by one person.

23) Bourgeoisie Owners of capital, industrialists, manufacturers, wealthy merchants and the wealthy middle classes.

24) Capitalism An economic system based upon private enterprise and profit. The marker determines the price of goods, supply of raw materials and the distribution of products.

25) Intelligentsia Educated and more enlightened section of Russian society; normally upper middle class.

26) Mir The peasant commune. 27) Bureaucracy A system of government where most of the decisions are taken by state officials

rather than by elected representatives. 28) Emancipation Freedom from bondage/slavery 29) Landowning

elite Those who owned land and who were a privileged minority in Russian society.

30) Orthodox Church

Following a split in the Christian Church in the 11th Century, the Eastern Orthodox Church developed its own beliefs and rituals. In Russia, the Orthodox Church taught followers that the Tsar’s power was god-given.

31) Okhrana Secret police established in 1881. 32) Third Section Secret police set up by Nicolas I and abolished in 1880 by Alexander II. 33) Pogrom Organised, violent attack on the homes and businesses of Jews. 34) Proletariat Industrial workers 35) Real wages Wages in terms of the amount of goods and services that can be bought. 36) Redemption

Payments Payments made by peasants to the government to redeem land they had been allocated in the emancipation.

37) Serfs Peasants bound to the estates of nobles; essentially enslaved peasants. 38) Slavophiles People who wanted to preserve Slav culture and the autocratic system of

government, saw western values and institutions as unsuited to Russia. 39) Slavs The main ethnic group in Russia

40) Police state A state in which the activities of people are closely monitored and controlled for political reasons.

Task 9: Cornell Notes

Making Notes:

It is important to make notes on the things you read as it will improve your understanding by forcing you

to convert difficult ideas into your own words. This way, you are more likely to remember what you have

read. If you just read passively while you study you risk ‘glazing over’ and don’t process what you have

read.

There is no right or wrong way of taking notes. However, try to keep your notes brief and succinct. There

is no benefit gained from trying to write everything down - your notes should reflect the main themes

and the areas you have identified as important.

Cornell note-taking:

Cornell note-taking is a very popular way of organising notes. It involves dividing your page into three sections:

1. Main section: For notes made during class.

2. Margin: For noting down key words, people, events, dates and questions, written after class

3. Summary: For an overview of the main point, written after class.

How to make Cornell notes:

Task 10: Example Essay

Identify the argument being made and write this in your own words. Highlight the Point, Evidence and Explanation used in the 1st paragraph.

Read through the Intro and 1st paragraph on ‘Alexander II only introduced reforms because of Russia’s

defeat in the Crimea.’ Assess the validity of this statement

Identify how this is different from a 16 mark GCSE question.

Many of Alexander II’s reforms were linked to Russia’s defeat in the Crimea, not least military reforms.

However, there was also pressure from intellectuals before the war to modernize and economic motives

were key. The defeat in the Crimean War acted as a catalyst for change, convincing those outside the

intelligentsia that Russia needed to reform in order to maintain its great power status. However, not all of Alexander’s reforms were linked to economic modernization.

Russia’s failures in the Crimean War deeply humiliated the country and highlighted the need for Russia to

change. Alexander’s military reforms introduced by the ex-Crimean army general, Dmitry Milyutin, were

a direct result of defeat. Conscription was extended to all classes and the length of service reduced from

25 to 15 years. Military colonies were abolished and harsh punishments were banned. These reforms

were accompanied by improvements in training, weaponry and communications. Although the upper

classes were generally able to buy their way out of conscription, these reforms did make the army less

expensive and more efficient in an attempt to avoid repeating the humiliations of the Crimean War.