Aristotle (384-322 BCE):What is Virtue?

PHIL 1003

Semester I 2009-10

What causes downfall of Plato’s best regime?

• Inevitable degeneration of best regime (Rep., 546a-e);• Fault of imperfect matings: how can this happen?

– Platonic numerology and astrology;– Calculate the ‘number’ for a human creature; no one

understands it!– Matings out of sync with this number;

• Result: children fall short of ideal; • Classes become mixed, no more pure golds;• Passionate pursue their ambitions, creating oligarchy

– rule of the few in their own self-interest.

Aristotle’s Contributions

• Major ethical theorist;• Major political thinker;

– theorist of democracy: qualified approval – Cf. Platonic critique of democracy = rule of the

worst elements;

• Biologist; • Used scientific method to analyze political

institutions;• Logic = the ‘organon’, or tool.

Ancient Greece

Aristotle’s life

• 384 BCE born in Stagira (Macedonia)– therefore could not become an Athenian citizen;

• Son of a court physician, Nicomachus; • 367-347 studied in Plato’s Academy, Athens• 347 Plato dies; Aristotle in Assos, Mytilene and

Macedonia;– In Asia Minor studies marine organisms;

• 342 tutors the Macedonian prince, Alexander;– little discernible influence

• 335 returns to Athens, founds Lyceum;• 322 dies in Chalcis.

School of Athens by Raphael (16th cent.)

What this picture illustrates

Plato pointing at sky,

Aristotle at earth.

Why?

Aristotle’s Method

• Empirical and concrete: based in biology– Make observations of phenomena– Draw conclusions on that basis

• Social and ethical questions: – examine actual views on an issue or topic;

• Find out what the telos, or goal of sth is;– That tells you its nature, and– What its good is: everything has its goal– This is empirical.

An acorn’s telos

Aristotle’s idea of The Good

• No one good or Form of the Good (cf. Plato)• Many goods—the good of each thing, organism,

person, e.g.– The good of cats– The good of trees– The good of society– The good of philosophers

• The good of a thing is determined by examining its nature:– We understand the nature of a thing by looking at its

goal or telos.

What Plato and Aristotle share: soul-society analogy

Plato

Soul: 3 pts: – reason, – passion– desires

Society: 3 pts:

rulers,

guardians

people

Aristotle

Soul: 2 pts:

reason

desires

Society: 2 pts:

rulers (rotation among citizens)

ruled: citizens and others

Aristotle’s view of the soul

Reason

Desires

Aristotle’s Hierarchy of Beings

• 3 kinds of soul:– Vegetative: plants– Sensitive (having senses): animals– Rational and active: man

These ideas still used in the 17th century by Descartes.

What is unique to man is reasoning ability and his highest good/goal/telos is to exercise that ability in action.

Plants and animals have different goals than man because they have different natures/souls.

Hierarchy of goods, sciences

• Critique of Plato’s Form of the Good (1096a15)– Not one good, but many

• Good of city at top of ‘hierarchy of goods’– Good of individual subordinate (NE, 1.2)– Why?

• Not one science of good, but many (1096a30)• Controlling science = political science

– All other sciences subordinate—generalship, household mgmt, rhetoric

– Why?

What is the Good for man?

• For sake of which we do things

• Many of our activities are instrumental, only means to the end

• Characteristics of the Good for man:– Self-sufficient– ‘Choiceworthy’ (having merit)– Active.

The Good = happiness; what is happiness?

• Is it freedom from pain?• Is it the opposite of whatever state in which one

finds oneself?• Many believe it is gratification of desires:

– Honor, being admired, respected– Wealth—’not the good we are seeking’ (1096a)– Health– Having fun.

• Aristotle on wealth, health, intelligence, etc:– Only instruments we use to pursue the good– Not ends in themselves!

‘…the human good turns out to be…

the soul’s activity that expresses virtue’ (NE, 1098a20)

You are not born virtuous;

You must become virtuous.