arheological and archaeozoological evidence of milk as a food in the territory of croatia

7/29/2019 Arheological and Archaeozoological Evidence of Milk as a Food in the Territory of Croatia

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T. TRBOJEVI-VUKIEVI et al.: Arheological evidence of milk,Mljekarstvo 61 (4), 319-325 (2011) 319

Introduction

Milkisconsideredasoneoftheoldestfoodsintheworld.Ruminantmilkhasbeenusedfornourish-mentformillenniabecauseitcontainsmostofthenutrientsnecessaryforaqualitydiet.Itisrichinsubstancesofvariouschemicalcompositionswhichparticipateveryeffectivelyincertainphysiologicalfunctionssupport,andisthereforeconsideredtobeacompletefoodthatcanconsiderablyvaryincom-positiondependingonspecies,animalfeedingandkeeping(Marenjaketal.,2006;Marenjaketal.,2009).Throughouthistory,certaincivilizations,andindividualsbelongingtocertainsocieties,developed

Summary

Accordingtotherecentdatathecattledomesticationanduseofmilkasafoodwasolderthenconsideredbefore.Cattledomesticationstarted8,000yearsB.C.thatwasprovenfromthevariousbonesdebris,whereasmilkusewasconfirmedonthebasesoffattyacidanalysesonthepotteryfrag-mentsasearlyas5,000yearsB.C.EarlycentresofcattledomesticationwerelocatedattheEasternMediterraneanarea,andintheNorthAfricafromwherethecattlewerespreadingalsototodaysCroatianarea.InCopperandBronzeAgeEuropenewpotteryformsappearthathavebeenassociatedwithdairying.ChemicalanalysisoflateEneolithicBadenculturepotteryshowedthatsomepotterytypeswereusedforproductionorstorageofmilkanditsproducts.BasedonthefaunaldatafromtheEneolithicVuedolarchaeologicalsite,numbersofbones,teethandhornfragmentswereidentified,withthesignificantdominationofthefemalepopulationthroughoutallculturallayers.Itisbelievedtheyweremostprobablyusedforthereproductionandthemilkproduction.Directproofsformilkconsumptionbythelocalprehistoricpopulation,basedonthefattyaciddeterminationfromthepotteryfragmentswerenotevident.ItcanonlybeassumedthatlactosetolerancewasdevelopedsimilarlytocentralandnorthernEuropeanpopulations.Simultaneouslywithgeneticresearch,men-tionedanalysesandresultswillbevaluablecontributionforbetterunderstandingindevelopmentofmetabolicanddegenerativediseaseinmodernhumans,developedundertheinfluenceofthechangesindietaryhabitsandenvironmentalfactorsduringtheevolutionaryinterval.

Keywords:milk,food,archaeozoology,fattyacids,arguments,health

Scientificnote-Znanstvenabiljeka

Arheological and archaeozoological evidence of milk

as a food in the territory of Croatia

*Corresponding author/Dopisni autor: Phone/Tel.: +385 1 2390 241; E-mail: [email protected]

Tajana Trbojevi-Vukievi1*, Terezija Silvija Marenjak2,

Snjeana Kuir1 and Lea ataj3

1DepartmentofAnatomy,HistologyandEmbryology,FacultyofVeterinaryMedicine,UniversityofZagreb,V.Heinzela55,Zagreb,Croatia

2PublicPrivatePartnershipCenterLtd.,Mlinarskacesta61a,Zagreb,Croatia3CroatianConservationInstitute,NikeGrkovia22,Zagreb,Croatia

Received-Prispjelo:06.06.2011.Accepted-Prihvaeno:18.11.2011.

UDK:637.1

theabilitytouseanddigestunfermentedmilkef-

fectivelyinanadultage,therebygainingaconsider-ableadvantageinsurvivalandsubsisting.ThisrefersprimarilytotheabilitytodigestlactosethatcouldberecognizedthroughLPalleleprevalence(Burgeretal.,2007).Wasitlactosetolerancethatbroughtthedevelopmentofdairyfarmingordidfrequentcontactwithmilkleadtothedevelopmentoflactosetolerance?Recentresearchshedslightonthisissue,butthefirstEuropeansettlerswerecertainlylactoseintolerant(Burgeretal.,2007).Historicalevidenceforusingcattletoproducesecondaryfoodssuchas

milk on archaeological excavation sites is mostly


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320 T. TRBOJEVI-VUKIEVI et al.: Arheological evidence of milk,Mljekarstvo 61 (4), 319-325 (2011)

basedonvariousdebrisofbonesandpotsthatwereprobablyusedinthemilkproduction.Basedonanavailablehistoricalevidenceandarchaeologicalfind-ingsmilkwasintensivelyusedasafoodasearlyasthe5thmillenniumB.C.,althoughthedomestication

ofcattle,sheepandgoatsstartedasearlyas8,000years BC (Sher ra tt, 1983). It is presumed thatthereweretwopossibleearlycentresofcattledo-mestication:theEasternMediterraneanandNorthAfrica.TheevidencefordomesticationintheEast-ernMediterraneanderivesfromatalHyk.ThecattlefromlayerVI(5,800B.C.)weresmallerthanwildcattleandtheycorrespondedinsizetodomes-ticatedcattlefromlatersitesinAnatolia(Perkins,1968).DomesticatedcattlewerealsoidentifiedontheAgrissaMagoulasiteinThessaly(Greece)whichdatestothe7thmillenniumB.C.Thosecattlearecontemporary,orevenolder,thanthecattleatatalHyk.

Itispossiblethatagreatcentreofdomestica-tiondevelopedinthenortheasternMediterraneanbasinandneighbouringareas(includingThessalyandMacedonia) around 6,500 BC (Bknyi , 1973).The evidence for domestication in North Africacomes from excavations inNabta and Bir KiseibaintheEgyptianWesternDesert(Crabtree,1993)

anddatesbetween6,800and7,500B.C.Archaeo-zoologicalevidenceforcattledomesticationfoundintheCroatianarea,suchastheVuedolarchaeologi-calsitelocated4.5kmsoutheastfromVukovar,ontherightbankoftheDanube.Forenbaher(1995)estimatedthattheVuedolsettlementcouldhavebeencomprisedof285householdswithatotalof1,000-1,500 inhabitants. There are three distinctEneolithic(Chalcolithic)layersfoundinthisarea:theBadenculture(3,400-3,150B.C.),theKostolacculture(3,250-3,000B.C.)andtheVuedolculture(3,000-2,400B.C.).Allthreeculturesareverysimi-lar,withalmostidenticalfireplacesandcylindricalpitconstructionmethods,ceramicsproduction,andallsharethe samefarmingmentality(Durman,1988),butthepreciseevidenceonmilkusageandprepara-tionofdairyproductsarestillundertheinvestigation.Therefore,theobjectiveofthisarticleistopresenthistoricalfacts,corroboratedbyscientificevidence,aboutthemilkconsumptionanduseinprehistoricCroatia, and toemphasize the possibility of apply-

ingcertainmethods,suchasextractingtraceoffatfromdishes, inattempts togetdirect and reliable

evidenceaboutusageofmilkand/ordairyproductsasafoodincertainculturesofprehistoricCroatia.

Archaeozoological evidence of milk production

It isbelieved that therearesubstantial differ-encesinbonesamplesfromanimalsusedstrictlyformeatproduction,andthoseusedforsecondarypur-posessuchasmilkproduction.Identificationispos-siblebyallocationbasedonsexandagedifferences(Rackham,1994).However,intheliterature,therearesomequeriesagainstsuchconclusionsmainlybe-causetheexcavatedsamplesdonotcontainbonesof all animals that could have inhabited the area(Bartosiewicz,1998).Whensomeoneisperform-ingarchaeozoologicalanalysis,itisimportantnotto

ignorethefactthatpartofthematerialfromthepasttimeswasneverrecovered,thatthemostofthematerialwas irreversibly destroyed over time andthatsomeoftheanimalsthatoncelivedwasneverburied(KuirandTrbojeviVukievi,2004).

Thearchaeozoologicalevidencesforsecondaryproduction exploitation in nearby area ofCentralBalkanregion(i.e.theeasternpartofformerYugo-slavia)wasprovidedbyGreenfield(Greenfield,1988a, 1988b).Hecollected faunal samples from

13 Late Neolithic (4,500-3,300 B.C.) and PostNeolithic (3,300-1,000 B.C.) sites and tested thehypothesis that secondaryproduct exploitation ofdomestic animals first becomeamajor feature ofEuropean subsistence strategies in the Post Neo-lithic(Bknyi,1974;Sherratt,1983).Togetherwith mentioned investigation, the later researchesandtestsonarchaeozoologicaldatafromthesameperiods in Central Balkan, indicates that duringLateNeolithicdomesticcattleproductionappearsto have been oriented toward meat production

(Greenfield,1991).DuringPost-Neolithictherearesignificantchangesbasedonlong-termstabilityandmixedanimalexploitation,withanemphasisonsecondaryproducts(Greenf ie ld ,2005).Asacon-clusionofthoseinvestigations,milkinghasitsoriginsintheNeolithicoftheNearEastandspreadstoEu-rope(Greenfield,2010).

In Vuedol, most of the findings date to theBadenculture layer, especially the classic and lateBaden period (3,300-3,150 B.C.). Osteological

analysis confirmed41% taxonomic identification,notingthatitwasespeciallydifficulttodistinguish


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wildfromdomesticatedanimalsofthesamespecies(Kuir,2002;Figure1).Sincesomeoftheelementsweredeterminedwithcertaintytobebonesoflargeruminants(domesticatedandwildcattle,reddeer),cattle (domesticated andwild cattle), small rumi-nants (sheep, goat and roe deer), and pigs,many

bone elements needed a more thorough, compe-tentanalysis.Consideringthefactthatarelativelysignificantportionofthefindingsconsistsoflargeruminant remains, among which cattle bones arepresent,aprevailingnumber(40%)ofcattleboneremainscanbeconfirmedfortheBadencultureofthe Vuedol site (Ku ir, 2002). It is difficult toprovetheuseofanimalsforsecondarypurposesbyarchaeozoologicalanalysis,especiallywhenappliedonindividualbones.Onthebonesofdomesticated

cattle,onwhichitwaspossibletocarryoutasexdetermination(mostlymetapodials,butalsoanotherlongbonesonwhichosteometrical analysiscanbedone),asignificantfemaledominationwasnotedinallculturalhorizons(TrbojeviVukievi,2006).Arelatively smallportionofmaleanimals suggeststhattheEneolithicpopulationhadadistinctlylive-stock-orientedmentality:Alargenumberofmiddleaged(3and5years)femaleswerepresent,probablyforthepurposeofreproductivemaintenanceoftheherd,butmostprobablyforthemilkproduction.

New approach in methodology of identification ofcattle utilization for milk production in prehistory

ThereisnodirectevidenceregardingatimelineoranextentofmilkusageamongstthepopulationofprehistoricCroatia.Numeroussitestestifyaconsi-

derabledietdiversity,cattlekeeping,andeventuallymeatandmilkprocessing.

Archaeological site Vuedol and numerousprehistoricsitesineastSlavoniaareofgreatinter-estfortestingthesecondaryproductionrevolution,becausetheyaresituatednearGreenfields(1988a)CentralBalkansarea.Thoseregionswereatthelandroutesofmovementforpeople,animals,goodsandinformationbetweenNearEastandCentralEurope,soifsecondaryproductexploitationwasintroducedintoCentralEuropefromtheNearEast,itwouldhavehadtopassthroughCroatianregion-Slavo-nia.Oneofthepossiblemethodsthatcoulddem-onstratemilkuseasasecondaryproductisidentifi-cationofmilkresiduesonceramics.InCopperandBronzeAgeEuropenewpotteryformsappearthathavebeenassociatedwithdairying(Craig,2002).Socalledmilkjug(potbelliedorbiconicaljugwithtwohandlesundertherim)isleadingceramictypeof the middle Eneolithic Bodrogkeresztr culture(Bognr-Kutzian,1963).Ithadanimportantrole

inmortuarypracticesandcanbefoundatmiddleEneolithic necropolises (av el et al., 2009). Al-

Figure1.Distributionofboneandteethfindings,accordingtotaxonomicalgroups,fromVuedolarchaeologicalsite,Badenculture(Kuir,2002)


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thoughthetermmilkjugindicatesuseofmilkandsecondaryproducts,ithastobeconsideredthatthetermwasintroducedin1927(Hildebrand,1927)basedonethnographicanalogies.Toverifyifthispot-terytypereallyhadaconnectionwithmilkanddairy

products,residuesanalysisonseveraldifferentpot-terytypesfrommiddleandlateEneolithicperiodinHungariawereperformed.Theanalyseswerebasedon determination of protein residues. From themiddleEneolithicperiod,eightmilkjugswereana-lysedandonlyoneofthemhadmilkproteintraces.TheresultsdidnotproveenhancedmilkproductsportionwithinmiddleEneolithicperiodandputaquestionfortermmilkjugformentionedpotterytype(Craigetal.,2003).However,thefattyacidanalyseswerenotperformedthatseemedmoreuse-fulinthecaseofcontaminationwithotherorganicdebris (Copley et al., 2003). A relatively broadspectrum ofBadenpottery types, instruct that inthelateEneolithicperioddairyproductshadalargerroleinhumannutrition.Milkresiduesweretracedinbiconicalbowlswithevertedneckandfluttingontheinsideoftherim,jugandlargestoragerecipients(Crai getal.,2003;Hor v th andSimon,2003).Biconicalbowls(Fig.2)arecharacteristicofBadenculture.Theyarepresentatalmosteverysiteattrib-

utedtothislateEneolithicculture(Dimitrijevi,1979;HorvthandSimon,2003).

There is some genetic evidence that freshmilkdrinkingstarted7,500yearsagobetweentheCentralEuropeandCentralBalkansfromwhereitspreadacrosstheEurope(Yuvaletal.,2009).AllevidenceofmilkasafoodinthedietoftheNeo-lithicpopulationintheterritoryofCroatiaisbasedonarchaeozoologicalbonefindings,andonauthen-ticcolandersandsieves,andotherdishesusedforkeepingdairyproducts,butthereisnobiochemicalevidencesofar.

According to Copley et al. (2003) absorbedorganic remains, especially fatty acids from thedishes, provides fairly accurate historical evidence

ofcattleorsmallruminantsbreedingforthemilkproductionandconsumptionthathadbeensupport-ingtheeconomicstatusofcertainsocietiesandcul-tures.Hence,fattyacidsfromprehistoricremainscanserveasdirectevidencefortheuseoflipidsofanimal origin. In explanation, ceramic dishes arehighlyporousand,ifusedtostoreorboilmilk,in-tensivelyabsorborganicmatter.Freshmilkcontainsahighamountofshort-chainfattyacids(C

4:0-C

12:0)

buttheydisintegrateovertimebecauseshort-chainfattyacidsaremostlyfoundonthesn-3positionintriacylglycerols.Theyaresensitivetohydrolysisandaremorewater-solublethanlong-chainfattyacids.Consequently, the remnants ofdairy fat and fattyacidsfoundonceramicdebrisfromarchaeologicalsites are mainly determined based on long-chainfattyacids,primarilystearicacid.Itisthereforeim-portanttodiscerndairyfatremnantsfrombodyfatremnantswhichispossibleviathestearic(C18:0)andpalmitic(C

16:0)acidcontentratio(Figure3).

AccordingtoCopl ey etal.(2003)carbonfrom

carbohydratefoodisusedmoreoftenforbiosynthe-sisofbodyfatthandairyfat,thatis,stearicacidfromdairyfatdevelops40%bybiohydrogenationfromunsaturatedfattyacids,oleic,linoleic,andlinolenicacid.BasedonthelipidextractionprotocolandfattyacidextractionandanalysisdescribedindetailsinEvershedetal.(2002)report,anextensiveuseofmilkwasdeterminedfortheearlyNeolithicperiodinthesouthpartoftheBritishPeninsula(Copleyetal.,2005).

Byusingthesamebiochemicalmethod,Ever-shed et al. (2008) proved that cattle, sheep and

Figure 2. Fragment of biconic bowl with evertedneckandfluttingontheinsideoftherimfromJosipovacPunitovaki-Velikopolje

I,Croatia(ataj,2009,T.4.1)


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goatswereusedfordifferentpurposesinthenorth-west Anatolia region, according to the bone rem-nants findings. Themilk was used as a nutritiousfoodatotherinvestigatedsitestoalesserextentver-susagreaterprevalenceofgoat,sheepandpigmeat

forconsumptionpurposes.Howcanthefarmingformeatproductionbedistinguishedfromfarmingforthepurposeofsecondaryproduction?Itcouldbedistinguishedbyusingtheprehistoricfindsandap-plyingseveralchemicalcriteria,primarilybydeter-minationofdairyfatremnants,particularlybycom-positionofsaturatedfattyacids,thedoublebondspositionanddistributionintriacylglycerol.Also,itispossible todeterminetheageofancient fatori-ginusingaradioactivecarbonisotope.Inaddition,thedataissupplementedbybonefragmentfindingsbecauseitispresumedthattherearesignificantdif-ferencesbetweenbonesamplesfromanimalsusedexclusively formeat production and animals usedfor secondary products production. Most of thebonesamplesfromanimalsbredformeatproduc-tioncontainalargershareofremainsofanimalsage1-2years,andadult,mostlyfemaleanimalswhichwereusedforbreeding,whereasbonesamplesfromanimalsbredforsecondaryproductproductioncon-tainalargernumberofbonesfromanimalsunder

6months,andoffemalesthatdominatedinadultpopulation (Rackham , 1994). At Vuedol site

(TrbojeviVukievi,2006),dependingoneva-luationmethod,thenumbersofjuvenilecattlearelesspresent(between10.52and14.05%),thesubadults are slightly numerous (between 14.04 and15.78%)andadultsarethemostnumerouswith

71.81-73.67%range.

Implication of milk production on thepopulation health

Identification of the first cattle farmers andtheirpossibilitiestobreedtheanimalsforthemilkproduction, significantly change the perceptionofdietaryhabitsandtheirinfluenceonhealthandeco-nomicconditionsinasociety.AccordingtoSherratt(1983)andLevy(1983),thesecondaryproducts

revolutionwasconsideredtohavestartedinthe5thor4thmillenniumB.C.OnthecontraryofBurgeretal.(2007)conclusions,recentinvestigationofgroupofscientistsupposedlactasepersistence7,500yearsagoacrosstheLinearbandkeramicculture(Yuvaletal.,2009).Surely,thebiologicaladvantageoflactosetolerance(LT)individualsliesinapossibleconstantavailabilityofahighlynutritiousfood,richincal-cium,especiallyinperiodsofinferiorwheatharvests(Burgeretal.,2007).Therefore,theuseofdairy

products,suchasyoghurtorcheese(inwhichlac-toseismainlybrokendowntolacticacid),provided

Figure 3.Rumen, adipose tissueandmilk glandfattyacids and carbohydratemetabolism inruminants(accordingtoCopleyetal.,2003)

*60%ofmilkfatstearicacidoriginatedirectlyfromthedietafterthebiohydrogenationprocessesoflinoleicandlinolenicfattyacidsintherumenofruminants


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the possibility for usingmilk as a highly valuablefoodinthedietoftheprehistoricpopulation.Basedonarchaeologicalfindingsinnorth-westernAnatolia,asubstantialunderstandingofmilkproductionwasconfirmed.Establishmentofthefattyacidanalyses

methodindishesremnantsandcomputersimulationmethod accordingthe genetic and archaeozoologi-calfindingswillcontributeinfurtherinvestigationoftheprehistoricCroatianpopulationperiodthatwouldgivebetterknowledgeofmilkuseasfood,or/andtradingproductontheterritoryofCroatia.

Conclusion

NumerousprehistoricsitesineastSlavoniaareofgreatinterestfortestingthesecondaryproductionrevolution, because they aresituatednearCentralBalkansarea,whichisatthelandroutesofmove-ment for people, animals, goods and informationbetweenNearEastandCentralEurope.Takingintoaccount the current archaezoological findings andauthenticcolanders,sievesandotherdishesusedforkeepingdairyproducts,thereareindirectevidenceoftheuseofmilkand/ordairyproductsonCroatianterritory.Thedeterminationof biochemicalmark-

ersonarchaeologicalremainswouldprovideamorethoroughknowledgeoftheuseofmilkasfoodfornutritionandexchangeforotherproducts.

Arheoloki i arheozooloki dokazio mlijeku kao namirnici na

podruju Hrvatske

Saetak

Prema novijim podacima udomaivanje gove-da,kaoiupotrebamlijekakaonamirnice,starijejenego to se smatralo. Domestikacija goveda zapo-elaje8000g.pr.Kr.,aizravnidokaziomoguemkoritenjumlijekapostojenatemeljuostatakaivo-tinjskihkostiju inatemeljuostatakamlijenema-sti,prvenstvenomasnihkiselinanaposuu,premakojimasemlijekokoristiloveunazad5000g.pr.Kr.Centri rane domestikacije goveda rasprostira-lisusenapodrujuistonogMediteranaisjeverneAfrikeiotudasusegovedaproirilaiunaekrajeve.

UrazdobljueneolitikaibronanogdobauEuropisejavljajunovikeramikioblicikojisedovodeuvezu

smljekarstvom.Kemijskeanalizekeramikekasnoe-neolitikebadenskekulturepokazalesunanekoli-kotipovaposuadasukoritenizaproizvodnjuiliuvanjemlijeka imlijenih proizvoda.Na temeljupodataka o fauni eneolitika vuedolskog arheolo-

kognalazitautvrenjeveibrojfragmenatakosti-ju,zubairogovagoveda,saznaajnomdominacijomenkiusvimkulturnimhorizontima.Smatrasedasunajvjerojatnijekoritenaurasploduizaproizvodnjumlijeka.Direktnihdokazaoupotrebimlijekanate-meljuutvrivanjaostatakamasnihkiselinauposuunema,nomoemopretpostavitidasetolerancijanalaktozurazvilakaoinapodrujucentralneisjever-neEurope.Istovremenosgenetskimistraivanjimanavedeneanalizeirezultatimoglibiimatiprimjenuusvrhuboljegpoznavanjarazvojametabolikihide-generativnihbolestivezanihuzprehrambenenavikedananjegstanovnitva.

Kljune rijei:mlijeko,namirnica,arheozoologija,masnekiseline,dokazi,zdravlje

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