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CHAPTER 4

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE OF

UTTTARAKHAND

4.1. HOUSEHOLD ARCHITECTURE

4.2. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

4.3. CONCLUSION

Although Uttarakhand is still in its infancy as a separate state, it is

historically one of the oldest and archaeologically richest parts of

India. From the architectural point of view, Uttarakhand has an

extremely rich past. Uttarakhand developed its own style of

architecture based on abundantly available materials - wood and

stone. Uttarakhand always had constant give and take relations with

the other regions in terms of technologies, so it both imparted and

received knowledge from other regions through reciprocal movement

of people and cultural exchange. The point we are making in this

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thesis is that Uttarakhand was never a cul de sac but was actively

interacting with the Ganga valley as also with other regions of the

country. The people also maintained a symbiotic relationship with the

environment and tried to develop technologies suited to the local

conditions. For example, there are many wood and stone temples

which are unique in terms of durability, grandeur and artisanship.

Uttarakhand is rich in terms of its remarkable domestic architecture as

well, a heritage of the people of this region. It was based on locally

available materials like stone, wood and clay. In traditional village

houses, one can find abundant use of stone and wood. As a unique

feature, the wooden temples of this region are made of deodar wood

(Cedrus deodara) according to the tradition. We also find some stone

temples in the Ganga valley area which are built in the same style.

To further emphasise the continuous interaction between Uttarakhand

and the rest of the country, I propose to explore the influence of the

Pal, Parihar and such styles on the hill architecture. Traditional village

houses, made of stone quarried from the nearby places, are cost

effective and long lasting, and they are best known for their resistance

to adverse climatic conditions. Their life span can even stretch well

over hundred years. These traditional houses and temples are

architectural wealth of this region and it is as diverse as Uttarakhand

itself. The secular architecture hardly gets noticed in literature, so we

will go into some details about it. For detailed description, the

traditional architecture of this region can be classified as follows.

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4.1. HOUSEHOLD ARCHITECTURE

Ever since humans appeared on the planet earth, the primary

requirement was food followed by shelter. The earliest humans

during their hunting and gathering period used to live in caves, open

sites and even on branches of trees for protection from wild animals,

adverse weather conditions and fury of nature. Gradually, in the

course of evolution, human beings started making makeshift shelters.

Later on, they started making permanent shelters. Initially, they used

grass and branches of trees for this purpose and afterwards began to

use stone. In the course of time, they gained perfection in this craft

and used different architectural styles.

Gradually, they improved the technique of house construction. Artistic

improvements took place during the evolution of house construction.

Although this art of house construction goes back thousands of years,

it is still practised. The huts, of local tribes of the region, present

examples of ancient building structures, which are unique and

significant in their style. They are mostly made of wood, clay, and

stone. In Uttarakhand, historical evidence of first pucca houses have

been found from the Kuninda‟s period (200 BCE). The traditional

buildings of Uttarakhand are known generally for their stability, long

life span and resistance to adverse weather conditions, as is quite clear

in old shrines and village houses. Above all, the traditional houses

could withstand earthquakes due to their extraordinary features. Such

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constructions have great relevance for designing modern houses in

seismic regions.

There are many outstanding domestic buildings in this region. Well-

dressed and sometimes decorated stones were used for the

construction of double storied houses (residential houses). These

houses belong to the Pal dynasty and are found in Askot, some 70 km

from Pithoragarh district headquarters. The buildings of Chand rulers

in Champawat are popularly known as Chand buildings.

In the village Takadi in Pithoragarh district, Samanti Bhawan of

Kumod locality is an outstanding example of the architecture of the

medieval period. Old traditional houses are still abundant in this

region. Deodar, pine, sal, rose wood, tun and other wood varieties

were used for woodwork in the houses. Mainly, the doors and

windows were made of kedar (deodar), sal, rose wood, and had

beautiful ornate carvings. Some carvings are 350 years old and give

lots of information about the past of the people here. The old houses

of this region are full of rich wood carvings. Wood carving was the

sign of prosperity in olden days. Therefore, the prosperity is reflected

on wooden doors, windows, enclosures, and pillars.

The stone walls of the buildings are erected on the foundation which

is about half a metre thick. The bhumi puja is performed before the

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foundation stone is laid and as a ritual a coin is kept under the

foundation stone. The breadth of foundation is made according to the

height of the building. Big and strong stones are used for the

foundation.

The flooring was done with wooden planks as base and then it was

smeared with the paste of cow dung and clay mixed together on every

second or third day. These types of houses were constructed until the

last century.

The traditional domestic architecture of Uttarakhand is relevant even

today due to its following features:

Mostly wood and stone were used for construction which was

locally and easily available.

Cost-efficiency

Stability

These houses are earthquake proof due to the non-rigidity of

joints.

Artistic magnificence

These buildings can endure the adverse weather conditions.

Until few decades back, traditional houses were built in this region

keeping in view the geographical conditions of the site. In ancient

times, cement was not available so the people used ground lentil or

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horse bean as mortar. Wood was used only for making doors,

windows etc. to minimize its consumption. The indigenous common

folk evolved a technique in which extensive use of stone was made

under the economic pressure.

The architectural styles of Kumaun and Garhwal regions of

Uttarakhand are similar due to the same geographical and economic

conditions. Both the styles are stone-based with minimum use of

wood. Stone slates were used as roofing material for the house. These

houses had insulation properties and were earthquake proof. These

houses were made in a linear pattern and this linear pattern is known

as Bhakli in local parlance( Fig:4.1). For the plastering of walls (both

outer and inner surfaces), mud paste is used.

Walls of these houses were whitewashed occasionally with kamet. A

notable characteristic of the houses of Uttarakhand is their rectangular

layout. The houses are separated into two equal haves with a straight

flight of stairs (khutkuni) in the center and are used as living rooms.

Mostly, two storey houses are found in the region, but a few three-

storey houses are also found in some parts.

Stone masonry in mud mortar is used for the walls. The walls are

plastered from both outer and inner sides with paste of dung and clay

mixed in certain proportion. The mud mixed with dung is also used as

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flooring material for ground floor. For the first floor, wooden planks

are first laid then the mud mixed with dung paste is evenly applied

over it. Stone slates are used as the roofing material, these are quarried

from some nearby sites, and this kind of stone is very hard and rough.

The stone quarried from the site is of irregular size but before using, it

is dressed into rectangular shape. Clay and dung were abundantly

used because of their insulation properties - thereby the rooms keep

warm in winters and cool during the summer season.

They had designed and erected even multi-storied houses with non-

rigid joints between wooden and stone members; such houses are

found mostly in Garhwal region. Such houses, known as pherols

(Fig. 4.2), have stood the ravages of time and earthquakes; this

architecture is called Koti Banal Style (Das, 2007).

Locally, ground floor is called goth, pand or goshal (Fig: 4.3) and at

some places it is called kachar (in Betalghat). It holds a significant

place in the traditional houses of Uttarakhand; the height of this floor

is kept low (about 1m). It is used for keeping animals and for storage

of fodder and grains. The roofing of the goth is called pal. Above the

goth the first floor is called math (living floor); at some places it is

called bawad or chakh. Above the goth the walls of chakh are

erected. The doors and windows are erected in front of the chakh.

Small recesses, ventilators, almirahs and windows are made into the

walls according to the needs. The height of first floor is kept about 6

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to 7 ft (~2m). At some places, artistic masonry can be seen above the

windows and doors. The main door is commonly known as muhav or

mwal (Fig:4.4) . Vertical wooden elements of muhav were known as

kham and the wooden lintel is called patav, covered with

anthropomorphic motifs. It was considered essential to have an image

of Ganesha or Shiv in the middle of patav. Generally, the goth is used

for storage, though at some places it is used as a kitchen. According to

the tradition, all the religious sacraments and social ceremonies are

performed in the goth. No religious functions were performed on the

upper floors. Therefore, we can say that the goth is a multi-functional

area and the family lived on the upper floor. Normally windows were

not made in the goth, but ventilating openings were provided.

A staircase leads one to what is known as chhaja or chhaj on the

math(Fig:4.5) . No formal entrance is provided to goth and one is free

to enter through any suitable side. Flooring of goth is done with stones

animals are kept, but if the goth is used as kitchen then stone flooring

is coated with cow dung and mud.

Rooms were made on both sides of the staircase that opens into the

chajja or chhaj. The staircase is locally known as khutkuni and it is

also used for sitting. The outer room is called chak and the middle

room is known as bhanar, which means storage room. A door

connects the chak and the bhanar.

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The room next to the chak was used as kitchen. Kitchen is usually

under the gable roof on the top floor. In the middle of the kitchen, a

cooking platform is erected. This is made of stone, is open from two

sides, and is layered with cow dung and mud paste. It is locally known

as chul. Fuel wood is placed under the chul and a cooking pot is put

over this cooking „plate‟. The chul is very common in Uttarakhand

region; but now it has gone out of fashion with the advent of cooking

gas.

Chajja or chajj is a very interesting part of the traditional building

architecture. It was ornamented by complex carvings on wood, which

is a Muslim contribution to the Kumauni architecture according to

O.C. Handa. (Handa 2008: 147-148). People used different types of

wood in their houses. The most common wood species are tuni or tun,

and pine. Wood was used for making beams, joints, doorframes.

Besides tun and pine, deodar, shisham, sagaun are also used for

making planks.

The gabled roof of the house was known as pakhoo. It is covered with

stone slates. According to O.C. Handa, the stone slates used in the

Kangra valley are different from the stone slates used in Uttarakhand.

The rectangular stones of roof are called Pather.

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4.2. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Ancient societies fulfilled all their requirements from nature. As

people were entirely dependent on nature for their survival, they were

often tormented by the inescapable presence of the mysterious forces

around them in the form of nature‟s fury. To pacify such forces (real

or imagined) humans started worshiping different elements of nature

and even offering them sacrifice. In order to save themselves from the

routine hassles they often installed their temples at a safe distance

from their settlements, on mountain tops, in forlorn caves, under old

and mighty trees or somewhere near mountain cliffs and avoided

proximity to them. Therefore, many temples and shrines were built by

the people of this region far from the villages and in between distant

villages for such ill disposed deities.

Uttarakhand is often known as Dev Bhumi (land of gods). The

presence of wonderful stone and wooden temples of this region proves

that the architectural skills were highly developed. A large number of

stone and wooden temples are located at different places, mostly in

the interiors. The most artistic temples were built by the Katyuris

during their ruling period and these temples are mostly found in

clusters. The architecture of Uttarakhand is based on locally and

easily available materials like stone and wood. It not only reflects the

intimate relation between common people and nature but also the

socio-cultural history of this region. Wood and stone were the staple

building materials in ancient times.

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There are many temples in this region. During a recent survey, the

remains of an ancient temple were found in Yandhura, 6 km from

Sana Pani in Champawat district. The vadika stambhs are present

here, which are made of red sandstone. The stambh has some

engraved pictures of humans, such as mithun, yaksh-yakshni and

gana. These stambh members are similar to that of the Mathura

region. The Yandhura stambh is believed to have been erected in the

first century BCE. These remains prove that the construction of

temples was started around two thousand years ago. The giant images

of Yakshas had been recovered from the sites of Podhar, Dashyu and

Dwarahat in Almora district, and Baijnath in Bageshwar district.

Because of abundant forests in this region, the ancient temples were

made of wood. The entrance door of the Katarmal temple is the

evidence of wooden temple that has been displayed at the National

Museum of Delhi. The wooden temples of Uttarakhand have got

ruined, so stone temples have been built in place of wooden temples.

The temples that were made in pre-medieval period (about 700 to

1000 CE) are still intact. The pre-medieval period is also known as

Katyuri period. The Katyuris ruled over whole of Uttarakhand mainly

between 6th

to 8th

century CE. It is believed that initially temples were

made with flat roofs, known as the pidha style. According to the

recent surveys 85 per cent of temples belong to the pre-medieval

period. The squire type of garbhgriha and antral were made in the

basement. Jageshwar, Katarmal. Saijgram, Tilari Gram, Kanra,

Kaihargown, Bamansuyal in Almora district, Khatikhan, Majhpipal,

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Chamdeyol in Champawat district, Kotali (Bankot), Bhatyura

(Bungachina) in Pithoragarh district and Gadhshair in Bageshwar are

the main sites of this type of temples.

The third type of temple was made in the Nagar style or Rekha

Shikhar style (Indo-Aryan style). Temples of this type are found at

Jageshwar in Almora district and old Shiv temple of Thal in

Pithoragarh district. The Bharsoli‟s Shiv temple is notable because

this temple is made in the Pidha and Triratha Nagara style and is

placed between 9th to 10

th centuries.

Besides, Ballavi or Gajprethakriti temples were also built. These

temples are found at Jageshwar, Bamansuyal, Shakuni Gram in

Almora district, Patal Bhuwaneshwar in Pithoragarh district and

Devidhura in Champawat district of Uttarakhand. According to some

archaeologists, the Pallavi style temples were originally made in

South India and architects from South India were hired to build these

temples in the region during the Katyuri Period, indicating interaction

of Uttarakhand even with the deep South.

4.2.1. Stone Temple Architecture

The introduction of stone temple architecture marks the emergence of

the Brahmanical culture in Uttarakhand. These temples are mostly

made of stone and stone slates, well known for their durability and

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strength. Many stone temples are found in Kumaun region, built

mostly during the Katyuri rule. The Baijnath temple complex, The

Jageshwar temple complex,The Dwarahat temples, The Stone Temple

of Nanda Devi at Almora etc are some stone temple complexes, which

indicate the rich architectural heritage of Uttarakhand ( Fig:4.6, 4.8,

4.9, 4.15)The stone temples are built in the classical architectural style

under feudal patronage. The stone temple architecture of

Uttarakhandfollowed the style of post-Gupta renaissance under the

Pals, Gurjarasand Pratiharas, indicating a continuous interaction with

theGanavalley.

Such a temple building enterprise on the trade and pilgrimage routes

had a telling psychological effect on the native population. The local

people adopted into their pantheon many Brahmanical deities,

particularly Shiva. The standing stone temple of Bhagawati exists on

the west bank of Jamuna, there is no standing stone temple of ancient

times in the western part of Uttarakhand in Garhwal. Only wooden

temples are found here. All the wooden temples were destroyed due to

harsh climatic conditions, and could not be rebuilt because the temple

required the best quality of stone, which was not easily available. The

quality of the available schist stone in this region was very poor. That

is why most of the temples have been rebuilt replacing stones with

wood.

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The famous temple of Katarmal located around 25 km from Almora

town locally known as “Bara Aditya” or the great Sun God (c. a 12th-

13th century CE) is surrounded by 44 subsidiary shrines of different

shapes and sizes. Adibadri (Chamoli) is the ancient group of temples

and is known as Adibadridham, which is one among the five Badris

(Adibadri, Dhyanbadri, Yogabadri, Bhavishatbadri and Vishalbadri).

It can be dated back to between 8th -12

th centuries CE. The residual

evidence of the early stone temples indicate that various stone temples

belonged to the time between 8th and 12

th centuries and these temples

were raised on the existing stone sub-structures. About 1000 old

temples are found in the Jageshwar, Baijnath, Balsa, Katarmal,

Narayankoti, Bharsolo, Kali Kumaun, Mazpepli villages. At many

places inscriptions are found in brahmi lipi, which give key

information about these temples. The six century inscription of

Kasardevi refers to a Rudreshwar temple, which had been built by the

son of Vatila, is worthy of mention. The clusters of temples built at

many places of this region are remarkable. These are as follows:

4.2.1.1. The Jageshwar Temple Complex

Phulli Jageshwar is a small and isolated village surrounded by dense

forests of deodar. It is located about 30 km from the Almora district

headquarters, on Almora-Pithoragarh State Highway on the left bank

of the river Jatganga. It is a group of temples, which is popularly

known as Jageshwar Complex. According to the Brihat-Samhita the

gods always play where nature presents itself in its grandeur and the

groves (natural forests) are there near mountains, rivers and springs.

Thus, Jageshwar meets all these conditions. In the Jageshwar group

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of temples, there are about 124 small and big temples built by the

Katyuri kings between the 6th and 8

th century. Some of the temples

of the Jageshwar group are dedicated to lord Siva and others to the

goddesses e.g. Jageshwar, Mrityunjay, Kedareshwar, Baleshwar,

Pushti devi, Chandika, Durga and Lakshmi etc. This temple complex

is spread over an area of about 2 sq km on both the banks of the river

Jatganga. There are classical stone temples of different types and

sizes, which date back to different times. The historical evidence

indicates that Shalivahan, who was the king of Ayodhya, built the

temple of Gangnath and King Vikramaditya built the temple of

Mahamirtyunjay.

Jageshwar is considered sacred because according to a local belief

when the Pandavas were on their way to the Himalaya for

Swargarohana they performed their last rites at Jageshwar on the

bank of the river Jatganga, since then the dead bodies are brought here

from nearby areas for cremation. It is believed that the people

cremated here find place in the heaven.

Kedarnath , Neelkantheshwar, Jageshwar, Mahamirtyunjay, Hanuman

and the Devil temples are some famous ones of this group. Located in

three clusters, these temples are magnificent in their unique

architectural style. Each temple is devoted to a prominent deity; so on

this basis, these temples can further be divided into three groups:

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The Dandeshvar Cluster

The Tarun Jageshwar Cluster

The Kuber Cluster

These temples are made in different architectural styles so we can also

divide them into various groups depending on their style of

architecture.

Most of the temples are built in the Rekha–Sikhara or Nagara style

(Indo-Aryan style). The Jageshwar and Mirtunjay temples are the best

examples of this style (Fig: 4.7).

The second group consists of temples which are built in pidha or

pyramidal style. Lakulisha, Nataraja and Baleshwar temples are

excellent examples of this type.

The third style of temples is known as Gajapristhakriti. The temples

of Navdurga and of Chandika are the excellent examples of this

style(Fig:4.10, 4.11 ). It has been seen that Gajprithakriti (Ballavi,

Dholkakar) temple is dedicated to various manifestations of Shakti.

Some other Gajprithakriti temples have also been seen at Baman

Suyal (Almora), Patal-bhuvanesvar (Pithoragarh), Shakuni (Almora),

Devidhura (Champawat) and other places of this region. The dome

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of these temples was made in the Dholakar shape. The Dholakar

shape is given to these temples to enhance the loftiness of temples

(Pant and Chauhan. In press). The temples of this style are found in

south India. It is said that the south Indian architects were invited by

the Katyuris to Kumaun region during their reign.

The Dandeshwer temple group is situated at a distance of about 1km

from Jageshwar, on the right bank of Dandeshvar gad. The

Dandeshvar cluster has 14 temples in all. This is one of the biggest

temple complexes of Uttarakhand. It has a shivaling which is

different from the shivalings of the Jageshwar Group as it is un-

carved.

In the Dandeshwer temple group, there is an incomplete temple

which is related to a myth. According to it when this temple was being

erected, a goddess came in the dream of the builder and said to him

“the temple should be so loft that the temple of Bageshwer could be

seen from the top of this temple otherwise I will kill you”. This task

was nearly impossible for him so he quit its construction midway.

According to a belief, some people prayed to god to find solutions to

their problems and once it was done they built temples in return. But

after some time many temples were washed away by the floods in the

river Jatganga. Now only 124 of them are remaining. All these

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temples are on the left bank of the Jatganga. Tarun Jageshwar is also

known as Yogeshwar. It is believed that that this temple was built by

Lord Vishnu himself.

The Kuber cluster consists of three temples on the right bank of the

Jatganga River, on the hillock opposite the main Jageshwar (Tarun

Jageshwar). The image of the chief deity is carved above the

doorframe of the entrance door of every stone temple. Nevertheless, in

the Kuber temple at Jageshwar the Shiva image has been carved

above the doorframe of the entrance door. Indeed, there is a

controversy about the temple and some people believe the idol in the

temple is of Ekmukhi lingam of Shiva, but still the temple has been

devoted to Kuber, the god of wealth.

Mythology: According to the Manaskhanda, once upon a time Shiva

sat in deep meditation on the Tankar hillock, 3 km from Jageshwar in

Darun Patti. At that time, Vashishta and many other Rishis were living

there. The wives of Rishis were so influenced by the presence of the

meditating Shiva that they started ignoring their husbands. The Rishis

were so angry and held Shiva responsible for it and cursed him. As a

result, his lingam fell off his body on the earth. Shiva returned this

curse by transforming all of them into Saptarishis.

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On the other hand, goddess Prithvi (Earth) found the lingam of Shiva

too heavy to bear; so she requested the Rishis to relieve her of this

great burden, whereupon Vishnu cut the lingam into nine khandas and

cast each of them at different places on the earth. Eventually, these

places got associated with the faith of the people and turned into

centres of worship. Four of these khandas came to be known as

Himadri Khand, Manas khand, Kedar and Kailash khand are located

in Himachal Himalayas. The others are Patalkhand, Kashikhand, Reva

khand, Brahmottar khand and Nagar khand. The place where Shiva sat

in meditation on Tankor hillock began to be known as Briddh Kedar

or Budha Jageshwar. The Jatganga originated from this place.

However, a small portion of that lingam could not go very far, it fell

nearby and that place began to be known as Jageshwar after the name

of Tarun lingum, Tarun – the younger Jageshwar. The Jageshwar Nath

temple is also known as Nagesh Jyortirling because it is considered

one of the 12 Jyotirlingas, according to some historians.

Jageshwar, the chief deity of this group of temples, commands

proverbial respect of the entire region, as the saying goes-

“Devta dekhana Jageshwar, Ganga Nahana Bageshwar”.

According to another myth, in Dwapar Yuga, the Pandavas sat in

deep meditation and during their meditation Lord Shankar came near

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the Pandavas and gave them information about the conspiracy of

Duryodhan. After this event, the Pandavas gave the name of this place

as jag+ishwar (the God who woke up), later on it was called

Jageshwar.

This temple has always possessed a lot of wealth because of the

liberal grants made to it by the royal families belonging to the Katyuri

and Chand dynasties. The Archaeological Survey of India has

established 44 architectural museums all over the country; and one of

them is at Jageshwar. The idol of Paun king, made of Astadhatu, is

the main attraction of the architectural museum of Jageshwar. At this

Museum 174 idols from the Jageshwar, Dandeshvar, Kuber temple

groups and other sculptures from nearby places have been displayed.

In the room no. 1 of this museum, 33 valuable idols are kept for

exhibition. In this room the main idols are of Navgrahs,

Umamaheshwar, Surya, Durga, Lakshmi, Narayan, Gajalakshmi,

Mahishashurmardani and Ganga etc (Fig: 4.14).

In the second room, eleven idols are kept of which Parvati, Surya,

Chamunda, Ganesh and Shiva are the main ones (Fig: 4.13)

In the third room also eleven idols are kept, of which Shiva,

Umamaheswar, Vishnu, Parvati, Surya, Kartikeya, Chamunda are the

main ( Fig.4.12) In this room the idol of Paun king ( Fig. 3.1 ) is

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kept. This image is made of brass. This can be considered the oldest

king of this region, who ruled all over Kumaun and Garhwal. It is said

that king Paun in Garhwal built the temple of Gopeshwar. The image

of Deep Chand has also been kept here.

The Jageshwar temple complex can be dated to between the 7th

to 16th

centuries CE. It is said that this temple was among the twelve

jyotirlingas. However, this identity may not be valid because

according to the Shatrudra Samhita of the Shiva Mahapurana, the

twelve Jyotirlingas are Somnath in Saurashtra, Mallikarjun near

Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh on the banks of the river Krishna,

Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh, Mahakaleshwar in Ujjain, Madhya

Pradesh, Vaidyanath temple at Deogarh Bihar, Kedar in Himalaya in

Uttarakhand, Bhimshankar in Dakini, near Pune, Maharashtra,

Nageshwaran in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Rameshwar is the southern

most of the twelve Jyotirlingas of India; the others are

Tryambankeswar near Nasik, Maharashtra, Grishneshwar near Ellora,

Maharashtra. According to some historians, Shankracharya discovered

the temple of Mirtunjaya. It has been seen that an image of

Gajsinghmurti is placed on the top of suknasa in the Jageshwar temple

in which a lion is sitting over the elephant. A legend is related to this

figure, according to which when Mahishasur came to kill Durga, he

turned himself into a giant Gaj (elephant) and to counter this the

vehicle of Ma Durga (Lion) changed itself into a giant form and killed

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the Gaj (Mahishasur). This story is related to the image of

Gajsinghamurti. Since that time, this is considered as a sign of defeat

of evil and thus this motif is made on almost all stone temples.

4.2.1.2. The Dwarahat Temple Complex

Dwarahat, located 75 km from Almora District Headquarters, is the

home to the ancient temples of Uttarakhand. This is a very important

site from the architectural and historical point of view. Situated in the

backdrop of a beautiful natural setting, it has a great spiritual

significance. There are about 30 temples of the Katyuri period here,

which are excellent in terms of architecture. In Uttarakhand, temples

are not only dedicated to Lord Vishnu but also to Lord Shiva.

Although many deities are generally known by their traditional names,

they are the local manifestations of Shiva. Mahamirtunjay temple of

Dwarahat is one of them and is a unique example of the Katyuri

architecture. The historians assign it to the 11th

century. This temple

is made in the Nagara style (Curvilinear). A flat roof covers the

mandap of this temple. The Lord Shiva is worshiped here in the

lingam form. Badrinath temple of Dwarahat is best examples of the

tri- ratha shrines.

4.2.1.3. The Almora Temples

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Situated between the Kosi and Suyal rivers, Almora is a very old town

in Uttarakhand. The city was established by King Kalyan Chand in

1560 CE when Chand rulers transferred their capital from Champawat

to Almora. The town has a historical importance since ancient times.

It is located at a height of about 1660 m above sea level and is spread

over an area of 12 sq km.

Till 1815 Almora was the capital of Kumaun region of Uttarakhand,

the Chand kings ruled all over Kumaun from here for about 230 years.

Talla Mahal, Malla Mahal and Lal Kila Mandi are the sites developed

by the Chand dynasty. According to historians, Chand king

Vishamchand wanted to transfer the capital of Kumaun in 1560 from

Champawat to Almora. At first Vishamchand came to Khagmara,

where the famous Khakmara temple is located. But after some time

King Gajua reached here and killed King Vishamchand when he was

sleeping. Therefore, the dream of Vishamchand to make Almora the

capital of Kumaun did not materialise.

After this, King Kalyan Chand built a fort in Lalkila Mandi (present

Chhawani) at the site of Khagmara fort. The British Government

changed the name of Lal Kila Mandi into Fort Mayra. During the

ruling period of King Rupchand a new royal house was built, which

was known as Malla Mahal (at present the local court is here, also the

Ram Shila temple). Now the defense walls of Malla Mahal (Royal

Palace) and the Ramshila temple are the only remains. Other buildings

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have turned into ruins. Here the British government built new

buildings where the present kachheri (court) is located. According to

Atkinson, Raja Vijay Chandra built the main Gate of Almora.

The Talla Mahal built by the Chand rulers in Deudipokhar is in ruins

now. It is said that many of the queens lived at this palace. At present,

it is also the center of worship for the local people. The present

generation of the Chand dynesty comes here for worshiping Nanda on

Nandashtami every year. The campus of Raja Anand Singh Balika

Inter College is adjacent to the Mahal. The Chand rulers were

contemporary to the Mughal dynasty.

The king of the Chand dynasty Baj Bahadur (1638-78 CE) started the

tradition of celebrating the Nadashtami festival and worshiping

goddess Nanda. Nandadevi mela (fair) has made its special identity

among the famous, historical and cultural fairs of Almora and

Uttarakhand. This fair has a deep impact among common people that

is why this festival is organized in different parts of Kumaun and

Garhwal.

Nanda is considered venerable in Uttarakhand. Nanda is the daughter

of Himalaya that is considered holy in the Vedas. Worship of Nanda

is done with the Tantrik Vidhividhan (rituals) and a large number of

people come here to join the worship Nanda Devi. The Nanda Jagar is

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a special tradition of the folk culture of Kumaun. Nanda Devi is also

the Kul Devi of the Chand dynasty. It is said about Nanda Devi that

her Tantrik teacher gave a suggestion to King Baj Badhur Chand that

he should bring Nanda from Garhwal to Almora with Tantra-Mantra

then he will succeed in Garhwal. Therefore, King Baj Badhur Chand

brought the idol of Nanda (which was made of gold) from the fort

of Badhan Gadh to Almora. On the way when her dola was kept on

the ground it became immobile and nobody could lift it up so the king

worshipped Nanda and promised to make her their Kul Devi and then

onwards it was worshipped as a Ranchandi. But according to a local

legend, Nanda and Sunanda got married to Shiva, and when they were

returning to their sasural (husband‟s home) on the way a bull killed

them. After some time they appeared in the dream of Nanda‟s

brother and said, “Make a temple of mine and every year a bull should

be sacrificed and if it is not done then I will destroy your kingdom and

your family”. So their brother established Nanda as a Kuladevi. At

present too, the local people of this region celebrate the festival of

Nanda Devi and Nanda and Sunanda are worshiped. In 1699, king

Gyanchand and in 1710 King Jagatchand renovated the temple. The

English commissioner Trail (1816-1830) transferred Nandadevi from

the Malla palace to its present place. Ganesh, Bhairav and Shiv

temples are also present in the Nanda devi temple complex. The idols

of Nanda and Sunanda are made with the trunks of banana tree and

they are put on a (palanquin). On the day of Nandashtami the idols are

submerged in the river.

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The Udyot Chandreshwar Shiv temple is also within the Nanda Devi

temple complex which was built by King Udyot Chandra around

1690-1691. There is a Shivaling installed here. It is said that Deep

Chandeshwar brought this Shivaling but before he could install it he

died and this remained aprathisthita (unsanctified). It could be a

centre of Tantrik Upasana because its main door is to the south and

the outer walls are carved with sexual themes, as in Khajuraho. This

temple was built in the Nagara or Indo-Aryan style and the sikhara

rises up to four-bhumi amalaka succeeded by the neck and the

amalaka. An image of Gajsinghamurti is placed above the sukanasa

(sanctum). This temple is open from four sides; this type of temple is

known as sarvathabhadra. One more temple made on the eastern side

is similar in style, and is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is known as

paravateshvara. The amalaka (apex) of the Paravateshvara temple has

around 52 segments and on every alternate segment there are

engraved human facial motifs. As this temple is dedicated to Lord

Shiva it is supposed that these facial motifs represent the ganas of

Shiva. Such features in temple architecture have not been found

anywhere else. There is a common feature between the Udyot

Chandresvar and Parvatesvar temples. Both the temples have

depictions of lotus flowers, elephant, horse, lion and human figures

and some creepers ( Fig. 4.16).The Parvatesvar temple also has some

images of Varun (the wind god), Agni (fire) and Yama (god of death)

in meditation postures. All these are in an exact sequence on the outer

faces of the walls. King Udyot Chandra built it in 1690-1691.

According to some scholars, Raja Deep Chandreshvar repaired it in

1760 and this temple was named as Deepchandreshwar.

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4.2.1.4. The Bageshwar Temples

One of the most important temples of Lord Bageshwar is located in

the town of Bageshwar, on the confluence of the sacred rivers Saryu

and Gomati. This temple is dedicated to lord Shiva and is a famous

pilgrimage site of the Danpur area. This temple is famous in the

Kumaun region and is one of the most ancient sites in the Central

Himalayan region that has commanded spiritual importance through

the ages.

According to Manaskhanda, a Surya tirth is near Bageshwar. It is

considered as a triveni sangam because of the confluence of the three

rivers i.e. Saryu, Gomati and Bhagirathi. Four big fairs are held here

every year, which indicate the religious importance of this place.

These fairs are held on Kartik Purnima, Ganga-Dushahra, Shivratri

and Uttarayani Sankranti. People in large numbers reach here from

far off places to attend the fair and to have a glimpse of Lord

Bageshwar (Shiva).

At present, there are seven large and seven small temples in the

Bageshwar temple group. Five temples are situated inside the

enclosed area and the temples of Bhairavnath and Baneshvarnath are

situated outside this area; the first on the front and the other on the

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backside of the main temple. The names of only four temples are

known: Bageshwar, Badrinath, Bhairavnath, and Baneshvarnath.

The structure of the Bageshwar temple is bulky constructed in the

classical architectural style. This is the temple of lord Bagnath (Shiv

Shankar). According to a local belief, the name of the presiding deity

(Bagnath) indicates the Tantrik link of the deity. According to this

legend, once upon a time a saint sat on the bank of Saryu for

meditation and he was disturbed by the sound of flowing water in the

river. Being angry he, by his spiritual power, stopped the flow of the

Saryu River. Fearing the consequence, the people of the region

approached Shiva and Parvati for help. Shiva transformed himself into

a lion and Parvati transformed herself into a cow and went near the

river bank for grazing where the saint was meditating. After some

time Shiva (in the form of a lion) came there and pounced upon the

cow. Because of loud roar of the lion the trance of the saint broke,

interrupting his meditation and the river started flowing again.

4.2.1.5. The Katarmal Temple

Katarmal is situated 14 km west of Almora town, on the right bank of

the river Kosi. The Nayak community lives in Katarmal. The origin of

the Nayak community can be traced to 12-year long war between

Bharati Chand, the ruler of Kumaun and his suzerain, the Rainka of

Doti. Bharati Chand raised a large army. Soldiers established

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temporary matrimonial relations with local women. The women came

to be known as Khatkwali i.e. the women who lived in army camp.

Their children were first known as Khatakwalar but later they were

called Nayaks. In the Nayak community the girls were earlier known

as patas and were trained as dancing girls.

Katarmal is known for the sun temple. This is one of the famous

temples of Uttarakhand dedicated to lord Surya (Sun God). The idol

of Lord Surya (Sun) is the main idol of this temple complex built in

the 12th

century. Besides Surya, the image of Shiva-Parvati, Laxmi-

Narayan, Narsingh, Kuber, Mahishasurmardani etc are kept in the

garbhgrah. The beautifully engraved main doors of this temple are

kept at the National Museum of Delhi. One can reach Katarmal which

is 12 km to Kosi by road and two km rough track on foot. This temple

is remarkable and the place was named so after the Katyuri prince

Katarmal, who built the temple, son of Basantan Dev, the founder of

the Katyuri Kingdom. This temple is roughly dated to between 9th

-10th

century. It is one of the most significant sun shrines of early India and

has been noted for its construction, stone and metal figures, a unique

image of the Lord Sun and beautifully and richly carved wooden

pillars, doors etc (quoted from the District Gazetteer Almora 1981 in

Kumar and Rawat 1996: 34).

The Baraditya temple complex is located a little away from the

village. The temple complex comprises 45 large and small temples.

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The presiding deity of the main temple in the complex is known by

different names i.e. Buraditya, Vriddhaditya and Baraditya. There is

another Baraditya temple in village Marh also. The Sun temples also

exist at villages Bisang, Patuva and Devi Dhura. In the Himalayan

interior the Sun worship has been one of the most dominating and

ancient traditions. There are many standing temples in Uttarakhand

region which are dedicated to the Lord Sun. The prefixes such as

Burha, Vriddha and Bara with the sun god at Katarmal may be

indicative of its relative antiquity and wide spread popular tradition of

Sun worship in the region.

The Baraditya temple complex area, measuring about 50 m in length

and 30 m in breadth, is spread over an undulating and terraced ground

of an irregular shape. According to the U.P. Tourism Department,

there are 44 temples in the complex and according to Nautiyal

(Nautiyal 1969) there are about 50 subsidiary shrines clustering

around the main shrirne. Nevertheless, out of 45 stone temples only

12 can be defined as temples, not others. The remaining ones are thin

spire-like structures surmounted by the fluted amalakas. Most of such

temples never had any image in them. Some of the mini-temples in

the complex are architecturally quite similar to the temples of Ratan

Dewal complex at Dwarahat.

4.2.2. Wooden Temple Architecture

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Wooden architecture is a unique kind of architecture of the Himalayan

region. This style was developed in the region by its early inhabitants

as the region had extensive forest cover and wood was abundantly

available. The wooden architecture is restricted to the high altitude

areas only which have cold climatic conditions as wood keeps the

structure warm during the harsh winters. There are many temples in

the region whose architecture is purely wood based.

The wooden temples are mainly confined to the mountainous region

of Uttarakhand, to the west of Jamuna. The temples are mainly made

of deodar wood (Cedrus deodara) according to the tradition. The

wood of deodar is used for making vital structural parts of temples

because deodar is traditionally regarded as „the wood of the gods‟.

The wood of deodar is easily available in the Himalayan region; it has

traditionally been the most popular construction material. The wood

of deodar lasts for at least a thousand years in water; it may last for

five to ten times longer in air. Such wooden temples are also found in

Himachal Pradesh. This popular practice is well illustrated by the

ancient wooden temples of Chamba which date back to around 7th

century CE.

As a rule, all the wooden temples of Uttarakhand follow the

„Canopied Composite-roofed‟ architectural style. These types of

wooden temples are commonly found in the Himalayan region.

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4.2.2.1. The Mahasu Devta Temple

The rich culture of Uttarakhand is the soul of India. It is said that

Uttarakhand is the land of many gods and goddesses who reside in its

trees, rivers, birds and the very nature itself. Mahusu is the principal

god of the Yamuna region. There are many temples dedicated to

Mahasu Devta, but most of the Mahasu temples are located in the

village Bankali, above Lakhamandal in the Yamuna Valley and others

are in the Shimla region, Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh.

According to historians and sociologists, Mahasu is the synonym for

the Lord Shiva. The people of this region are the followers of the

Shaiv sect, because the impact of Shiva‟s cult has been here since

ancient times. Kullu and Kashmir can be considered the original seats

of Mahasu. Mahasu is the famous name of the god Shiva in Himachal

and Jaunsar-Bawar.

The famous temple of Mahusu Devta is situated in the Hanol village

in Jaunsar-Bawar paragana of Uttarakhand. Hanol is a very small

village, which is situated on the left bank of the Tons River.

Duryodham, Karna, Someshwar, Sandkure, Vishasan, Kevalnang,

Kapil Muni, Shiranunag, Pokhu, Kaliknag, Bokhnag, Maheshwar,

Raghunath, Ranuka, Jamdagani are some famous wooden temples of

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the Jamuna valley. Many local myths, historical and archeological

evidences are associated with these temples.

The Hanol Mahasu temple‟s original mula-prasada is 4 sq m from

outside and is laid out on the tri-ratha plan. Made of dressed stone

masonry, the Bandhar, Antaral and Sabha Mandap are later additions

of this temple, which expanded over an area of 17.98 x 7.32 sq m.

Internally, the Garbhagriha measures 1.83 sq m. The Bhandhar and

Antral are covered with a three-tired pent roof and the Sabha Mandap

is covered with two-tired pent roof. Internally, the Shabha Mandap

mesures 4.67 x 6.40 sq m. An open Mukh-mandap is made in front of

the Sabha-Mandap, which measures 4.44 x 3.045 sq m. The main door

is decorated with floral woodcarvings. The internal measurement of

the Bhandhar is 3.76 x 6.40 sq m. An Antral is provided in front of the

Bhandhar, which internally measures 4.67 x 6.40 sq m. An ornate and

gilded door is made on the left wall of the Bhandhar, which is

embossed with human and animal figures. A multi-element kalasha is

provided on the top and this temple provides an arresting look (Handa

2008: 148).

According to an old legend there was a furious demon called Kabir

Danav, also known as Kirmat Danu. He had spread terror and

destruction everywhere. He entered villages and killed innocent

people indiscriminately. There was a Brahman named Huna who lived

at Mandarath in Bawar. He had seven sons, six of them had already

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been devoured by the demon and the end of the seventh son was

imminent. Once he dreamed of four great warriors in the army of Raja

of Kashmir. He thought that he might get help from them to destroy

the demon. Huna Bhat thought he should go immediately to Kashmir

but he had no idea about the way to Kashmir. One person told him

about Nag, a Brahman of Hatkoti, who had been to Kashmir and who

might tell him about the way to Kashmir. Nag advised him not to go

to Kashmir as the way was dangerous and he might not return in time

to save his son. Nevertheless, the Huna remained resolute.

Departing from the Nag, Huna took the first step out and within a

blink, he was in Kashmir. He was standing near a natural spring where

Mahasu Devta was supposed to live. It may indicate that Mahasu

originally had been a Nag deity of Kashmir. Huna Brahaman prayed

for divine indulgence and soon came to the guardian of the spring, the

warrior of Mahasu Devta named Shedkulia. Huna addressed him as

mama. Huna narrated his objective to him and he was moved with

pity for him, and led him to his master. Huna explained his story to

Mahasu. Mahasu promised him help. He gave some instructions and

advised him to return to his village and act accordingly. He gave him

a handful of rice and a wooden staff and an earthen pot to cook rice.

He told him that whenever he felt hungry he should strike the staff on

ground and water would come out for him to cook rice in the pot.

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After reaching his village Mandarth, Huna Brahamin fearing that the

Karvir demon may attack, threw rice in the Tons valley. He employed

a new calf to plough the field that had never been ploughed before.

Huna Brahamin ploughed the field five times in the same way as

Bashir had told. In the first instant, the figure of Basuki cobra came

into the view. Similarly, the figures of Pawasi and Botha Chalda

appeared. While the ploughing was going on the plough changed into

silver and then gold in the field in the second, third and fourth

ploughing. Similarly, the figures of many warriors of Mahasu kept on

appearing. While the process of ploughing the field was going on the

thighs of Basuki, ears of Pawsi, the eyes of Bodha were injured.

Chalda was the only one who was not hurt. Mahasu started living on

the left bank of the Tons river and therefore this place is known as

Hanol after the name of Huna Brahamin.

4.2.2.2. The Karan Temple

The Karan temple is dedicated to Karna who was the brother of the

Pandavas. This temple is the oldest among the wooden temples. One

Karan temple is located at Deorah in Uttarakhand region and the other

at Bakhara in Himachal Pradesh.

The temple structure is laid out in a rectangular plan and measures

12.80 x 7.0 sq m. The temple is raised on massive deodar beams and

the thickness of the external wall of the temple is 61 cm, and is made

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of rubble stone masonry, laid in courses between the wooden wall

planks, a practice not common in Uttarakhand region. However, this

type of wall is common in Himachal Pradesh. A mandap has been

built in front of the garbhgrih, which is internally 3.48 x 3.05 sq m

with a 46 sq cm sacred fire pit in the middle. The 61 cm thick wall has

been built around the 3.42 x 3.35 sq m garbh-grih. This temple is

enclosed by wooden planks and a gabled roof has been provided over

the mandap and the veranda. A U-shaped veranda is provided with

high rails between the wooden posts in the forepart of the temple. The

pradakshina path is made around the garbh-grih. An independent roof

has been built over the garbh-grih and pradakshina path. This roof

overlaps the gabled roof over the mandapa and is gabled. A multi-

element Kalash is provided on the top and this temple thus provides

an impressive and sober look. The following temples are found in this

region:

Table 4.1

The Main Temples of Uttarakhand

Name of Temple District

Hanuman temple and Bhramari

Devi Temple in Katyur

Almora

Badrinath temple in Almora Almora

Nandakeshwar Mahadev temple in

Bhikiyasen

Almora

Shiva temple at Lakeshmeshwar

in Almora

Almora

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Temple of Kapileshwar at Dol Almora

Badrinath temple at Kuwali Almora

Gujjar Dev temple and

Mahamirtyunjay templeat

Dwarahat

Almora

Chitai Temple (Temple of Golu

Devta also known as the god of

Justice in the Kumaunregion)

Almora

Temple of Gananath (Shiv

Temple) near Takula,at an altitude

of 1980 m

Almora

The temple of Kasar Devi ( 7 km

north of Almora)

Almora

Hat Kalika temple in Gangolihat Pithoragarh

Maharudreshwar temple group at

village Khut

Pithoragarh

Kapileshwar Mahadave temple at

Saij Gram

Pithoragarh

Neel Kameshwari temple at Tehri Tehri

The temple of Shiva in Garhwal Tehri

Temple of Gulara Sidha at Ram

Nagar

Nainital

Naina Devil temple at Nainital

Nainital

An old temple of Lakshmi

Narayan

Chamoli

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in Meen Gandhera

Karana Temple Mahabharat(Karn

Prayag)

Chamoli

A temple of Mahadev (Joshi

Math)

Chamoli

A Vishnu temple (Joshi Math)

Chamoli

Lakshmi Narayan temple at

Narayan Koti

Chamoli

Tungnath temple at Chopata Chamoli

Rudranath temple at Rudranath

Tirth

Chamoli

Shakti, Vishwanath, Annpurna,

Parshuram, Dattatreaya Jar Bharat

temples at Uttarka

Uttarkashi

The temple of Mahadeva (Askot

Malla)

Uttarkashi

Someshwar Mahadev and Shani

Devata Temples at Kharsali

Village

Uttarkashi

Kamaleshwar Mahadev temple at

Raun Gawn

Uttarkashi

Kapil Muni Ashram at Gundiyar

Gawn

Uttarkashi

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Baleshwar,Nagnath and

Barahi Devi temples at Devidhura

Champawat

Koteshwar Mahadev,

TungnathOmkareshwar, Triyugi

Narayan,Madmaheshwar and

Kartikay, Raghunath, Bharat,

Rudraprayag,Aadh Vishweshwar

and Tundishwar temples.

Rudraprayag

Source: Personal Communication with Some Peoples.

4.3. CONCLUSION

I have tried to elucidate the rich past of the traditional household and

temple architectural knowledge of the region through the above-

mentioned examples. I think that we should document this knowledge

of traditional architecture and it is high time to make some serious

efforts in the direction of its conservation and documentation.

Otherwise, the day will not be very far when we would be left devoid

of this treasure of the traditional knowledge which our ancestors

gained through generations. A detailed study of the household

architecture can prove helpful for the housing schemes in the

Uttarakhand region because they would prove cost-effective and can

provide shelters to the economically weaker people of this state.

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The next chapter will highlight the traditional hydraulic technologies

of the region which are quite relevant even today and can prove a

boon for the region reeling under severe water scarcity especially

during summers. These technologies also evolved through consistent

efforts and reciprocal movement of the people.

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