archaeology 2016 №05-06
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July/August 200archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America May/June 20
Florida: Roots of the Muscogee Nation
PLUS:Turtle Spirit Guides,A Dress for the Ages,Fermented Swedish Fish,Legend of the Wild Man
World’sFirstWriting
Death ata DesertOasis
Inca Tax Time
The Mediterranean’s
Greatest
Traders
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26 T e World’s O ldestW ritingU sed by scribes for more than three
millennia cuneiform w riting opens a
d ramatic w indow onto ancient
Mesopotamian life
BY THE EDITORS
A n O verlooked IncaWonder Thousands of aligned holes in Peru’s
P isco Valley have attracted the
attention of archaeologists
BY ERIC A.POW ELL
8 Masters of the A ncientMediterraneanThe rare discovery of a Phoenician
shipw reck off southeastern Spain is
provid ing new information about
their centuries-long dominance
of the sea
BY JAS ON URBANUS
C oup de G râce for aD esert C astle A group of murder victims discov-
ered in a frontier stronghold in
Jordan may define the last chapter
in its history
BY DANIELW EISS
8 A Myth in StoneThe delicate w ork of conserving a
2 000-year-old storyBY ROSSELLA LORENZI
CONTENTSMAY/JUNE 20 16
VOLUME 6 9, NUMBER 3
features
8
A ceramic vess el rests
on the se afloo r at Bajo d e la
Campana, Spain.
Cover: An archae ologist e xcavatesa tripod
mortarfrom the wreckofa Phoenician ship
at Bajode la Campana,Spain.
PHOTO:SUSANNAH H. SNOWDEN-SMITH,
COURTESY INSTITUTE OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
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d ep artm ents
Interactive D igsRead abo ut the latest d isco veriesat the Minoa n s ite ofZomintho s in ce ntral Cre te ;Johnso n’s
Island , a Civil W ar s ite in Ohio;and Ac hill Island in Ireland at
www.inte rac tive digs.com.
A rchaeological N ewsEach day, we bring youhe ad lines from around t he wo rld.And sig n up for our
e-Update so yo u do n’t m iss a thing.
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Stay in Touch Visit Face bo o kand like A rchae olo g yor follow us o n Twitter at @a rchae olog yma g .
4 Editor’s L etter
6 From the President
8 L etters Revisiting the sce ne ofan ancie nt Swe dishm assacre
and how Muham m ad p rotect e d the m onks
ofSt.Catherine ’s
9 From the Trenches W orld’solde st dre ss,turtle sin the afte rlife,SilkRoad
tea trade,Pe ru’ste m p le ofde ath,and bad Viking g e ne s
24 W orld Roundup Ancie nt Southwe ste rn footp rints,Sale m ’switch
exe cutions,ferm ented Me solithic fishdish,Siberian
m am m othhunt,and a seve n-foot-tallAussie bird
55 L etter from Florida In Florida’sPanhandle,triballe adersand archaeologists
re achintothe p ast tohe lp p rese rve a na tive
com m unity’sidentity
B Y MIK E TONER
68 rtifact The W ild Man ofthe m e dievalworld
13
2
14
r c h e olog y or g 3
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Early thisyear,newsspreadquickly that a recently deciphered
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ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 201 4
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The sacred com panion of the ancient pharaohs of Egypt,the
cat w as once celebrated and w orshiped.
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This elegant “C leo-C AT-tra” is adorned w ith rich
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AR C H AE O LO G Y •May/Ju ne 20 1
FROM THE PRESIDENTA
I o A
Located at Boston U niversity
O FFICER S
Preside nt
Andrew Moore
First V ice Preside nt
Jodi Magness
V ice P reside nt for O utreach and Ed ucation
Deborah Gangloff
V ice P resid en t for Re search an d Acad em ic Affair
Carla Antonaccio
V ice P reside nt for Cultural He ritage
Laetitia La Follette
Treasurer
David Ackert
V ice P reside nt for So cieties
Ann Santen
Exe cutive D irector
Ann Benbow
C hief O p erating O fficer
K evin Q uinlan
G O V E R N IN G B O R D
ElieAbemayorDavid Adam
Andrea BerlinDavid Boochever
BruceCampbell
Arthur CassanosDerek Counts
Sheila Dillon,ex officio
Ronald GreenbergMichael Hoff
James Jansson
LynneLancaster
Mark LawallDeborah Lehr
T homas LevyK athleen Lynch
Richard C.MacDonald
BruceMcEverBarbara Meyer
MegMordenSarah Parcak
J.T heodorePeña
Robert RothbergEthel Scully
David Seigle
Monica L.SmithCharles Steinmetz
Claudia Valentino,ex officio
P.Gregory W ardenMichael W iseman
John Yarmick
Past P reside nt
Elizabeth Bartman
Trustees E m eriti
Brian Heidtke
Norma K ershawCharles S.La Follette
Legal Counsel
Mitchell Eitel,Esq.
Sullivan Cromwell,LLP
A I o A
656 Beacon Street• Boston,MA 02215-2006
www.archaeological.org
H e rita g e in P e ril
Andrew M oore
P resident Archaeological Institute of America
As of this writing, a humanitarian and cultural heritage disaster continues tounfold across the M iddle E ast.C onflicts in I raq and Syria are causing massive
loss of life, the displacement of people, and the destruction of ancient sites.T he
$UFKDHRORJLFDO,QVWLWXWHRI$PHULFDĪ$, $īDORQJZLWKPDQ\RWKHURUJDQL]DWLRQVKDV
frequently spoken out in order to raise awareness of the impacts these conflicts are having
on the people and heritage of the region.A rchaeological, historical, and cultural sites in
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T o address this crisis, the A I A and the A merican Schools
of O riental Research, with grants from the N ational
E ndowment for the H umanities and the R ust F amily
Foundation, and generous support from the N ational
G eographic Society and the C ouncil of A merican O verseasR esearch C enters, cohosted a summit in W ashington,
D .C ., this past D ecember, that brought together 19
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E ast.Seeking Collaboration A Summit for Projects Collecting
Cultural H eritage D ata in Syria and Conflict Zonescreated
an opportunity for these committed stakeholders to share
vital information.
A rchaeologists from Syria spoke fervently about the
need to document the damage to archaeological and other
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Presenters spoke of projects currently underway that are using the latest technologies to
map the destruction and looting.Several are using virtual imagery to reconstruct majorPRQXPHQWVWKDWKDYHEHHQGHVWUR\HG2WKHURUJDQL]DWLRQVDUHWUDLQLQJORFDOVSHFLDOLVWVWR
SURWHFWVLWHVLQWKHFRQIOLFW]RQHVDQGWRFRQVHUYHDUFKDHRORJLFDODUWLIDFWV6HYHUDOJURXSV
are monitoring the traffic in looted antiquit ies and are taking action to halt it.
A ll of these efforts are being carried out under the most difficult of circumstances.T he
participants acknowledge that the responsibility they bear is significant and believe that
the key to success lies in greater collaboration.T o this end, summit participants approved
a set of principles and practical steps ensuring the continuation of their efforts.
E veryone involved looks forward to the day when peace will return to the region.T he
work of these groups represents a new, collaborative model for how to mitigate heritage loss
in t imes of conflict and prepare for a better future.O nce it is safe to resume comprehensive
heritage management, these groups will have a vital role to play in the massive task of
conservation and restoration.W e join them in looking forward to that day.
Palm yra Syria 2005
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AR H AE O LO G Y • M a y J u n e 2 0 1 6
LE ERS
H id ing the G o o d s
M any thanks for a wonderfulM arch/
A prilissue.I especially enjoyed “Legĥ
ends of G lastonbury A bbey ” w hich w as
particularly interesting to m e because
m y w ife and I had spent tw o w eeks in
G lastonbury in Septem ber.
I also hope future articles w illhelpto dispelthe m ysteries of the Ö land
PDVVDFUHĪ³gODQG6ZHGHQ6SULQJ
A.D. 480 ī́7KHUHLVRQHPLQRUSRLQW,
disagree w ith the archaeologists about.
I w onder w hether householders in
preparation for the im pending attack
hurriedly buried their valuables. I ’d
conjecture that the valuables w ere
already stored in these sm all underĥ
ground com partm ents beside the door
since there w ould probably not have
been tim e w hen the attackers w ereapproaching to dig a hole and bury
coins and jew elry.
Christopher B. Sanford
Durham, NC
n lternate Interp retation
I read w ith forensic interest the article
on the Sandby Borg fort in Ö land in
the M arch/A prilissue.It occurs to m e
that this event m ay have been a cleansĥ
LQJ7KURXJKRXWKLVWRU\FOHDQVLQJKDV
been for religious ethnic and diseasereasons.A t Sandby Borg the fort w as
not w elldefended w hole fam ilies w ere
killed and the site w as avoided even
untilm ore m odern tim es.I liken the
fort to a leper colony w here fam ilies
and individuals bearing som e strange
contagious disease w ere forced to
OLYH7KHIHDURIWKHGLVHDVHVSUHDGĥ
ing w ould eventually lead to the m ore
drastic m easure of killing allthose in
the fort and fearing to actually bury
the dead.It’s possible that som e peoplein the fort m ay have even been related
to their killers.
Brian Pearson
Calgary, Canada
Muham m ad ’s Mem orand um
St.C atherine’s M onastery ow es its presĥ
HUYDWLRQQRWWRLWVVL[ĥIRRWĥWKLFNJUDQLWH
w alls but to the fact that the m onastery
provided shelter to M uham m ad durĥ
LQJKLVHDUO\WUDYHOV+HJDYHVSHFL¿F
orders that the m onastery w as to be
left unm olested.H is protective order
w as included in the K oran and obeyed
throughout the subsequent centuries.Paul Floto
Florence, OR
O nline editor E ric A. Pow ell responds
According to tradition, a delegation of monks
from St. C atherine’s M onastery visited
M uhammad in A.D.626 to ask for a let
ter of protection.H e granted their request,
and gave them a document known as the
A shtinam e of M uhammad, which was
sealed with a depiction of his handprint.T he
letter extended prerogatives to the monks thatZHUH UHDɼUPHG E\ VXEVHTXHQW UXOHUV LQFOXG
ing the O ttoman sultan Selim I.In1517, the
sultan took the original document to the royal
WUHDVXU\ LQ ,VWDQEXO IRU VDIHNHHSLQJ+H OHIW
EHKLQG D FHUWLÀHG FRS\ RI WKH OHWWHU ZKLFK
remains one of the most prized manuscripts
in the St.C atherine’s collection.
A RCHA EO LO GY we lcome sm ailfrom
re aders.Ple ase addre ssy ourcom m e nt s
to A RCHA EO LOGY,36 -36 33rd S t re e t ,
Long Island Cit y,NY 1110 6 ,fax718-4 72-
30 51,ore-m aille t te rs@ arc hae ology.org .
The e ditorsre se rve t he rig ht to edit
submit te d m ate rial.Volum e p re c ludes
ourac knowle dg ing individualle t te rs.
ARCHAEOLOGY (ISSN 0003-8113) is published bimonthly for $23.95 by theArchaeological Institute of America, 36-36 33rd Street, Long Island City, NY 11106.Periodicals postage paid at Long Island City, NY, and additional mailing offices.POSMASER: Send address changes to Archaeology, P.O. 433091, Palm Coast,FL 32143.
Subscriptions should be addressed to Archaeology, Subscription Services,P.O. 433091, Palm Coast, FL 32143, toll-free (877) ARKY-SUB (275-9782),[email protected]. $23.95 per volume. Single numbers, $5.99. Foreign
and Canadian subscriptions, $38.95; includes all government taxes (130277692R). Canadian Publication Agreement #1373161. Allow six weeks for processinnew subscriptions. Send manuscripts and books for review to 36-36 33rd StreetLong Island City, NY 11106 or [email protected]. All manuscripts arreviewed by experts. Advertisements should be sent to the Advertising Directo36-36 33rd Street, Long Island City, NY 11106, (718) 472-3050, [email protected]. We are not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts and photographs. For subscription problems please call (877) 275-9782; AIA members witsubscription problems should call the membership office at (617) 353-9361. Alrights reserved. Printed in USA. Te views and opinions expressed do not necessarilreflect the policy of the AIA or A.
©2016 Te Archaeological Institute of America
St. atherine’s Monastery
Sandby Borg jawbone
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LAT E BREAK IN G N EW S AN D N OT ES FROM T HE W ORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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FROM THE TRENCHES
ARCHAEOLOGY • Ma y/Jun e 20 110
In 1954 tw o ranchers digging a sm all
pon d in Siou x Co unty N eb raska
stum bled across a b oneb ed contain-
ing the 10 0 0 0 -year-old rem ains
of up to 60 0 bison. The ranchers
B ill H ud son and A lbert M eng tried
for years to convince p rofessional
archaeologists to take a look. Finally
Larry A ge nb road of C had ron State
C olleg e saw the poten tial of the site
and excavated there for six years
in the 1970 s. Further excavations
have taken p lace at the H ud son-
M en g B ison K ill as it is know n eve r
since. The site rep resen ts the largest
know n related to the A lberta P aleo -
indian culture and has left an en dur-
ing m ystery— how all tho se b ones
cam e to rest there— that archaeo lo-
gists have b een trying to solve for
m ore than 40 years.
“H ud son -M eng is a uniqu e p lace
w here visitors can com e and learn
ab out early hu m ans’ culture and
their w ay o f life 10 0 0 0 years ago ”says R yan M eans supe rvisor of
the H ud son-M eng Ed ucation and
R esearch C enter. “The exciting part
is know ing that there is still m ore
evidence w aiting to be d iscovered
an d interpreted .”
The site
The b onebed is the size o f a footb all
eld ,and m uch of it now lies under a
clim ate-co ntrolled shelter.In ad d ition
to the m assive layer of b ones,A lb erta
p rojectile points and tools have b een
found in and around the site.There
have been severalexcavations over
the years,and each research team
has h ad its ow n explanation for how
the b onebed form ed.A genbroad
b elieved that hunters h ad d riven b ison
over the ed g e of a steep cliff nearby
severaltim es over a few w eeks.Larry
Todd of C olorado State U niversity
and D avid R apson of the U niversity
of W yom ing,w ho excavated there in
the 19 90s,theorize,instead,that the
b ison d ied naturally,and that hum ans
occup ied the site later.Mark Muñiz
of St.C loud State U niversity,the last
to excavate there,in the 2000s,has
found evid ence o f a series of occup a-
tions,sug g esting that hum ans traveled
to the area to hunt seaso nally.V isitors
can w atch ,and even volunteer to
help ,as a new g eneration o f scientists
searches for ad d itionalclues.
While you’re there
H ud son-Meng is located in the O g lala
N ationalG rassland ,w here a m em o-
rab le three-m ile trailconnects the
b oneb ed to To adstoo lG eolog ic Park,
kno w n for its haunting sandstone
form ations and ab und ance o f fossils.
H earty W estern co untry fare can b e
found in nearby C raw ford ,and several
other fam ed attractions are not far
aw ay:Mount R ushm ore or B adland s
N ationalP ark can b e reach ed in just
tw o h ours.
— M LIN GRU N BERG B N Y SZ
EXWHQYLVLRQWKHZKROHWKLQJVXGGHQO\
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³
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ARCHAEOLOGY • May June 20112
FROM THE TRENCHES
e Price of Tea in China
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archaeology.org
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R H EO LO G Y
• M ay/June 20 16 14
FROM THE TRENCHES
Women in a Temple of Death
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MyPillow. Thishard workand dedication
to “doing it right”helped MyPillow becom e
a classic Am erican successstory.
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JOURNEY INTO THE HEART OF HISTORY
Since 1 983 Far H orizons has been
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R H EOLOGY•M ay/June20 118
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A R C H A E O L O G Y •M ay/June 2012 0
T e D eath of Joe the Q uilter
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F lagstones and w alls from the
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N orthumberland E ngland
R ew ard noticeQ uilt made by H edley
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A RC H A EO L O G Y • Ma y /Jun e 2 0 1622
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CH ICAGO : A l o ca l b o ar d -ce r t i fi ed
E ar, N o se, an d T h r o at ( E N T ) p h y si ci an ,
D r. S . Ch e r u k u r i , h a s ju st sh a ke n u p t h e
h ear in g a id ind u st r y w i t h t h e i nvent i on o f a
medica l - g r ade, a f fo rdab le h ear in g a id.
T his revolutionary hearing aid is
designed to h elp m illions of peop le
w ith hearing loss w ho cannot afford—
or do not w ish to pay— the m uch
high er cost of trad itional hearing aids.
D r. Ch er u k u r i k n ew t h at u n t r ea te d
h e ar i n g l o ss co u l d l e a d t o de p r e ss i o n ,
social isolat ion, anx iety, and sym ptom s
consistent w i t h A lz h e imer’s disease.H e
could not understand w hy the cost of
hearing aids w as so high w hen the
prices on so m any consum er electronics
like TVs,D V D players,cell phones,
and digital cam eras h ad fallen.
S i n ce M e d i ca r e an d m o s t p r i v a te
ins u rance p lans do no t cover t h e cos t s o f
h ear i n g a i ds, w h i ch t r ad i t i o n al ly r u n
b e t w een 2 ,000- 6 ,000 for a pa i r , many o f
t h e doctor ’s pat ients cou ld not a ffo rd t h e
e x pense. D r . C h e r u k u r i ’s g oa l w as t o fi nd a
r ea so n ab l e so lu t io n t h at w o u l d h e l p
w i t h t h e m o st co m m o n t y p es o f h ear i n g
loss at an a ffordab le pr ice , s imi la r to t h e
Dz Ǧ Ǧ ϐ Ǧ dz
avai l ab l e at d r u g s to res.
H e ev a lu a te d n u m e ro u s h e ar i n g dev i ce s
ϐǡ
on t e lev i si on . W i t h o u t fa i l , a lmost a l l o f
t h ese w e re fo u n d to am p l ify b ass/ l ow
fr eq u en ci es ( b el ow 1 000 H z ) a n d w e r e
n o t u s ef u l i n am p l i f y i n g t h e fr eq u e nci es
r e la te d t o th e h u m a n v o i ce .
In s p ir a t io n f r o m a
Su r p r is in g So u r c e
T h e do ct o r ’s i n sp i r a t i o n t o def ea t t h e
p o w e r s- t h a t- b e t h a t k ep t i n ex p en si v e
h e ar i n g a id s o u t o f t h e h a nd s o f t h e
p u b l i c a ct u a ll y ca m e f r o m a n e w ce l l
p h o n e h e h a d ju st p u r ch a se d. “I felt that
if som eon e cou ld devise an affordab le
device like an iPhone® for about $200
that could do all sorts of things,I could
Ǥdz
A o r d a b le H e a r in g A id
w it h Su p e r b Pe r f o r m a n c e
T h e h i g h co st o f h e ar i n g a id s i s a r esu l t o f
l a y er s o f m i dd l e m e n a nd e x pe ns iv e
u n n e ce ss ar y f ea tu r e s. D r . C h e r u k u r i
co n cl u d e d t h a t i t w o u l d b e p o ssi b l e t o
de v e l o p a m e d i c al - g r a de h e ar i n g a i d
w i t h o u t sacr i fi ci n g t h e q u a li ty o f
co m p o n e n t s. T h e r es u l t i s t h e
M D RO , u nder 2 0 0 e ac h
w h en b u y in g a pai r. It has been
declared to be the b est low -cost
ϐ
sound s associated w ith the hu m an
voice w ithou t overly am plifying
background noise.
T e s t e d b y L e a d in g D o c t o r s
a n d A u d io lo g is t s
T h e M D RO h a s b e en
r i g o r o u sl y t est ed b y lea di n g E N T
p h y si ci an s a nd au d i o lo g i st s w h o h av e
u n an i m ou sl y ag r ee d th at t h e sound
quality and output in m any cases
exceeds m ore exp ensive hearing aids.
Do c t o r s a n d p a t ie n t s a g r e e :
“ B EST Q U A L IT Y SO U ND ”
“ L O W EST A FFO RDA B L E PRIC E”
“Ihavebeenwearinghearingaids
forover25yearsandthesearethe
best behind-the-earaidsIhave
tried.T hei r so un d q ua li ty r i v a lsthat o f m y 3 ,5 0 0 custo m p airo f P ho nak
® X t ra d igi ta l I T E .”
— Ger ald L .
“Ihavea$2,000ReSound Livehearingaidinmyleftearandthe
M D H ear in g A id PROintherightear.I am n o t ab le t o n o t ice aϔ
q u alit y b et w een th e t w ohearing aid s.”
— D r. M ay, E N T Ph y sician
“Theyworksogreat,mymother
saysshehasn’theardthiswellin
years,evenwithher$2,000
digital!I t w as so g r ea t t o seethe jo y o n her face. Sheis90yearsyoungagain.”
— A l P.
“ Pe r h a p s t h e b e s t q u a l it y - t o -
p r ic e r a t io in t h e h e a r in g a i d
in d u s t r y ” — D r. B a b u ,
B o a r d - C e r t ifi e d EN T Ph y s i c ia n
Fo r t h e L o w e s t Pr ic e
C a ll T o d a y
8 00-8 7 3 -06 8 0
Phone Lines Open 2 HoursEVERY DAY
w w w .M D H e a r in g A id .c o m
U s e O e r C o d e C Q 5 7 t o g e t
FREE B a t t e r ie s f o r a Fu ll Y e a r !
FREE Sh ip p in g A v a ila b le
D e s i g n e d b y a B o a r d - C e r t if ie d Ea r , N o s e , a n d T h r o a t (EN T ) D o c t o r
D o c t o r -Re c o m m e n d e d , A u d io lo g is t -T e s t e d
T o p Ra t e d H e a r in g A id O n lin e —T h o u s a n d s o f Sa t is fie d C u s t o m e r s
B a t t e r ie s In c lu d e d ! C o m e s Re a d y T o U s e
FD A -Re g is t e r e d
Sa v e U p T o 9 0 %
Fr e e Sh ip p in g A v a ila b le
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© 2016
R T I N
C el l Phone I nspires C hicago D octor to D esignA f fordable H ear ing A id
O utper forms M ost H igher P r iced H ear ing A ids
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W ORLD ROUNDUP
AR H A O LO G Y • Ma y J u n e 2 0 124
SOUTH AFRICA:Australopithecus sediba,the tw o -m illio n-y e ar -o ld
ho m inin ,diffe re d fro m other a ustralo piths in its po o r a bility to bite
do w n on hard foo ds.B iom echan icaltests using a d ig italm od elof an
A sediba skull,fou nd in 20 0 8,d e te rm ine d that ifA sediba b i t d o w n
w ith a llthe fo rce o f its chew in g m uscle s,it w o uld d islo cate its jaw — just
like h um an s,but un like o the r a ustra lo pi ths.W hile this is no t pr o o f tha t
A sediba evolved into m od ern hum ans,it do es sugge st that d ie t m ay
have p lay ed a stron g ro le in hum an evolution .
SW EDEN:O ste o lo gists stud y ing a 9 ,0 0 0 -y e ar -
o ld lake sid e site be lieve they have fo und the
earliest know n e xam ple of an im po rtant m eth-
od of foo d p reservation .Be low an a rea thick
w ith fish b o ne s the y fo un d a 10 -fo o t-lo ng pi t
surro und ed by p ostholes.Eviden ce led them
to con clud e tha t the se e ar ly Me solithic p e o p le
w ere ferm enting fish 1,50 0 ye ars before ferm entation w as usedany w here else in the w orld— to m ake w ine.Th is sugge sts pe op le
m ay have form ed settlem ents here 3,00 0 ye ars earlier than p re-
v iously thought.Surström m ing,anyo ne?
MASSACHUSETTS:W ho ca n
fo rg e t the Sa le m w itch tri-
als,w hen 19 w ere hanged in
an e pisod e o f m ass hyster ia
in 1692? D ocum en tation of
the tria ls is volum in o us,bu t
the re a re few reco rd s of the
exe cutio ns,and the lo catio nof the han ging s had be en
fo rgo tten .Expe rts have n ow
confirm ed an e arlier theory
and pinp ointed the site— an
o utcro p calle d P ro cto r ’s
L ed g e— b y stu d y in g ey ew it-
ne ss accoun ts,using m ap -
pin g techn olog y,and an aly z-
in g sigh tlin e s.Tests show
that no rem ains w ere bur ied
o n the site .
ARIZONA:O n a d ay m o rethan tw o m illen nia a go ,a
gro up of farm er s— at lea st
thre e ad ults,w ith a child
an d d o g — ten d ed fi e ld s
and ir r iga tion d itches
no rth o f Tucson .The y le ft
tracks in the m ud ,and
subsequent flo od ing from
a n ea r b y c reek c o ve r ed
the fo o tp rin ts in a lay e r
of fin e silt.Ro ad w or k has
reve aled d oze ns of the se
pre ser ved pr in ts from thatd ay acro ss 11 sepa rate
plan ting p lo ts.Re sea rch-
er s think they m ight be
the o ld e st y e t fo un d in the
So uthw est.
PANAM A:D olphin a pp ea rs to
h ave b een o n th e m en u o f th e
re sid en ts of Pe d ro G on zález Islan d
so m e 6 ,0 0 0 y ea r s ag o . In a m id -
d e n,ar chae o lo gists fo und a re la-
tively hig h pe rcen tag e o f d olph in
b o n e s— c o m m o n an d b o ttlen o se—
m o r e th an p r o b ab ly w o u ld h ave
be en availab le from scaveng ing
be ach e d an im als.It is di fficu ltto hunt d olphin s from a d ugo ut
canoe ,so the hunters m ay have
w aited untila po d e ntere d a shal-
low bay ,and then used bo ats to
dr ive thei r q uar r y onto the b each.
SCOTLAND:A ske le to n fo un d
be ne ath the p lay gro und of V icto -
r i a P r im a r y S ch o o l in N ew h aven ,
Ed inburgh,is a rem ind er that the
ar e a o nce w asn’t so child -frie nd -
ly.Th e ske le to n w as d ate d to the
16th cen tury,w he n the site w as
pa rt ofthe harb or
com plex.
T h e b o n es
w e r e q u ite
d e g r a d e d ,
and the localgravey ard s w ere
loca ted elsew he re,so e xcava-
tors be lieve that the m an m ay
have be en a pirate,executed
and then d isplaye d— g ibbe ted ,
the postm ortem pun ishm ent is
called — to d iscoura ge w ou ld -be
buccaneers.
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25
B y Samir S. Patel
w w w . r h e o lo g y .o rg
AUSTRALIA:G enyornis newtoni w as a seriously large bird:7 feet tall
and 500 pounds. B ut size doesn’t matter w hen humans d evelop a taste
for your eggs. Analysis of G newtoni eggshell fragments from 200 sites
across the country d escribes telltale burn marks produced by a localized
heat source rather than the all-encompassing heat of a w ild re— an ind i-
cation that the eggs had been harvested and cooked. More than 8 in 10
species w eighing over 100 pounds,including G newtoni,became extinct
shortly after humans arrived dow n under around 50,000 years ago.
RUSSIA:Modern
humans devel-
oped the skills
to survive just
about anyw here
on Earth far
earlier than w as
once thought.That is the con-
clusion after radiocarbon dating the
w ell-preserved remains of a mammoth
found by an 11-year-old boy in 2012. The
skeleton is studded w ith signs of a pro-
longed battle w ith a group of humans,
and dates to about 45,000 years ago,
placing humans in the Arctic more
than 10,000 years earlier than previ-
ous evidence suggested. In fact,the
researchers believe that innovations in
mammoth hunting made this northern
occupation possible.
CAMBODIA:Sometimes the archaeol-
ogy and ancient history of C ambodia
seem to begin and end w ith Angkor
W at,and it w as w idely assumed that
the period betw een the decline of Ang-
kor and the modern era w as a kind of
“dark age.” Excavations at Longvek,the
capital after Angkor,are dispelling thisnotion w ith evid ence of extensive trade
links,includ ing maritime trad e w ith
C hina and Japan. The Khmer Empire
have contributed to
its decline.
INDONESIA:Archaic humans
arrived on Sulaw esi at least118,000 years ago,according to
a recently discovered d eposit of
stone tools and extinct animal
bones. It is know n that various
hominin
species
made it
to the
islands
of F lores,Java,and Papua by
this time,and it w as assumed
that Sulaw esi w as part of their
d ispersal. This new nd,accu-mulated over w hat appears to
have been tens of thousands
of years,suggests there w as,in
fact,a w ell-established popula-
tion. There are no human fossils,
so it is unknow n w hat ancient
human species it w as.
tham esan d hud son usa.comA vailable w he re ver b oo ks ar e sold
Ir elan d ’s old esttr ad ition sexcavated via ar cha eo logi cal,
gen etic,an d lin gu istic r esear ch,culm in atin g in a tru ly
gro un d br eakin g pu blication
$29.95 |65 i llustr ation s
A jour ney thr ough the N ewStone A ge in Br itain by w ayof its an cestor s,geograp hi cal
n eigh bor s,an d the spe ciesfr o m w h ich h u m an s em e r ged
$29.95 |70 i llustr ation s
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ARCHAEOLOGY May/June 201
Used by scribesform ore
than three m illennia
cuneiform writing opens
adram aticwindow onto
ancientMesopotam ian life
by E
TH EW O R LD ’SO LD ESTW R ITIN G
SCR IB E ST T UE
FO U N D :Lagash, I raq
C U LTU R E:Sumerian
D ATE :ca. 2400 B.C .
L A N G U A G E :S um er ian
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In early 2016, hundreds of med ia outlets around the w orld
reported that a set of recently deciphered ancient clay tablets
revealed that B abylonian astronomers w ere more sophisticated
than previously believed. T he w edge-shaped w riting on the
tablets,know n as cuneiform,demonstrated that these ancient
stargazers used geometric calculations to predict the motion of
Jupiter. Scholars had assumed it w asn’t until almost .D . 1400 that
these techniques w ere rst employed— by English and F rench
mathematicians. B ut here w as proof that nearly 2,000 years ear-
lier,ancient people w ere every bit as advanced as R enaissance-era scholars. Jud ging by the story’s enthusiastic reception on
social media, this discovery captured the public imagination. It
implicitly challenged the perception that cuneiform tablets w ere
used merely for basic accounting,such as tallying grain,rather
than for complex astronomical calculations. W hile most tablets
w ere,in fact,used for mundane bookkeeping or scribal exercises,
some of them bear inscriptions that offer unexpected insights
into the minute d etails of and momentous events in the lives of
ancient Mesopotamians.
F irst developed around
3200 .C . by Sumerian
scribes in the ancient city-state of U ruk,in present-d ay
Iraq,as a means of record ing
transactions,cuneiform w rit-
ing w as created by using a
reed stylus to make w edge-
shaped indentations in clay
tablets. Later scribes w ould
chisel cuneiform into a vari-
ety of stone objects as w ell.
D ifferent combinations of
these marks represented
After cuneiform w as replaced by alphabetic w riting
.D .,the hundreds of
to excavate the tablets,that scholars could begin to attempt to
understand these texts. O ne important early key to deciphering the
script proved to be the d iscovery of a kind of cuneiform Rosetta
Stone,a circa 500 .C . trilingual inscription at the site of B isitun
Pass in Iran. W ritten in P ersian,Akkad ian,and an Iranian language
know n as E lamite,it recorded the feats of the Achaemenid king
D arius the G reat (r. 521–48 6 .C .). B y deciphering repetitive w ords
such as “D arius” and “king” in Persian,scholars w ere able to slow ly
piece together how cuneiform w orked. C alled Assyriologists,these
specialists w ere eventually able to translate d ifferent languagesw ritten in cuneiform across many eras,though some early versions
of the script remain undeciphered.
Today,the ability to read cuneiform is the key to und erstand-
ing all manner of cultural activities in the ancient N ear East— from
determining w hat w as know n of the cosmos and its w orkings,
to the august lives of Assyrian kings,to the secrets of making a
B abylonian stew . O f the estimated half-million cuneiform objects
that have been excavated,many have yet to be catalogued and
translated. H ere, a few ne
and varied examples of some
of the most interesting ones
that have been.
C A RV E D
IN SC R IP T IO N
FO U N D :Bisitun,Iran
C U LTU R E:Achaemenid
D ATE:ca. 500 .C .
LAN G U AG ES :Persian,
Akkad ian,Elamite
C L AY TA L E T
FO U N D :Babylon,Iraq
C U LTU RE :Late
B abylonian
D ATE:ca. 350–50 .C .
LAN G U AG E:Akkadian
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28
E T T E R S
R E C IP E S
Among the thousands o f M esopotamian ta b le ts co nt aining bo th o ffi cial an d p er-
onal letters one ex ample stands out as the first
ecorded customer complaint and evidence of
business relationship gone very sour. Nearly
0 0 0 years ago a man named Nanni e x pressed
is ex treme d ispleasure to the me rchant Ea-nasir
bo ut a recent copp er shipment:
h e n y o u ca m e , y o u sa i d to m e a s fo llo w s: “ I
illg ive G im il-S in (w hen he com es) fin e quality
op pe r in go ts.” Yo u left the n b ut y o u d id no t
o w h a t y o u p r o m i se d m e . Y o u p u t i n g o ts th a te r e n o t g o o d b e fo r e m y m e sse n g e r (S i t-S i n )
nd sa id :“If y ou w ant to take them ,take them ;
f yo u d o not w ant to take them ,go aw ay!” W hat
o y ou take m e for,that yo u trea t som eb od y like
e w ith such con tem pt....Take cog nizan ce that
from now on ) Iw illnot accep t he re any coppe r
ro m y o u that is not o f fi ne qu ality.Ishall(fro m
o w o n) select an d take the ing ots ind ivid ually
n m y ow n ya rd ,and Ishallexe rc ise aga inst yo u
y r igh t of re jection b ecause y ou have tre ated
e w i th co n te m p t.
C LAYTABLET
F O U N D : P o s s ib ly L a r s a
Ir a q
C U L T U R E : O ld
B a b y lo n ia n
D A T E : c a . 18 0 0 .C.
L A NG U A G E : A k k a d ia n
Th e e a r lie s t k n o w n r e c ip e s b y m a n y c e n t u r ie s a r e f o u n d o n t h r e e t a b le t s
d a t in g t o t h e O ld B a b y lo n ia n p e r io d . T h o u g h s e e m in g ly s im p le t h e ir m in i-
m a l in s t r u c t io n s c o u ld o n ly h a v e b e e n f o llo w e d b y e x p e r ie n c e d c h e f s w o r k in g
fo r th e h ig h e s t e c h e lo n s o f s o c ie t y . T h is p a r t ic u la r t a b le t fe a t u r e s 2 5 r e c ip e s f o r
s te w s a n d s o u p s b o t h m e a t a n d v e g e t a r ia n in c lu d in g s o m e d ir e c t io n s — t h o u g h
n o m e a s u r e m e n t s o r c o o k in g t im e s — f o r a n amursanu-p ig e o n s te w :
Spl it the pigeon in half— add other meat.P repare the water, add fat and salt to taste;
B readcrumb s, onion, s a m id u , leeks, and g ar li c
(first soak the herb s in milk ).
W hen it is cooked, it is ready to serve.
W it h t h e e x c e p t io n o f a m u r s a n u w h ic h is p r o b a b ly a t y p e o f p ig e o n a n d
s a m id u a n u n k n o w n s p ic e t h e in g r e d ie n t s a re c e r t a in ly r e c o g n iz a b le . B u t th e
d is h w o u ld in fa c t b e im p o s s ib le to r e p lic a t e s a y s B e n ja m in F o s te r c u r a t o r o f
t h e Y a le B a b y lo n ia n C o lle c t io n . “ P e o p le o ft e n t h in k t h a t b e c a u s e t h e y c a n c o o k
A ra b o r P e r s ia n f o o d t h a t t h e y c a n m a k e t h is s t u f f b u t t h e y d o n ’t k n o w h o w m u c h
r e g io n a l c o o k in g w a s c h a n g e d b y t h e Mu s lim c o n q u e s ts . If y o u c o o k t h e s e u p
u s in g m o d e r n N e a r Ea s t e r n in g r e d ie n t s it is p u r e f a n t a s y — b u t o ft e n d e lic io u s .”
C LAYTABLET
F O U N D : U r Ir a q
C U L T U R E : O ld B a b y lo n ia n
D A T E : 1750 .C.
L A N G U A G E : A k k a d ia n
A RC H A EO L O G Y • M ay/June 2 0 128
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archaeology.org 2
D IO R IT E S T E L
FO UN D : Susa Iran
C U L T U R E : L ate O ld
B abylon ian
DATE : ca. 17 5 0 B .C .
L AN GU AG E : Ak kad ian
B .C .
L A W S
Thebestknow nandm ostinfl uentialoftheM esopotam ianlaw codesw asthatofK ing H am m u-
rabiofBabylonia(r.179 2–1750 .C.).Featuringnearly30 0 provisionscoveringtopicsran ging
from m arriageandinheritancetotheftandm urde r,itisthem ostco m prehensiveoftheseco des.
W hileitfam ouslyincludesretributive,eye-for-an-eyeclauses,italsotakesonm oreco m plexsce-narios,im posingharshpunishm entsforaccusationw ithoutproofandforerrorsm ad ebyjudges.
Theco deap pearsw ritteninintentionallyarchaiccuneiform onatow eringseven-an d-a-half-
foot-talldioritestelathatw asrecovered from Susa,inpresent-dayIran,w hereitw astakenafter
beingstoleninthetw elfthcentury .C.FeaturingareliefofH am m urabireceivingdivinesanction
from thesun-godSham ashinitsupperportion,thisstelaandotherslikeitw ouldhavebeen
publiclydisplayedduringH am m urab i’sreignan dlongafter.“Theco dew ascertainlysetupin
incitysquares,intem pleco urtyards,inpublicplaces— w hereitw asseenbypopulations,”says
M arthaRoth,an AssyriologistattheU niversityofC hicago.Itw asalsousedinthetrainingof
scribesforatleast1,0 0 0 yearsafteritsco m position,andseveralm anuscriptsofitw erefoundin
K ingAshurbanipal’s(r.668–627 .C.)seventh-century .C.libraryatN ineveh,inpresent-dayIraq.
ThepreciselegalfunctionofH am m urabi’sco d eisunclear,astherearefew referencesto
itinleg alreco rdsfrom hisera.H ow eve r,saysR oth,thesereco rdsdosug gestthat“thep ro-visionsasoutlinedinH am m urabim apontothedailyrealityinafairlyclosew ay.”Theco de
w asalsoclearlyintend edtoestab lishH am m urabiastheguarantorofjustice forhispeop le.
“In ord erthatthem ightyno tw rongthew eak,toprovidejustw aysforthew aifan dthe
w id ow ,”readsitsepilogue,“Ihaveinscrib ed m ypreciousp ronouncem en tsup onm ystela.”
Thistropeofthekingasprotectorofthed ow ntrodd en ap pea rsreg ularlyinM eso pota-
m ian inscriptions,buttheearliestkn ow nexam p leisfound onseve ralco netab letskn ow n
asthereform sofU rukagina(r.ca.2350 .C.),aking oftheSum eriancity-stateofLag ash,
inpresent-dayIraq .Acco rd ingtotheinscriptions,thekingad d ressed anu m berofsocial
ineq uities,includingred ucingthep ow erofg ree dytem p leoverseersan d ab usiveforem en .
“T here’saco nsciousnessaboutreform initthatisuniqueuntilnow ,”saysR oth,“andinhis-
toryitco m esabouthereforthefi rsttim e.”
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MAPS
C
to around the sixth century . .,show s much more and refl ects
something of how ancient B abylonians saw themselves in the
w orld. T his Mesopotamian mappa mundi consists of a circular
map surrounded by triangles,w ith explanatory text above and
on the opposite face. The central circle show s the B abylonian
realm,bisected by the Euphrates,w hich is stradd led by B abylon
itself. Several other geographical areas are labeled by name,
and the continent is surrounded by a ring called the “ocean”
w here “a w inged bird cannot safely complete its journey.” Fur
ther descriptions speak of “ruined” cities and gods,and animal
both fantastic (great sea-serpent,scorpion-man) and exotic (lion
monkey,chameleon).
According to W ayne H orow itz of the H ebrew U niversity o
Jerusalem, the tablet “reflects a general interest w ith distan
areas during the rst half of the rst millennium,w hen the Assyr
ian and B abylonian Empires reached their greatest extents.”
C L A Y T A B L E T
FOUND:Sippar,Iraq
CULTURE:LateBabylonian
DATE:ca.sixthcenturyB.C.
LANGUAGE:Akkadian
AR C H AE O LO G Y • M a y J u ne 20 1630
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archaeology.org 1
R E L IG IO N
ME D IC INE
C L AY TA L E T
F O U N D : P o s s ib ly
B a b y lo n , Ir a q
C U L T U R E : L a t e B a b y lo n ia n
D A T E : c a . s ix t h c e n t u r y B .C .
L A N G U A G E : A k k a d ia n
InN ovem b er187 2,aself-taug htAssyriologistna m ed G eo rg e
Sm ithw orking asan assistan tattheBritishM useu m hap p en ed
up onafrag m en tofatab letthatw ould soo nbecom ethe m ost
fam ouscu neiform textinthew orld.O neofthousan dsexcavated
d ecad esearlieratN ineveh,inpresent-dayIraq ,thetab lettold
astoryeerilysim ilartothatofN oahinthe O ldTe stam ent.In it,theg od sresolvetod estroythew orldan dalllifew ithagreat
fl ood,butoneofthech iefgodsw arnsonem an intim etoprevent
theextinctionofalllivingthings:“D em olishthehouse,b uilda
b oat!”theg od urges.“Ab an donrich esandsee ksurvival!Sp urn
p ropertyandsave life!Pu tonboardtheboattheseedofall
livingcreatures!”
Them an,hisfam ily,andassortedan im alsw aitoutthefloodin
theboatw hileallotherlivingthingsp erish.Sm ithpresentedhis
translationseveralw eekslateratthe SocietyofBib lica lArchae-
ologytoapackedaud ien cethatinclud ed the p rim em inister,
thearchb isho pofC anterbu ry,and m anym em b ersofthe press.
“W henSm ithanno un ced thatoneofthe seun ap petizing -looking tab letsfrom theb arbaric,strangew orldoftheM id dleEastco n-
tainedaparalleltexttoH olyW rit,peoplew ereastonished,”says
Irving Finkel,acu neiform expertattheBritishM useum .
The tab letdeciphe red bySm ithturnedouttobethe 11th
partofthe 12-tablet pic of G i lgameshan dhad belong ed tothe
libraryoftheAssyrianking Ashurbanipal(r.668–6 27B .C .),w ho
asp iredtogatherallkn ow ncuneiform w ritings.SinceSm ith’s
discovery,m orethan adozencuneiform tab letsco ntainingsom e
portionofthefl oodm ythhavebee niden tifi ed,theearliestof
w hich p red atetheearliestkn ow nversionsoftheb iblicalfl ood textbyathousandyears.
In t h e a n c ie n t Ne a r E a s t , illn e s s w a s a s m u c h a s p ir it u a l a f fl ic t io n a s a p h y s i-c a l o n e . D e m o n s a n d g h o s ts p la y e d la r g e r o le s in d ia g n o s is a n d t r e a t m e n t ,
b u t t h a t ’s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e p r a c t ic e o f m e d ic in e w a s n ’t c o d i e d . O n e
c o lle c t io n o f c u n e if o r m t e x t s lis t s h u n d r e d s o f m e d ic a lly a c t iv e s u b s t a n c e s .
A n d t h e L a t e B a b y lo n ia n d ia g n o s tic m a n u a l c a lle d S akikku , o r “A ll D is e a s e s ,”
r e v e a ls t h e c a r e f u l d ia g n o s t ic o b s e r v a t io n o f ash ip u, o r d o c t o r -s c h o la r s . T h e
m a n u a l, w h ic h d a t e s t o a r o u n d t h e s ix t h c e n t u r y B .C . c o n s is t s o f 4 0 t a b le t s ,
in c lu d in g a t re a t is e o n t h e d ia g n o s is o f e p ile p s y , c a lle d m iq tu, o r “ t h e f