archaeological finds in ninth century israel

8/4/2019 Archaeological Finds in Ninth Century Israel

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Archaeological Finds in Israel of the

Ninth Century B.C.

Introduction

In order to better understand the books of 1 and 2 Kings, every Bible student needs to

understand the historical backgrounds of both books. Four of the most important

archaeological finds in ancient Israel that impact Biblical studies comes from the ninth

century B.C. These four inscriptions help shed more light on the historical background of an

otherwise dark period in Israels history, the so-called divided kingdom. The purpose of this

research paper is to show how these four monuments impact our knowledge of the land of

Israel during the early part of the divided kingdom (9th

century). Archaeology is able to

assist in Biblical interpretation of the Hebrew Bible by placing the Old Testament books in a

contemporary setting and context. Thus archaeology enables scholars to do the necessary

background work of placing the Old and New Testament in a necessary context-historical,

cultural, linguistic, and religious.1

One cannot study the book of First and Second Kings

without a sound knowledge of the backgrounds in order to establish the proper context.

The four inscriptions we want to examine in this research paper are: First, the Moabite

Stone. Second, we will take a look at the Tel Dan inscription which mentions the house of

David. Third, we will notice the significance of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser. Fourth,

we will conclude with the Monolith of Kurkh.

1H. Darrell Lance, The Old Testament and the Archaeologist. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 3. An axiom

drilled into my brain some years back is this: any text without a context is a pretext.


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The Moabite Stone

The Moabite Stone (also known as the Mesha Stele) is an inscription about Mesha, King

of Moab, who rules his country in the 9th

century B.C. This inscription is not only one of the

earliest archaeological finds relevant to Old Testament studies, but also gives us a much

fuller understanding of Omris reign and involvement on the world stage.2

A French

Anglican missionary, by the name of F.A. Klein, discovers the stele in Dhiban, Jordan, in

1868.3

The country of Moab is located on the eastern side of the Dead Sea (in modern day

Jordan) in between the Wadi Arnon (to the North) and the Wadi Zered (to the South). The

Biblical country of Moab is a buffer zone between Ammon (to the North) and Edom (to the

South). Mesha is a contemporary with the King of Judah, Jehosaphat (870-848 B.C.), and

the King of Israel, Joram (852-841 B.C.).

What we know about Mesah from scripture is very little. In 2 Kings 3:4ff, we read where

this ruler revolts from Israel and declares his own independence (from paying tribute). 4 In

fact, from the time the children of Israel take possession of the promise land, the country of

Moab goes back and forth between various hands who control her: the Moabites (Judges

11:13, 32-33), Israel (Judges 3:30), the Ammonites (Judges 11:32-33), and finally back again

into Israels hands (Judges 11:32-33). Then in the middle part of the ninth century, King

2Alfred J. Horeth, Archaeology & The Old Testament. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 308.

3Bryant G. Wood, Mesha, King of Moab, Bible and Spade. Spring 1996.

www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2006/09/27/Bible-Personages-in-Archaeology-Mesah-King-of-Moab.aspx.

4Ibid.


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Mesha is able to unyoke his oppressor, Israel, and falls again under the authority and

autonomy of Moab (i.e., 2 Kings 3:5; Mesha Inscription).5

The Mesha Stele is unique in several respects. First, not only does this monument

inform us as to how Mesha comes under the control of Israel, but we also find vital

information concerning other historical events, building operations, and the geography of

his kingdom. This inscription also tells us about the cities of ancient Dibon and Hesbon,

since excavations at these two sites reveal only scanty remains from the time of Mesha

and his descendants.6

Second, some ninety years after the original discovery of the

Moabite Stone, a fragment of an additional inscription of King Mesha is uncovered at Kerak

(site of ancient Qir Moab). From this new document we learn that the name of Meshas

father is Kemoshyat. When we combine these two monuments from the ninth century B.C.,

we discover that both are written in the Moabite language but use the Hebrew script.7

The Moabite Stone is written in the Moabite dialects (which is akin to Biblical Hebrew),

but does differ in some respects from the language of the Hebrew inscriptions.8

This

5Ibid.

6

Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of The Land of The Bible, 10,000-586 B.C.E. The Anchor Bible Reference Library.(New York: Doubleday, 1990), 542.

7Hershel Shanks, Ed. Recent Archaeology In The Land Of Israel. (Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Socie

(Records of the Past, 2nd Series, vol II XI n.d.) (Davies 1994)ty, 1981, Repr. 1985). Inscriptions of the Biblical

Period, by Joseph Naveh, Trans. by Dr. Avigdor Hurowitz, 64.

8Avraham Negev, Ed. The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, 3

rdEd. Introduction by Dr. Neil Asher

Silberman. (New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990), S.v. Inscriptions, 183.


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script is similar to the Hebrew script of the ninth century. This shows that the Moabites

were under Israelite influence so much that they adopted the Hebrew script.9

Understanding the Moabit Stone in Light of Historical Situation in the A.N.E. In order for

one to properly understand the significance of the Moabite Stone, we need to know some

of the historical background leading up to the Moabite Kings revolt from Israel.

Ashurnasirpal II (in 876 B.C.) marches towards the west on a military campaign from Assyria.

On his first stop, he receives tribute from the New-Hittite controlled Carchemish. As

Ashurnasirpal II continues on his westward trek, he brings in more tribute from the various

towns and city-states in his path. While the military campaigns of Ashurnasirpal marching

into Syria and Phoenicia does not expand Assyrian territory, yet he does put the Ancient

Near Eastern world on notice that he is a force to be reckoned with. From the ninth to the

seventh century B.C., the Assyrians refer to the land of Israel as mat-Omri(land of Omri)

or bit-Omri(house of Omri).10

Omri is much more than some insignificant king of some

back water country.

Text of the Moabite Inscription.

(1) I, Mesha son of CHEMOSH-melech King of Moab The Di-(2)bonite. My father reigned over MOAB thirty years and I reig-(3)ned after my father. I made this monument to CHEMOSH at KORKHAN. A monument of Sal-

9Ibid.

10Horeth, 307-08.


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(4)vation, for he saved me from all invaders, and let me see my desire upon all my enemies.Omr-

(5) i [was] King of ISRAEL, and he oppressed MOAB many days, for CHEMOSH was angry withhis

(6) land. His son followed him, and he also said I shall oppress MOAB. In my days CHEMOSHsaid.

(7) I will see my desire on him and his house. And ISRAEL surely perished forever. Omri tookthe land of

(8)MEDEBA, and [ISRAEL] dwelt in it during his days and half of the days of his son, altogetherforty years. But there dwelt in it

(9)CHEMOSH in my days. I built BAAL-MEON and made therein the ditches: I built(10) KIRJATHAIN: the men of GAD dwelled in the land of ATAROTH from of old, and built

there the King of

(11) ISRAEL ATAROTH; and I made war against the town and seized it. And I slew all the[people of]

(12) The town, for the pleasure of CHEMOSH and MOAB: I captured from there Arelof DODAand tore

(13) Him before CHEMOSH in KERIOTH. And I placed therein the man of SRN and the men(14) of MKHRTH. And CHEMOSH said to me, Go seize NEBO upon Israel; and(15) I went in the night and fought against it from the break of dawn till noon; and I took(16) it, and slew, 7000 men, [boys?], women, [girls?],(17) and female slaves, for ASHTAR-CHEMOSH I devoted them. And I took from it the Arels

of JAHVEH and tore them before CHEMOSH. And the King of ISRAEL built

(18) JAHAZ, and dwelt in it, whilst he waged war against me; CHEMOSH drove him out beforeme. And

(19) I took from MOAB 200 men, all chiefs, and transported them to JAHAZ, which I took(20) to add to it DIBON. I built KORKHAH, the wall of the forests and the wall(21) of the citadel: I built its gates and I built its towers. And(22) I built the house of MOLOCH, and I made sluices of the water ditches in the middle(23) of the town. And there was no cistern in the middle of the town of KORKHAH, and I said

to all the people, make for

(24) yourselves every man a cistern in his house. And I dug the canals for KORKHAH bymeans of the prisoners

(25) of ISRAEL. I built AROER and I made the road in [the provinces of] the ARNON. [And](26) I built BETH-BAMOTH, for it was destroyed. I built BEZER, for in ruins(27) [it was. And all the chiefs] of DIBON were 50, for all DIBON is subject; and I placed(28)

one hundred [chiefs] in the towns which I added to the land: I built

(29) BETH-MEDEBA and BETH-DIBLATHAN and BETH-BAAL-MEON and transported theretothe [shepherds (?)

(30) and the pastors] of the flock of the land. And at HORONAIM dwelt there(31) and CHEMOSH said to me, Go down, make war upon HORONAIM. I went down [and

made war]

(32) And CHEMOSH dwelt in it during my days. I went up from thence


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(33) And I ?11

Why The Moabite Stone Is So Important To Biblical Studies: First, this inscription helps

clear up century old questions scholars are asking about this period in Israelite history. The

Biblical narrative claims that David conquered Moab, that Solomon held Moab, and that

Moab broke free at the outset of the divided kingdom. Yet the next time we run across

Moab (in the Kings narrative), the text states in 2 Kings 3:4 that Mesha, who is a sheep

breeder, is paying tribute of 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams to Israel. The Bible does not

tell us how or when Moab was reclaimed for Ahab to be receiving such tribute. The

Moabite inscription gives us a bit of information and tells us of Omris conquest from the

Moabite point of view.12

The inspired writers do not seem to be particularly interested in

the material accomplishments of evil kings, but archaeology reveals that Omri was a more

important figure than we would have otherwise known.13

Second, we learn from this

monument the importance the Canaanite deities play in the religion of Syria-Palestine. The

Bible mentions numerous deities which the nations around Israel worship. One particular

god is the Moabite deity, Chemosh. He is mentioned eight times in the Old Testament

(see Numbers 21:29; Judges 11:24; 1 Kings 11:7, 33; 2 Kings 23:13; Jeremiah 48:7, 13, 46)

11Records of the Past, 2

ndSeries, vol_II XI_sacred-texts.com\

12Horeth, 309-10.

13Ibid, 310.


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and always (with the exception of Judges 11:24) as the national god of the Moabites.14

The Moabite inscription verifies that Chemosh is indeed the god of the Moabites and that

his word is as authoritative (to them) as Yahwehs is to Israel (notice the references in line 6

and line 10 to the phrase, Chemosh commands Mesha ). Third, we are able to take the

Biblical and Moabite accounts and work out some chronological issues. There is a problem

(but not an insurmountable one) when we try to line up the chronological events in these

two accounts. In 2 Kings 3:5, the text simply says that after the death of Ahab, Mesha

rebels. Jorams father, Ahab, dies cir. 853 B.C., so Meshas revolution takes place sometime

after 853 B.C. The problem with the Moabite Stone is that in lines 7-9 (Omri had taken

possession of the land of Medeba. And he dwelt in his days and a half, the days of his son 40

years, but Chemosh restored it in my days.), the king of Moab mentions only Moabs king,

Mesha, and Israels king, Omri, one of the most powerful kings Israel would ever have (see 1

Kings 16: 21-28), who reigned from cir. 885-873 B.C. The Bible states that Omris dynasty

endures until the grandson, Joram, is killed by Jehu in 841 B.C. The word son in the

Mesha inscription must refer to descendant (as we find in the Bible and throughout the

rest of the Ancient Near East). When we add Omris years (12, according to 1 Kings 16:23)

with the years of his son Ahab (22, according to 1 Kings 16:29), along with the years of

Azariah, Ahabs son (2, according to 1 Kings 22:52), and finally half the years of Joram,

Azariahs brother (6, according to 2 Kings 3:1), then we come up with 42 years. Wood says

the reigns of these kings could be common years, making the true span 40 years, or

perhaps Mesha is simply rounding the number off to 40. Thiele gives the absolute years

14Wood.


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from the beginning of Omris reign to Jorams 6th

year (885-846 B.C.) as 40 years. Thus one

could argue that Mesha actually revolts cir 846 B.C. The Bible shows that Jorams attack (2

Kings 3:5-7) takes place immediately upon Meshas revolt, or in 846 B.C. This date fits

right into the time period in which Joram and Jehoshaphat reign simultaneously (848-841

B.C.). Fourth, we also find out that in the phrase, the Arelsor altar hearths of Yahewh,

in line 17 may be the earliest reference to Gods Divine Name outside the Bible.15

While

the Moabite Stone is not a new inscription, the information we gain from the text (including

the discovery in modern times to the phrase house of David on the Moabite Stone) is still

useful to modern Biblical studies.

The Tel Dan Stele

A second great discover that impacts our study of 9th

century Israel and Judah comes to

light in the summer of 1993 and again in 1994. During those two summers, excavations at

Tel Dan uncover fragments of a basalt monument written in the Aramaic language. The

large fragment is a little over twelve inches high. The two smaller fragments are

connected together with the larger one later on after their discovery. The eighth line

mentions the two kings that the author claims to kill, Ahaz and Jehoram. The ninth line of

15Ibid.


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this stele contains the phrase, house of David, and is the first known extra-biblical

reference to Israels King David.16

King Hazael of Syria, perhaps after his attacking Israel during the reign of King Jehu (see

2 Kings 10:32-33), writes to commemorate this event on the stele. Some propose that the

stele is subsequently smashed by Jehoash of Israel.17

Initially, scholars draw the

conclusion that the thirteen-line section of the largest fragment of the Tel Dan Stele is set

up by none other than Ben-Hadad, King of Syria, to commemorate his attack on northern

Israel (1 Kings 15:20), but then the smaller fragments make reference to King Hazael. Thus,

scholars are inclined to correct their view. Not all scholars, however, accept the view that

the phrase BYTDWD refers to the house of David. One such dissenting scholar, Philip

Davies, challenges the house of David reading on the Tel Dan inscription.18

Davies argues

that the phrase BYTDWDdoes not mean house of David, but rather refers to either: (1) a

place name (like Beth Lehem, House of Bread), or (2) should be properly read and

translated as Bet Lachmu (House of the God Lachmu), or (3) that the word DWD (instead of

being translatedDavid) should be understood to mean beloved, or uncle in Hebrew.19

After the discovery of this stele at Tel Dan, two more conservative scholars (Anson Rainey

and Andre LeMaire) compare this new inscription with the Moabite Stone (line 31) and find

16Horeth, 326.

17Ibid.

18Ibid.

19Philip R. Davies, House of David Built on Sand: The Sins of the Biblical Maximizers. BiblicalArchaeology

Review. 20/4 (1994). (Willis n.d.)


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an interesting reference to the house of David in King Meshas Stela that goes unnoticed

by most of the scholarly world.20

Why the Tel Dan Stele is So Important: First of all, the Dan stele is important because

this Aramean king claims to be the one who kills the king of Israel (Joram) and the king of

Judah (Ahazaih) during his southern military campaigns. Second, this inscription parallels

the Biblical account of the murders of both Ahaziah and Joram in 2 Kings 9, except for one

major difference: the Hebrew Bible says Jehu kills these two kings.21

Third, despite the

glaring differences between the two accounts (and I hold to the Biblical account), the Dan

Stele does state that someone from the royal lineage of David is still sitting upon his throne

in Jerusalem. This is a difficult pill to swallow for those who do not hold to a high view of

scripture. Fourth, the stele is important because this is one of the oldest (if not the oldest)

reference to the house of David outside of the Bible. The Dan Stele, some argue, even

predates the Moabite Stone by a few years.22

Connecting the Moabite Stone with the Dan Stele: About the time the Tel Dan

inscription comes to light over the house of David reference, a French scholar (Andre

Lemaire) argues that a full two years before the discovery of this monument at Dan, he

20Horeth, 310, footnote 18.

21teldan.wordpress.com/house-of-david-inscription/

22Ibid. John T. Willis, The Newly Discovered Fragmentary Aramaic Inscription from Tel Dan. Restoration

Quarterly vol 37/no 4 (1995).

http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_37_no_4_contents/willis/html.


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finds the exact same phrase, house of David, on line 31 of the Moabite Stone.23

The

revised translation of this line should read, And the house [of Da]vid dwelt in Horanaim.

Lemaire identifies a previously indistinguishable letter as a d in the phrase House of

David.24

This means that there are actually two inscriptions from about the same time

period (both outside the Bible) that uses a phrase that must be widely used for the

inscription, one might say, takes for granted that the reader understands who he is talking

about. Granted, the phrase house of David may refer to the actual dynasty rather than to

the person, David, but this is still tremendous evidence for there being a historical David, an

actual Judah, and a literal city of Jerusalem.

Aramaic Text of the Tell Dan Stele:

1.[ ] ] [.] ]

2.[ ].]..[ . --- ]

3. [ . .] . [. . . ]

4. []. [. ].[. ..]

5.[. .] . [ .. . ---]

6.. [. . ]. [.. . ]

7.. . .[[. ] . ..]

8.. [. ] . .[ . . ] king of Israel and I killed Achazhihu, son of

Yehoram, king

23Bryant G. Wood, Bible Personages in Archaeology: Jaban, King of Hazar. Bible and Spade, Summer (1995):

91-92.

Bryant G. Wood, What does the Moabite Stone reveal about the Biblical Revolt of Mesha?

www.ChristianAnswers.Net.


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.. . . . [ . . .] of the house ofDavid

10. [... ]

11.. ...[. ]

12. ... [.. .]

13.[.. ]25

English Translation of Tel Dan Stele:

1'. [.....................].......[...................................] and cut [.........................]

2'. [.........] my father went up [against him when] he fought at[....]

3'. And my father lay down, he went to his [fathers]. And the king of I[s-]

4'. rael entered previously in my father's land. [And] Hadad made me king.

5'. And Hadad went in front of me, [and] I departed from [the] seven[.....]

6'. of my kingdom, and I slew [seve]nty kin[gs], who harnessed thou[sands of cha-]

7'. riots and thousands of horsemen (or: horses). [I killed Jeho]ram son of [Ahab]

8'. king of Israel, and I killed [Ahaz]iahu son of [Jehoram kin]g

9'. of the House of David. And I set [their towns into ruins and turned]

10'. their land into [desolation........................]

11'. other ...[......................................................................... and Jehu ru-]

25By Avraham Biran and Joseph Naveh, An Aramaic Stele Fragment from Tel Dan. Israel Exploration Journal

43 (1993): 81-98; The Tell Dan Inscription: A New Fragment, Israel Exploration Journal45 (1995): 1-18. Tel

Dan Inscriptions.mht. tel dan inscription-GoogleSearch.mht.


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12'. led over Is[rael......................................................................and I laid]

13'. siege upon [............................................................]26

Although my Aramaic is not perfect, I am able to distinguish between the script on lines

8 of the Dan Steal (where Biblical the kings Ahaz and Jehoram are mentioned) as well as on

line 9 where the phrase reads, of the house of David. One would need to work extremely

hard not to be able to see the name of David written in stone for the whole world to view.

The Tel Dan inscription may be the greatest textual find in Biblical studies since the

discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls back in 1947.

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser

Perhaps the third greatest inscription from the ninth century B.C. is the Black Obelisk of

Shalmaneser. Thanks to the numerous Akkadian and Egyptian inscriptions dating to the

period of the ninth century B.C. in Israel (Iron Age II), these monuments provide numerous

details which supplement the information in the Bible.27

One such Akkadian inscription is

that of Shalmaneser III, the son of Assurnasirpal II, who succeeds his father in 859 B.C. This

26Ibid.

27Negev, Inscriptions, 182.


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monument gives good historical information about Israels standing (her growing weakness)

and Assyrias resurgence as a super power in the Ancient Near Eastern world.28

Background Information to the Black Obelisk: Assyria becomes a major threat against

Israel during the reign of Ahab. The Assyrian Empire builds up a mighty military machine

as early as the ninth century B.C. They begin to branch out in the ninth century and within

two centuries they would dominate the Middle East as far West as Egypt. The threat is so

severe that the kings of Syria-Palestine band together to halt this westward movement

(Ahab taking the lead). This newly formed federation, made up primarily of city-states, help

stem the tide of Sahlmaneser III at the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. Shortly after this battle,

however, Ahab is killed in battle against the Arameans in Ramoth-Gilead (see 1 Kings 22:29-

40).29

During the eighteenth year of Shalmanesers reign (841 B.C.), he attacks a league that is

made up of Syria, Israel, Damascus, and the city-states of the coastal region. King Jehu,

rather than fight against the Assyrians army, pays tribute to Shalmaneser III. This leaves

Hazael to face the brunt of the battle alone.30

On the panels of this monument, the relief

depicts, graphically and literally, the submission of Jehu, son of Omri.31

The depiction of

Jehu presents the first pictures of Israelites of which we know (or at least of Israelite

28William W. Hallo and William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East, A History. (San Diego: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich, 1971), 125-26.

29Mazar, 404.

30R.K. Harrison, Old Testament Times. (London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), 221.

31Mazar, 404.


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rulers). The inscription depicts him kissing the ground before Shalmaneser (standing behind

him are Israelites bearing a variety of tribute), thus symbolizing Jehu as being the servant or

vassal of Shalmaneser.32

Text of the Black Obelisk and Jehu Relief: The relief that contains the name of Jehu

reads as follows:

I have received tribute of Jehu, the son of Omri: silver, gold, bowls of gold, chalices

of gold, cups of gold, pails of gold, lead, scepters for the hand of the king, (and)

spear heads.33

There are five relief panels in all that detail the various rulers that pay tribute to

Shalmaneser III. Relief I, Susa of the country of GUZAN; Relief III, MUTSRI; Relief IV,

Merodach-abil-utsur of the country of the SHUHITES; Relief V, Garparunda of the country of

the PATINIANS.34

The text on this monument may indicate that many of the surrounding

kingdoms (who once are fighting against Assyria) are simply weary of fighting Shalmaneser

(or unable to fight him off any longer) and so pay tribute instead to save themselves (as

Jehu of Israel does).

32G. Ernest Wright, Biblical Archaeology. (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1957), (Wright 1957), (Lewis

1981)156.


ndSeries, Vol. IV, ed. By A.H. Sayce, [1890], at sacred-texts.com.

34Ibid.


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The Monolith of Kurkh

The fourth great inscription dating to the ninth century B.C. is the Monolith of Kurkh.

This particular stele is discovered in 1861 at Kurkh (ancient Tushkha) on the Tigris River in

modern day Turkey. This inscription records the first six military campaigns of

Shalmaneser III,35

but for the purpose of this study we focus upon the record of his great

battle against the allied forces of Ahab and Hadadezer of Damascus (along with several

other city-states.36

During the reign of King Ahab, the international relationships are maked by

intermittent war between Israel and the Aramean state of Damascus. A momentary

truce may take place between these two enemies in 854-853 B.C., for King Ahab joins in

a strong coalition with Damascus and numerous other city-states against Shalmaneser III.

The Assyrian empire is making their first major attempt to subjugate Syria-Palestine. The

great battle between the multiple coalition forces from Palestine and the Assyrian army

takes plat at the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. (on the Orantes River, North of Damascus).37

This is our first direct knowledge of conflict between Assyria and Israel.38

35Roger M. Young, Evidence For Inerrancy From An Unexpected Source: OT Chronology. Bible and Spade,

Spring (2008).

36Jack P. Lewis, Archaeological Backgrounds of Biblical People, Foreward by Charles F. Pfeiffer. (Grand Rapids:

Baker, 1981, 4th

Printint), 96.

37Wright, 155.

38Lewis, 96.


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THE MONOLITH INSCRIPTION OF SHALMANESER

COLUMN I

1. ASSUR the great lord, the king of all the great gods; ANU the king of the IGIGI andANUNNAKI, 1 the master of the world; BEL the father of the gods, who determines destiny,

2. who institutes the laws [of heaven and earth]; EA, the wise, the king of the Abyss, thediscoverer of cunning arts; SIN the illuminator of heaven (and) earth, the illustrious god;SHAMASH

3. the judge of the (four) zones, the director of mankind; ISHTAR the lady of battles andcombats, whose delight (is) conflict; the great gods who love my royalty,

4. my empire, my power, and my government have they magnified; a famous name, anillustrious renown, above all the sovereigns (of the world) have they bestowed on me inabundance!

5. Shalmaneser, the king of the multitudes of men, the sovereign pontiff of ASSUR, the powerful king, the king of ASSYRIA, the king of all the four zones, the Sun-god of themultitudes of men,

6. who governs all the world; the king who fears the gods, the favourite of BEL, theappointed vicar of ASSUR, the august prince, who has traversed

p. 56

7. easy paths and difficult roads, who has trodden the summits of the mountains (and) all(their) ranges, who has received tribute and presents

8. from all regions, who has opened the mountains above and below; before the onset ofwhose mighty battle the regions (of the world) have yielded,

9. the world has trembled to its foundations before his warlike fury; the male hero who hasmarched under the protection of ASSUR(and) SHAMASH,the gods his allies;

10. who has no rival among the kings of the four zones (of the world); the royal despot of theworld, who has traversed difficult roads, (and) has advanced over mountains and seas;

11. the son of Assur-natsir-pal, the vicegerent of BEL, the priest of ASSUR, whose priesthoodhas been pleasing to the gods, and who has subjected to his feet all lands; the illustriousdescendant of Tukulti-Adar


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12. who subjugated all his foes, and swept them like the tempest, when A SSURthe great lordin the determination of his [heart] had turned upon me his illustrious eyes, and

13. had called me to the government of ASSYRIA; had given me to hold the mighty weaponwhich overthrows the rebellious; had [invested] me with the [sacred] crown; the lordship

over all lands14. had granted me; had strongly urged me to conquer and subjugate: in those days at thebeginning of my reign, in the first of my (regnal) years,

15. (when) I had seated myself in state on the throne of royalty, I summoned my chariots(and) armies; into the defiles of the country of SIMESI I entered; to ARIDU the fortified city

16. of Ninni I approached. The city I besieged, I captured; its numerous soldiers I slew; itsspoil I

p. 57

carried away. I erected a pyramid of heads at the entrance of his city.

17. Their youths and maidens I delivered to the flames. 1 While I remained in ARIDU thetribute of the people of KHARGA, KHARMASA,

18. SIMESI, SIMERA, SIRISHA, (and) ULMANIA, horses trained to the yoke, oxen, sheep, (and)wine I received. From ARIDU

19. I departed; difficult paths (and) inaccessible mountains whose peaks rose to the sky likethe point of an iron sword I cut with axes of bronze (and) copper. The chariots

20. (and) troops I caused to cross (them). To the city of KHUPUSHKIA I approached.KHUPUSHKIA with 100 towns which (were) dependent on it I burned with fire. Kakia

21. a king of the country of NAIRI and the rest of his troops trembled before the splendour ofmy arms, and occupied the strong mountains. After them I ascended the mountains,

22. I fought a hard battle in the midst of the mountains (and) utterly destroyed them. Ibrought back from the mountains chariots, troops, (and) horses trained to the yoke. The terrorof the glory

23. of ASSUR my lord overwhelmed them; they descended (and) took my feet. Taxes andtribute I imposed upon them. From the city of KHUPUSHKIA I departed.

24. To SUGUNIA the stronghold of Arame of ARARAT I approached. The city I besieged, Icaptured; their numerous soldiers I slew.


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25. Its spoil I carried away. I erected a pyramid of heads at the entrance of his city; 14 townswhich (were) dependent on it I burned with fire. From SUGUNIA

p. 58

26. I departed; to the sea of the country of NAIRI I descended. I purified my weapons in thesea; I sacrificed victims to my gods. In those days an image of my person

27. I made; I inscribed upon it the glory of ASSURthe great lord, my lord, and the mightinessof my empire; I erected (it) overlooking the sea. On my return

28. from the sea I received the tribute of As of the land of GUZAN in abundance, horses,oxen, sheep, wine, (and) two camels with two humps;

29. to my city of ASSUR I brought (them).In the month Iyyar, on the 13th day, I departedfrom NINEVEH. I crossed the TIGRIS. I passed through the mountains Of KHASAMU andDIKHNUNU.

30. To LALATE a city of Akhuni the son of Adini I approached. The terror of the glory ofASSURmy lord overwhelmed [them, to the mountains ]

31. they ascended. The city I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. From LALATE Ideparted. [To KI QA the stronghold]

32. of Akhuni the son of Adini I approached. Akhuni the son of Adini to the multitude [of histroops trusted, and to make] combat and battle [came against] me. Under the protection ofASSUR

33. and the great gods, my lords, I fought with him; I utterly defeated him. I shut him up inhis city. From the city of KI QA I departed;

34. to BUR-MARNA5 a city of Akhuni the son of Adini [I approached. The city] I besieged,I captured. I destroyed with my weapons 300 of his fighting-men. A pyramid of heads

35. I erected [at the entrance to his city]. The tribute of

p. 59

[paragraph continues] KHAPINI of TIL-ABNA, of Gauni of SA[LLU], of Giri-Dadda

36. [of ASSU], silver, gold, oxen, sheep, (and) wine I received. From the city of BUR-MARNA I departed; in boats of seal-skin the EUPHRATES

37. I crossed. The tribute of Qata-zilu of KUMMUKH, silver, gold, oxen, sheep, (and) wine Ireceived. To the city of PAQARRUKHBUNI


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38. (and) the cities of Akhuni the son of Adini on the farther bank of the E UPHRATES Iapproached. I utterly destroyed the country. Its cities to ruins

39. I reduced. I filled the broad plain with the corpses of his warriors; 1300 of his fighting-men I slew with weapons.

40. From the city PAQARRUKHBUNI I departed; to the cities of Mutalli of the city of theGAMGUMIANS I approached. The tribute

41. of Mutalli of the city of the GAMGUMIANS, silver, gold, oxen, sheep, wine, (and) hisdaughter with a large dowry I received. From the city of GAMGUM

42. I departed; LUTIBU the stronghold of Khnu of the country of the SAMALIANS Iapproached. Khnu of the country of the SAMALIANS, Sapalulme

43. of the country of the PATINIANS, Akhuni the son of Adini, Sangara of the country of the

CARCHEMISHIANS, trusted to their mutual alliance and prepared for44. battle; they came against me to fight. By the supreme

p. 60

power of NERGAL who marches before me, with the forceful weapons

45. which ASSURthe lord has granted (me) I fought with them, I utterly defeated them. Theircombatants

46. I slew with weapons; like HADAD I poured the deluge upon them, I heaped them up in

the ditches; with the bodies

47. of their warriors I filled the broad plain; with their blood I dyed the mountains like wool.(His) many chariots [and troops], (and) horses

48. trained for the yoke I took from him. I erected a pyramid of heads at the entrance to hiscity. His cities I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire.

49. In those days I celebrated the greatness of the great gods; I proclaimed for ever the valourof ASSURand SHAMASH. A great image of my royalty

50. I made; I inscribed upon it the exploits of my valour (and) the deeds of my glory. At thesource of the river SALUARA

51. at the foot of mount AMANUS I erected (it). From mount AMANUS I departed; theORONTES I crossed; to ALIMUSH

52. the stronghold of Sapalulme the PATINIAN I approached. Sapalulme the PATINIAN to save


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53. his life [called to his aid] Akhuni the son of Adini, Sangara the CARCHEMISHIAN,Khaynu the SAMALIAN, Kate-[zilu the KOMAGENIAN],

54. the QUAN, Pikhirim the CILICIAN, Bur-anate the YASBUKIAN, Ada the country ofASSYRIA

COLUMN II

1.

2. I shattered [his forces]; the city I besieged, I captured.

3. his numerous chariots (and) horses trained to the yoke I carried away

p. 61

4. [His fighting-men] I slew [with] weapons. In the midst of this battle Bur-anate

5. my hands captured. The great cities of the PATINIAN I in[vested. The countries]

6. of the Upper [Sea] of SYRIA and of the sea of the setting sun I swept like a mound under astorm.

7. The tribute of the kings of the sea-coast I received. On the shores of the broad sea, straightbefore me, victoriously

8. I marched. An image of my majesty I made to perpetuate my name for ever, overlookingthe sea I e[rected it].

9. To the mountains of AMANUS I ascended. Logs of cedar and thuya I cut. To the mountains

10. of mount ATALUR where the image of Assur-irbi was set up I marched. I erected animage by the side of his image. From the sea I went [down];

11. the cities of TAYA , KHAZAZU, NULIA (and) BUT-MU belonging to the PATINIAN Icaptured; 2800 fighting-men

12. I slew; 14,600 prisoners I carried away. The tribute of Arame the son of Gusi, silver,gold, oxen,

13. sheep, wine, (and) couches of gold and silver I received.In the year of my owneponymy, on the 13th day of the month Iyyar from [NINEVEH]

14. I departed; the TIGRIS I crossed, the mountains of KHASAMU and DIKHNUNU I traversed.To TIL-BURSIP the stronghold of Akhuni


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15. the son of Adini I approached. Akhuni the son of

p. 62

[paragraph continues] Adini trusted to the multitude of his troops and came to meet me. I utterlydefeated him. In [his city]

16. I shut him up. From TIL-BURSIP I departed; in boats of seal-skin the EUPHRATES at itsflood I crossed. AL (?) G, TAGI

17. SRUNU, PARIPA, TIL-BASHER (and) DABIGU, six strongholds of Akhuni the son ofAdini I [besieged], I captured. His numerous fighting-men

18. I slew: their spoil I carried away; 200 towns which (were) dependent on them I threwdown, dug up (and) burned with fire. [From] DABIGU I (departed);

19. to SAZAB the stronghold of Sangara the CARCHEMISHIAN I approached. The city I

besieged, I captured. Their numerous fighting-men I slew;

20. their spoil I carried away. The towns which (were) dependent on him I threw down, dugup (and) burned with fire. The kings of the country [of the HITTITES] all of them,

21. trembled before the splendour of my powerful weapons and my violent onset, and theytook my feet. From shun the PATINIAN

22. 3 talents of gold, 100 talents of silver, 300 talents of copper, 300 talents of iron, i000vases of copper, i000 vestments of embroidered stuff (and) linen, his daughter

23. with her abundant dowry, 20 talents of blue purple, 300 oxen, (and) 5000 sheep, Ireceived. A talent of gold, 2 talents of blue purple, (and) 100 logs of cedar

24. I imposed upon him as tribute; each year I receive (it) in my city of ASSUR. FromKhaynu the son

p. 63

of Gabbaru who (dwells) at the foot of mount AMANUS 10 talents of silver, 90 talents

25. of copper, 30 talents of iron, 300 vestments of embroidered stuff (and) linen, 300 oxen,

3000 sheep, 200 logs of cedar 2 homers of cedar-resin

26. (and) his daughter with her dowry I received. I laid upon him as tribute 10 manehs ofsilver, 200 logs of cedar, (and) a homerof cedar-resin; each year

27. I receive (it). From Aramu the son of Agsi 10 manehs of gold, 6 talents of silver, 500oxen, (and) s000 sheep I received. From Sangara the CARCHEMISHIAN 2 talents


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28. of gold, 70 talents of silver, 30 talents of copper, 100 talents of iron, 20 talents of bluepurple, 500 weapons, his daughter with a dowry, and 100 daughters of his nobles,

29. 500 oxen, (and) 5000 sheep, I received. I laid upon him as tribute a maneh of gold, atalent of silver, (and) 2 talents of blue purple; each year I receive (it). From Qata-zilu

30. the KOMAGENIAN I receive each year 20 manehs of silver (and) 300 logs of cedar.Inthe eponymy of Assur-bel-kain, on the 13th day of the month Tammuz, I departed fromNINEVEH;

31. the TIGRIS I crossed; the mountains of KHASAMU and DIKHNUNU I traversed. At TIL-BARSIP the stronghold of Akhuni the son of Adini I arrived. Akhuni

32. the son of Adini, before the splendour of my powerful weapons and my violent onset, tosave his life, crossed [to the western bank] of the EUPHRATES;

33. to other countries he passed over. By the command of ASSUR the great lord, my lord, thecities of TIL-BARSIP (and) ALIGU [I occupied. The city of] SHAGUQA as my royal city

34. I chose. I settled men of ASSYRIA within (it). I founded palaces within it for the habitationof my

p. 64

majesty. To TIL-BARSIP the name of KAR-SHALMANESER,

35. to NAPPIGU the name of LITA-ASSUR, to ALIGU the name of ATSBAT-LA-KUNU, 3 toRUGULITI the name of QIBIT-[ASSUR] I gave. In those days

36. the city of ANA-ASSUR-UTIR-ATSBAT which the HITTITES call PITRU, which (is) upon theriver SAGURA on the farther side of the EUPHRATES,

37. and the city of MUTKNU which is upon the hither side of the EUPHRATES, which Tiglath-Pileser, the royal forefather who went before me had [captured] (and which) in the time ofAssur-Irbi (?),

38. the king of ASSYRIA, the king of the country of ARAM had taken away by force, thesecities I restored to their (former) position, I settled men of ASSYRIA in them.

39. While I was staying in the city of KAR-SHALMANESERthe tribute of the kings of the sea-coast and of the kings of the banks of EUPHRATES, silver, gold, lead, copper,

40. vases of copper, oxen, sheep, (and) embroidered and linen vestments I received. FromKAR-SHALMANESERI departed; mount SUMU I traversed.


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41. Into the country of BIT-ZAMNI I descended. From BIT-ZAMNI I departed; themountains of NAMDANU (and) MERKHISU I traversed. Difficult paths (and) mountains

42. inaccessible whose peaks rose to the sky like the point

p. 65

of a sword I cut with axes of bronze. I caused chariots (and) troops to pass (them). Into thecountry of ENZITE in mount SHUA

43. I descended. My hand conquered the country of ENZITE throughout its extent. Their citiesI threw down, dug up and burned with fire. Their spoil, their goods, their riches withoutnumber

44. I carried away. A great image of my majesty I made; I inscribed upon it the glory ofASSUR the great lord, my lord, and the power of my empire; I set (it) up (in) the city ofSALURIAat the foot(?) of QIRQI.

45. From the country of ENZITE I departed; the river ARSANIA I crossed. To the country ofSUKHME I approached. UASHTAL its stronghold I captured. The [land] of SUKHME throughoutits extent

46. I overthrew, dug up (and) burned with fire. Sua their governor with my hand I captured.From the country of SUKHME I departed; into the country of DAYAENI I descended. The cityof DAYAENI

47. with all its territory I conquered. Their cities I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire.Their spoil, their goods (and) abundant wealth I took. From the country of DAYAENI I

departed;

48. to ARZASKU the royal city of Arrame of ARARAT I approached. Arramu of ARARATbefore the splendour of my powerful weapons

49. and my violent onset trembled and abandoned his city; to the mountains of ADDURI heascended.

p. 66

[paragraph continues] After him I ascended the mountains. A hard battle in the mountains I fought;

3400

50. of his soldiers I slew with weapons. Like HADAD I poured a deluge upon them. (With)their blood I dyed (the mountains) like wool. His camp I took from him;

51. his chariots, his litters (?), his horses, his colts, (his) calves, his riches, his spoil, (and) hisabundant goods I brought back from the mountains. ARRAMU, to save


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52. his life ascended the inaccessible mountains. In the energy of my manhood I trampled onhis country like a wild bull; I reduced his cities to ruins. ARZASKU together with the towns

53. which (were) dependent on it I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. I erectedpyramids of heads at the entrance of his great gate. [Some of the survivors] alive within

54. [the pyramids I immured]; others I impaled on stakes round about the pyramids. FromARZASKU I departed; to the mountains

55. [of ERITIA I ascended]. A great image of my majesty I made. The glory of ASSURmy lordand the mighty deeds of my empire which I had wrought in the land of ARARAT upon it

56. [I inscribed. On the mountains of ERI]TIA I set (it) up. From mount ERITIA I departed; thecity of ARAMALE I approached. Its towns I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire.

5 7. From ARAMALE I departed; to the city of ZANZIUNA [I approached], he trembled; he

took my feet.58. Horses trained to the yoke, oxen (and) sheep I received from him. I granted pardon to[him] [On] my [return?], to the sea

p. 67

59. of the country of NAIRI1 I descended; I purified the forceful weapons of ASSUR in thesea. [I sacrificed] victims. [An image of my majesty] I made; the glory

60. of ASSURthe great lord, my lord, the exploits of my valour and the deeds of my renown Iinscribed upon it. [From the sea] I departed; to the country of GUZAN

61. I approached. Asu the king of the country of GUZAN with his brothers (and) his sonscame forth to meet me [and took the feet] of my majesty. Horses

62. trained to the yoke, oxen, sheep, wine (and) 7 camels with two humps I received fromhim. A great image of my majesty I made. The glory of ASSURthe great lord, my lord,

63. and the illustrious deeds of my empire which I had wrought in the land of NAIRI Iinscribed upon it; in the middle of his city, in his temple, I set (it) up. From the country ofGUZAN I departed;

64. to SHILAYA the stronghold of Kki the king of the city of KHUPUSHKIA I approached. Thecity I besieged, I captured. Their numerous fighting men I slew; 3000 of them as prisoners,their oxen,

65. their sheep, horses, colts, (and) calves to a countless number I carried away; to my city ofASSURI brought (them). The defiles of the country of ENZITE I entered; by the defiles of thecountry of KIRRURI


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66. which commands 2 the city of ARBELA I came out.As for Akhuni the son of Adini, whowith the permission of the kings my fathers had acquired power and strength, in thebeginning of my reign, in the eponymy

67. of the year called after my own name I departed from NINEVEH, TIL-BARSIP his

stronghold I besieged, Ip. 68

surrounded him with my soldiers, I fought a battle in the midst of it,

68. I cut down his plantations, I rained upon him arrows (and) javelins, before the splendourof my weapons (and) the glory of ASSURhe trembled and abandoned his city,

69. to save his life he crossed the EUPHRATES,(again) in the second year in the eponymy ofAssur-bunya-utsur I pursued after him; SHITAMRAT, a mountain peak on the bank of theEUPHRATES,

70. which hangs from the sky like a cloud, he made his stronghold. By the command ofAssur the great lord, my lord, and NERGAL who marches before me, I approached themountain of SHITAMRAT,

71. within which none of the kings my fathers had penetrated. In three days a soldier scaledthe mountain, a hero whose heart led (him) to the fray, (who) climbed up on his feet. Themountain

72. I stormed. Akhuni trusted to the multitude of his troops and came forth to meet me; hedrew up (his) array. I launched among them the weapons of ASSURmy lord; I utterly

73. defeated them. I cut off the heads of his soldiers and dyed the mountains with the bloodof his fighting-men. Many of his (people) flung themselves against the rocks of themountains. A hard battle in the midst of his city

74. I fought. The terror of the glory of ASSUR my lord overwhelmed them; they descended(and) took my feet. Akhuni with his troops, chariots, his litters (?) and the many riches of hispalace,

75. whose weight could not be estimated, I caused to be brought before me; I transported(them) across the TIGRIS; I carried (them) to my city of ASSUR. As men of my own country I

counted the inhabitants.In this same year I marched against the country of MAZAMUA.Into the defiles

p. 69

76. of the country of BUNAIS (?) 1 I entered: the cities of Nikdime (and) Nigdera Iapproached. They trembled before the splendour of my powerful weapons and violent onset,and


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77. took refuge on the sea in coracles of willow. In boats of seal-skin I followed after them.A hard battle I fought in the middle of the sea (and) utterly defeated them.

78. The sea with their blood I dyed like wool.In the eponymy of Dayan-Assur, on the 14thday of the month Iyyar, I departed from NINEVEH; the TIGRIS I crossed; to the cities

79. of Giammu on the river BALIKH I approached. (Before) the fear of my lordship (and) thesplendour of my forceful weapons they trembled and with their own weapons Giammu theirlord

80. they slew. Into the cities of KITLALA and TIL-SA-TURAKHI I entered. I introduced mygods into his palaces; I made a feast in his palaces.

81. I opened (his) treasury; I saw his stored-up wealth; his riches (and) his goods I carriedaway; to my city of ASSUR I brought (them). From KITLALA I departed; to the city of KAR-SHALMANESER

82. I approached. In boats of seal-skin for the second time I crossed the E UPHRATES at itsflood. The tribute of the kings of the farther7 bank of the EUPHRATES, of Sangar

83. of the city of CARCHEMISH, of Kundashpi of the city of KUMMUKH, of Arame the son ofGusi, of Lalli of the city of MELID, of Khayanu the son of Gabaru,

p. 70

84. of Girparuda of the country of the PATINIANS, (and) of Girparuda of the country of theGAMGUMIANS, silver, gold, lead, copper (and) vases of copper

85. in the city of ASSUR-UTIR-ATSBAT on the farther side of the EUPHRATES, which (is) uponthe river SAGURI, which the HITTITES

86. call PITRU, I received. From the banks of the EUPHRATES I departed; to the city ofKHALMAN I approached. They were afraid to fight (and) took my feet.

87. Silver (and) gold as their tribute I received. I offered sacrifices before DADDA the god ofKHALMAN. From KHALMAN I departed. To the cities

88. of Irkhulni the HAMATHITE I approached. The cities of ADENNU, MASHG (and)ARGANA his royal city I captured. His spoil, his goods,

89. (and) the riches of his palaces I removed; his palaces I delivered to the flames. From thecity of ARGANA I departed; to the city of QARQARA I approached.

90. QARQARA his royal city I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire; 1200 chariots, 1200litters (?) (and) 20,000 men from Dadda-idri


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91. of the [country] of DAMASCUS, 700 chariots, 700 litters (?) (and) 10,000 men fromIrkhulni the HAMATHITE, woo chariots (and) 10,000 men from Ahab

92. the ISRAELITE; 5 500 men from the GUANS; 1000 men from the EGYPTIANS; 10 chariots(and) 10,000 men from the IRQANATIANS;

p. 71

93. 200 men from Matinu-baal the ARVADITE; 200 men from the USANATIANS; 1 30 chariots(and) 10,000 men

94. from Adunu-baal the SHIANIAN; 1000 camels from Gindibui the ARABIAN; (and) 00men

95. from Baasha, the son of Rukhubi of the country of AMMON these 12 kings he took tohis assistance; to [offer]

96. battle and combat they came against me. With the mighty forces which ASSUR the lordhas given (me), with the powerful weapons which NERGAL who goes before me

97. has granted (me), I fought with them; from the city of QARQARA to the city of KIRZAU Iutterly defeated them; 14,000

98. of their fighting-men I slew with weapons. Like HADAD I rained a deluge upon them(and) exterminated(?) them.

99. I filled the face of the plain with their wide-spread troops, with (my) weapons I coveredwith their blood the whole district;

100. (the soil) ceased to give food to its inhabitants; in the broad fields was no room for theirgraves; with (the bodies of) their men

101. as with a bridge I bound together (the banks of) the ORONTES. In this battle theirchariots, their litters(?)

102. (and) their horses bound to the yoke I took from them.39

Importance of the Monolith of Kurkh: There are two main points we can learn

from this inscription. First, Shalmaneser is still a force to be reckoned with. He is imposing


ndSeries, Vol. IV., ed. By A.H. Sayce, [1890], pg. 57-71, at sacred-texts.com.


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tribute and burning down cities (he adopts the scorch and burn policy) of those who do

not submit to his authority. Second, while this battle is not mentioned in the Bible, yet the

record of Shalmaneser speaks of the strength of the coalition forces during the time of

Ahab. The three main kings (or forces) that make up Assyrias opposition are: (1) Hadadezer

of Damascus with 1,200 chariots, 1,200 cavalry, and 20,000 infantry. (2) Irhulen of Hamath

with 700 chariots, 700 cavalry, and 10,000 infantry. (3) Ahab, the Israelite, is the

strongest show of force among the coalition forces. He brings 2,000 chariots and 10,000

infantry (lines 91-92 of the Monolith). The use of horse and chariot as a war machine in

Israels arsenal can trace back to David and Solomon (see 2 Samuel 8:4; 1 Kings 10:26).40

Now Ahab takes possession of the chariots (and more than likely, when the nation divides in

two, the chariot cities of Gezer, Megiddo, and Hazor go with Northern Israel). Solomon

gathers 1,400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen; Ahab seems to build upon Solomons mighty

army.

No wonder the Assyrian records and the Mesha stele continually refer to

Palestine as the land of Omri or the house of Omir. While Omri is dead and gone, yet

his impact lives on through King Ahab. The Biblical record concerning the wars between

Israel and Syria is better understood when we realize that Israel is a mighty force for a short

time. The accounts of Omris and Ahabs success should not be viewed as myth any more

than the exploits of Saul, David, Solomon, or any of the kings of Judah and Israel are legend.

This is why these secular inscriptions are so important to Biblical studies.

40Wright, 155.


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Conclusion

The ninth century era in Israel during the divided kingdom is well attested in the

historical records of Assyria (which are vast) and other countries throughout the Ancient

Near East. Four important monuments help put the narrative of First and Second Kings in

proper context: The Moabite Stone, the Tel Dan Inscription, the Black Obelisk of

Shalmaneser, and the Monolith of Kurkh. Each of these particular monuments mentions by

name specific Biblical characters (Omri, Ahab, David) that we read of in the books of Samuel

and Kings. These monuments also tell why Ahab is so willing to fight against his Aramean

enemy; because Ahabs army is vast and powerful. This explains why he is in the forefront

of the coalition against Assyria. The records of Shalmaneser (and other Assyrian rulers) may

help explain why the prophet Jonah does not want to go and preach to the inhabitants of

Nineveh. He wants them to be punished by God, not forgiven, for all of the atrocities they

heap upon Syria-Palestine.

This paper helps put the events behind the books of Kings in greater perspective as a

student of the Bible. This paper helps the author find the original sources, from some

unusual places, that talk about the events Dr. Cloud discusses in class. This historical

information should shine more light on the events in the Old Testament and help clear up

matters in the text that may not always be crystal clear to the reader. On a personal note,

this background information helps strengthen the authors faith every time a Biblical event

or character is spoken of in extra-Biblical records!


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Bibliography

archaeological finds in ninth century israel

Documents