copy 2012 Institute for Research in Classical Philosophy and ScienceAll rights reserved

issn 1549ndash4497 (online) issn 1549ndash4470 (print) issn 1549ndash4489 (cd-rom)Aestimatio 9 (2012) 66ndash87

Aratus Phaenomena Translated with an Introduction and Notes byAaron Poochigian

Baltimore The Johns Hopkins University Press 2010 Pp xxxi + 72ISBN 978ndash0ndash8018ndash9465ndash7 Cloth $5000

Reviewed byD Mark Possanza

University of Pittsburghpossanzapittedu

The Hellenistic poet Aratus of Soli (ca 315 to before 240 bc)1 isknown primarily as the author of Phaenomena a poem which de-scribes the constellations and circles of the celestial sphere and cat-alogues terrestrial atmospheric and celestial signs for forecastingthe weather The Greek word laquoφαινόμεναraquo in its most literal sensemeans lsquothings that appearrsquo and by extension is applied with thedefinite article specifically to celestial phenomena The word in thetitle of Aratusrsquo poem applies to both celestial and meteorologicalphenomena ranging from the constellation Orion to the behavior ofwasps and flies and suggests that as objects of sense perceptionthey are also objects of inquiry whose behavior can be studied byhuman reason Ultimately celestial and meteorological phenomenaare revealed as more than lsquothings that appearrsquo the regularity andprognostic function of their appearances make them signs (σήματα)signifiers of a natural order that is itself the product of divine reasonTo observe the constellations and comprehend the geometry of thecelestial sphere is to perceive in phenomena a manifestation of thedivine in the universe

The astronomical and meteorological content of the poem isbased on prose sources a treatise also called Phaenomena by thefourth century mathematician and astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus(ca 390ndashca 340 bc) the fragments of which are collected in Lasserre1966 and a treatise called On Weather-Signs attributed to the Peri-patetic philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus (3721ndash2876 bc) which

1 See Hornblower and Spawforth 1996 sv Aratus Soli is in Cilicia the south-eastern coastal region of modern-day Turkey

D MARK POSSANZA 67

is now available in English translation with commentary in Sider andBrunschoumln 2007

Although Aratus wrote poetry in addition to the Phaenomenathrough the accidents of manuscript transmission only this work sur-vives From the time of its first appearance the Phaenomena wasadmired as an exemplar of a particular literary aesthetic whose val-ues included refinement sophistication the learned deployment ofallusion to the poetic tradition and the avoidance of trite and hack-neyed themes and subjects Because it also offered ancient readers anon-technical exposition of the constellations and celestial sphere inrelatively short compass it was adopted as a kind of guidebook tothe heavens and became part of the reading list in the Greco-Romansystem of education The authority of the poem in matters celestialand its use for educational purposes generated a tremendous amountof exegetical commentary As a result of his poetic and presumablyunintended astronomical success Aratus enjoys the distinction ofhaving a secure place not only in histories of ancient Greek literaturebut also in histories of ancient science Whatever the shortcomingsof Aratusrsquo chosen subject from a literary perspective (and they area very dull clicheacute in the long history of the Phaenomenarsquos reception)his artistry in the treatment of the celestial sphere and the weather-signs has captured the imagination of readers down through the agesThe honey of the Muses sweetened the findings of science and theaccounts of the experts to produce a didactic poem that recreatesthe act of observing and discovering a well-ordered cosmos Signs ofthe Phaenomenarsquos enduring success are plentiful

On a recent trip to the British Library I saw on display in theRitblat Gallery the first printed European star map of the northernhemisphere (produced at Nuremberg in 1515) Three individualscollaborated on the map the artist Albrecht Duumlrer who drew theconstellation figures the cartographer Johannes Stabius and theastronomer Konrad Heinfogel2 Their combined expertise created amemorable portrait of the night sky that is a continuation of theGreek intellectual habit of combining myth and science in the de-scription and explanation of natural phenomena with stars embod-ied in the human and animal forms of their eponymous mythological

2 For more details see Levenson 1991 220ndash221 and Kanas 2009 138ndash140

68 Aestimatio

originals as in the ill-starred family of Cepheus Cassiopeia and An-dromeda who is menaced by the sea monster Cetus Although thebeautifully rendered constellation figures immediately captured myattention I also found myself studying the portraits of four men hold-ing celestial globes each identified by name and occupying a cornerof the printed sheet clockwise from the upper left corner they areAratus the Cilician Ptolemy the Egyptian who wrote in Alexandriabetween ad 146 and ca 170 Azophi the Arab ie lsquoAbd al-Rahmanal-Sufi (ad 903ndash986) who revised Ptolemyrsquos Almagest3 and M Mani-lius the Roman author of an astrological poem Astronomica in fivebooks written ca ad 10ndash20 Two bona fide astronomers Ptolemy andAzophi and two poets one astronomical (Aratus) and the other as-trological (Manilius) make up this pantheon of celestial authoritiesenstarred so to speak in the margins of the sky to commemoratetheir contributions to understanding the heavens

The inclusion of Aratus in this group is particularly noteworthyin connection with the history of the transmission and diffusion ofastronomical knowledge his image presiding with celestial globe inhand over a sky of anthropomorphic zoomorphic and inanimate fig-ures is an evocative reminder of the long lasting influence of his poemPhaenomena as a functional guide to the activities of observing andrecognizing celestial phenomena In the history of ancient Greek as-tronomy Aratusrsquo Phaenomena is the earliest extant complete descrip-tion of the constellations of the northern and southern hemispheresand of the geometrical model of the celestial sphere Even thoughAratus was himself not an astronomer his description of the con-stellations and celestial sphere is embedded in our discourse of theheavens and in their visual representation And translation has beena powerful agent in establishing and enhancing Aratusrsquo influence asan astronomical poet from the Greco-Roman period down throughthe Middle Ages and into the Renaissance and modern period

Since the invention of printing in the 15th century the field ofAratus-translation has not been a populous one especially in EnglishThe subject matter clearly presents a greater challenge to a writerrsquostalents than combats on the windy plains of Troy or stratagems to de-feat the appetites of the Cyclops or Circe Even in the tame activityof linguistic transfer the attractions of warriors and adventurers win

3 See Rashed 1996 150

D MARK POSSANZA 69

out over seekers after truth Apart from neo-Latin versions only ahandful of Phaenomena translations in French Italian German andEnglish were published from the 16th to the end of the 19th centurythe first English translation did not appear until 1848

A landmark among these works is the German version by therenowned translator Johann Heinrich Voss Des Aratos Sternerschein-ungen und Wetterzeichen published in 1824 This work with Greektext and facing page translation (which corresponds to the Greekline-by-line) with extensive explanatory notes and an index verborumremains an important contribution to scholarship on the Phaenom-ena and is still a valuable guide for students of the poem Inter-estingly Voss originally intended to translate the Phaenomena intoLatin but felt that the result was no better than a dry report of theoriginal In the end he decided on German and was confirmed inthe choice when he experienced a dramatic epiphany Aratus him-self speaking in German called out to him and encouraged him tocomplete the task [1824 vndashvii]

More recently important translations of the poem have appearedTwo scholars who have made the Phaenomena their lifersquos study pub-lished major commentaries on the poem with translations D Kidd[1997] (in English) and J Martin [1998] (in French) These trans-lations are an essential reference for the interpretation of AratusrsquoGreek Before the publication of Kiddrsquos edition readers looking foran English version of the Phaenomena turned to that trusty standbyG R Mairrsquos translation 1921 in the Loeb Classical Library whichhas given many years of good service and contains two fold-out starcharts I will have more to say on English translations of Aratuslater in my review

Now Aaron Poochigian continues this tradition of translation atradition that goes back to Marcus Tullius Cicero (106ndash43 bc) intothe 21st century with a rendering of the Phaenomena into rhymingiambic pentameter couplets The translation comes equipped withan introduction of 23 pages [ixndashxxxi] an appendix on lsquoConstellationRisings and Settingsrsquo [39ndash41] a second appendix on the Bayer desig-nations of the individual stars in the constellations eg α Virginis[42ndash43] explanatory notes [45ndash70] on the poemrsquos astronomy mete-orology and mythology and a bibliography of works cited [71ndash72]The description of the constellations in lines 25ndash337 is accompanied

70 Aestimatio

by nine illustrations Draco with Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Serpen-tarius (Ophiuchus) Virgo Cassiopeia Equus Pisces Cycnus Orion(who stands out for uniqueness of composition) and Cetus These il-lustrations of the constellations are taken from a 15th-century editionof Hyginusrsquo handbook on astronomy and star myths4 entitled Poet-icon Astronomicon which was printed by Erhard Ratdolt (Venice1482)5

An inquiring student who looks at the illustration of Draco andthe Bears and assumes that it has more than a purely decorativefunction may well ask why the illustration does not agree at allwith the details of the text and may even venture a more difficultquestion lsquoWhat text if any inspired the picturersquo No information isgiven about these illustrations and their relation to the text there isonly a brief acknowledgement of source on the copyright page Thecover illustration an impressive celestial globe receives the sametreatment only a photo credit is given on the back cover Similaritiesin the illustration of Cepheus and in the letterforms for the names ofthe constellations indicate that it is a 19th century globe producedby Gilman Joslin (1804ndashca 1860)6 Since it is a safe assumption thatpictorial representation preceded written verbal description in theformation of the constellation figures the delineation of the figuresin various media and the history of their transmission deserve asmuch as attention as the texts which describe them and record theirmovements

The introduction provides helpful information on a variety oftopics Aratusrsquo life the literary background of the Phaenomena andits relation to Hesiodrsquos Works and Days its primary poetic modelGreek astronomy and Eudoxusrsquo Phaenomena Aratusrsquo prose sourceStoic elements in the poem the chief characteristics of Aratusrsquo poetryin the context of the literary values of the Hellenistic poets Latin andmedieval translators of the Phaenomena and translation methodol-ogy The material presented here will prepare readers for what to

4 Probably second century ad5 The complete Ratdolt edition can be viewed at httpwwwlindahallorg

servicesdigitalebookshyginus (the constellation illustrations begin on d1recto)

6 Those who are interested may find more information and pictures at httplib-web5princetoneduvisual_materialsmapsglobes-objectsglobe14html

68 Aestimatio

originals as in the ill-starred family of Cepheus Cassiopeia and An-dromeda who is menaced by the sea monster Cetus Although thebeautifully rendered constellation figures immediately captured myattention I also found myself studying the portraits of four men hold-ing celestial globes each identified by name and occupying a cornerof the printed sheet clockwise from the upper left corner they areAratus the Cilician Ptolemy the Egyptian who wrote in Alexandriabetween ad 146 and ca 170 Azophi the Arab ie lsquoAbd al-Rahmanal-Sufi (ad 903ndash986) who revised Ptolemyrsquos Almagest3 and M Mani-lius the Roman author of an astrological poem Astronomica in fivebooks written ca ad 10ndash20 Two bona fide astronomers Ptolemy andAzophi and two poets one astronomical (Aratus) and the other as-trological (Manilius) make up this pantheon of celestial authoritiesenstarred so to speak in the margins of the sky to commemoratetheir contributions to understanding the heavens

The inclusion of Aratus in this group is particularly noteworthyin connection with the history of the transmission and diffusion ofastronomical knowledge his image presiding with celestial globe inhand over a sky of anthropomorphic zoomorphic and inanimate fig-ures is an evocative reminder of the long lasting influence of his poemPhaenomena as a functional guide to the activities of observing andrecognizing celestial phenomena In the history of ancient Greek as-tronomy Aratusrsquo Phaenomena is the earliest extant complete descrip-tion of the constellations of the northern and southern hemispheresand of the geometrical model of the celestial sphere Even thoughAratus was himself not an astronomer his description of the con-stellations and celestial sphere is embedded in our discourse of theheavens and in their visual representation And translation has beena powerful agent in establishing and enhancing Aratusrsquo influence asan astronomical poet from the Greco-Roman period down throughthe Middle Ages and into the Renaissance and modern period

Since the invention of printing in the 15th century the field ofAratus-translation has not been a populous one especially in EnglishThe subject matter clearly presents a greater challenge to a writerrsquostalents than combats on the windy plains of Troy or stratagems to de-feat the appetites of the Cyclops or Circe Even in the tame activityof linguistic transfer the attractions of warriors and adventurers win

3 See Rashed 1996 150

D MARK POSSANZA 69

out over seekers after truth Apart from neo-Latin versions only ahandful of Phaenomena translations in French Italian German andEnglish were published from the 16th to the end of the 19th centurythe first English translation did not appear until 1848

A landmark among these works is the German version by therenowned translator Johann Heinrich Voss Des Aratos Sternerschein-ungen und Wetterzeichen published in 1824 This work with Greektext and facing page translation (which corresponds to the Greekline-by-line) with extensive explanatory notes and an index verborumremains an important contribution to scholarship on the Phaenom-ena and is still a valuable guide for students of the poem Inter-estingly Voss originally intended to translate the Phaenomena intoLatin but felt that the result was no better than a dry report of theoriginal In the end he decided on German and was confirmed inthe choice when he experienced a dramatic epiphany Aratus him-self speaking in German called out to him and encouraged him tocomplete the task [1824 vndashvii]

More recently important translations of the poem have appearedTwo scholars who have made the Phaenomena their lifersquos study pub-lished major commentaries on the poem with translations D Kidd[1997] (in English) and J Martin [1998] (in French) These trans-lations are an essential reference for the interpretation of AratusrsquoGreek Before the publication of Kiddrsquos edition readers looking foran English version of the Phaenomena turned to that trusty standbyG R Mairrsquos translation 1921 in the Loeb Classical Library whichhas given many years of good service and contains two fold-out starcharts I will have more to say on English translations of Aratuslater in my review

Now Aaron Poochigian continues this tradition of translation atradition that goes back to Marcus Tullius Cicero (106ndash43 bc) intothe 21st century with a rendering of the Phaenomena into rhymingiambic pentameter couplets The translation comes equipped withan introduction of 23 pages [ixndashxxxi] an appendix on lsquoConstellationRisings and Settingsrsquo [39ndash41] a second appendix on the Bayer desig-nations of the individual stars in the constellations eg α Virginis[42ndash43] explanatory notes [45ndash70] on the poemrsquos astronomy mete-orology and mythology and a bibliography of works cited [71ndash72]The description of the constellations in lines 25ndash337 is accompanied

70 Aestimatio

by nine illustrations Draco with Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Serpen-tarius (Ophiuchus) Virgo Cassiopeia Equus Pisces Cycnus Orion(who stands out for uniqueness of composition) and Cetus These il-lustrations of the constellations are taken from a 15th-century editionof Hyginusrsquo handbook on astronomy and star myths4 entitled Poet-icon Astronomicon which was printed by Erhard Ratdolt (Venice1482)5

An inquiring student who looks at the illustration of Draco andthe Bears and assumes that it has more than a purely decorativefunction may well ask why the illustration does not agree at allwith the details of the text and may even venture a more difficultquestion lsquoWhat text if any inspired the picturersquo No information isgiven about these illustrations and their relation to the text there isonly a brief acknowledgement of source on the copyright page Thecover illustration an impressive celestial globe receives the sametreatment only a photo credit is given on the back cover Similaritiesin the illustration of Cepheus and in the letterforms for the names ofthe constellations indicate that it is a 19th century globe producedby Gilman Joslin (1804ndashca 1860)6 Since it is a safe assumption thatpictorial representation preceded written verbal description in theformation of the constellation figures the delineation of the figuresin various media and the history of their transmission deserve asmuch as attention as the texts which describe them and record theirmovements

The introduction provides helpful information on a variety oftopics Aratusrsquo life the literary background of the Phaenomena andits relation to Hesiodrsquos Works and Days its primary poetic modelGreek astronomy and Eudoxusrsquo Phaenomena Aratusrsquo prose sourceStoic elements in the poem the chief characteristics of Aratusrsquo poetryin the context of the literary values of the Hellenistic poets Latin andmedieval translators of the Phaenomena and translation methodol-ogy The material presented here will prepare readers for what to

4 Probably second century ad5 The complete Ratdolt edition can be viewed at httpwwwlindahallorg

servicesdigitalebookshyginus (the constellation illustrations begin on d1recto)

6 Those who are interested may find more information and pictures at httplib-web5princetoneduvisual_materialsmapsglobes-objectsglobe14html

D MARK POSSANZA 69

out over seekers after truth Apart from neo-Latin versions only ahandful of Phaenomena translations in French Italian German andEnglish were published from the 16th to the end of the 19th centurythe first English translation did not appear until 1848

A landmark among these works is the German version by therenowned translator Johann Heinrich Voss Des Aratos Sternerschein-ungen und Wetterzeichen published in 1824 This work with Greektext and facing page translation (which corresponds to the Greekline-by-line) with extensive explanatory notes and an index verborumremains an important contribution to scholarship on the Phaenom-ena and is still a valuable guide for students of the poem Inter-estingly Voss originally intended to translate the Phaenomena intoLatin but felt that the result was no better than a dry report of theoriginal In the end he decided on German and was confirmed inthe choice when he experienced a dramatic epiphany Aratus him-self speaking in German called out to him and encouraged him tocomplete the task [1824 vndashvii]

More recently important translations of the poem have appearedTwo scholars who have made the Phaenomena their lifersquos study pub-lished major commentaries on the poem with translations D Kidd[1997] (in English) and J Martin [1998] (in French) These trans-lations are an essential reference for the interpretation of AratusrsquoGreek Before the publication of Kiddrsquos edition readers looking foran English version of the Phaenomena turned to that trusty standbyG R Mairrsquos translation 1921 in the Loeb Classical Library whichhas given many years of good service and contains two fold-out starcharts I will have more to say on English translations of Aratuslater in my review

Now Aaron Poochigian continues this tradition of translation atradition that goes back to Marcus Tullius Cicero (106ndash43 bc) intothe 21st century with a rendering of the Phaenomena into rhymingiambic pentameter couplets The translation comes equipped withan introduction of 23 pages [ixndashxxxi] an appendix on lsquoConstellationRisings and Settingsrsquo [39ndash41] a second appendix on the Bayer desig-nations of the individual stars in the constellations eg α Virginis[42ndash43] explanatory notes [45ndash70] on the poemrsquos astronomy mete-orology and mythology and a bibliography of works cited [71ndash72]The description of the constellations in lines 25ndash337 is accompanied

70 Aestimatio

by nine illustrations Draco with Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Serpen-tarius (Ophiuchus) Virgo Cassiopeia Equus Pisces Cycnus Orion(who stands out for uniqueness of composition) and Cetus These il-lustrations of the constellations are taken from a 15th-century editionof Hyginusrsquo handbook on astronomy and star myths4 entitled Poet-icon Astronomicon which was printed by Erhard Ratdolt (Venice1482)5

An inquiring student who looks at the illustration of Draco andthe Bears and assumes that it has more than a purely decorativefunction may well ask why the illustration does not agree at allwith the details of the text and may even venture a more difficultquestion lsquoWhat text if any inspired the picturersquo No information isgiven about these illustrations and their relation to the text there isonly a brief acknowledgement of source on the copyright page Thecover illustration an impressive celestial globe receives the sametreatment only a photo credit is given on the back cover Similaritiesin the illustration of Cepheus and in the letterforms for the names ofthe constellations indicate that it is a 19th century globe producedby Gilman Joslin (1804ndashca 1860)6 Since it is a safe assumption thatpictorial representation preceded written verbal description in theformation of the constellation figures the delineation of the figuresin various media and the history of their transmission deserve asmuch as attention as the texts which describe them and record theirmovements

The introduction provides helpful information on a variety oftopics Aratusrsquo life the literary background of the Phaenomena andits relation to Hesiodrsquos Works and Days its primary poetic modelGreek astronomy and Eudoxusrsquo Phaenomena Aratusrsquo prose sourceStoic elements in the poem the chief characteristics of Aratusrsquo poetryin the context of the literary values of the Hellenistic poets Latin andmedieval translators of the Phaenomena and translation methodol-ogy The material presented here will prepare readers for what to

4 Probably second century ad5 The complete Ratdolt edition can be viewed at httpwwwlindahallorg

servicesdigitalebookshyginus (the constellation illustrations begin on d1recto)

6 Those who are interested may find more information and pictures at httplib-web5princetoneduvisual_materialsmapsglobes-objectsglobe14html

70 Aestimatio

by nine illustrations Draco with Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Serpen-tarius (Ophiuchus) Virgo Cassiopeia Equus Pisces Cycnus Orion(who stands out for uniqueness of composition) and Cetus These il-lustrations of the constellations are taken from a 15th-century editionof Hyginusrsquo handbook on astronomy and star myths4 entitled Poet-icon Astronomicon which was printed by Erhard Ratdolt (Venice1482)5

An inquiring student who looks at the illustration of Draco andthe Bears and assumes that it has more than a purely decorativefunction may well ask why the illustration does not agree at allwith the details of the text and may even venture a more difficultquestion lsquoWhat text if any inspired the picturersquo No information isgiven about these illustrations and their relation to the text there isonly a brief acknowledgement of source on the copyright page Thecover illustration an impressive celestial globe receives the sametreatment only a photo credit is given on the back cover Similaritiesin the illustration of Cepheus and in the letterforms for the names ofthe constellations indicate that it is a 19th century globe producedby Gilman Joslin (1804ndashca 1860)6 Since it is a safe assumption thatpictorial representation preceded written verbal description in theformation of the constellation figures the delineation of the figuresin various media and the history of their transmission deserve asmuch as attention as the texts which describe them and record theirmovements

The introduction provides helpful information on a variety oftopics Aratusrsquo life the literary background of the Phaenomena andits relation to Hesiodrsquos Works and Days its primary poetic modelGreek astronomy and Eudoxusrsquo Phaenomena Aratusrsquo prose sourceStoic elements in the poem the chief characteristics of Aratusrsquo poetryin the context of the literary values of the Hellenistic poets Latin andmedieval translators of the Phaenomena and translation methodol-ogy The material presented here will prepare readers for what to

4 Probably second century ad5 The complete Ratdolt edition can be viewed at httpwwwlindahallorg

servicesdigitalebookshyginus (the constellation illustrations begin on d1recto)

6 Those who are interested may find more information and pictures at httplib-web5princetoneduvisual_materialsmapsglobes-objectsglobe14html

D MARK POSSANZA 71

expect in a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology and willgive them a sense of the poemrsquos high reputation in the Greco-Romanworld Since Poochigian does a fine job of showing that Aratus isa highly skilled and sophisticated poet it is surprising to read thefollowing comment made in discussing the poemrsquos systematic struc-tural organization lsquo Aratus strives to create the impression thathe is rambling onrsquo [xii]

In the introduction the section lsquoAncient Astronomyrsquo [xivndashxvi]focuses on Eudoxusrsquo Phaenomena which is generally agreed to be thesource for the astronomical portion of Aratusrsquo poem [Phaen 19ndash732]although the authenticity of the treatise has been challenged7 Afootnote [xxix n10] seems to suggest that our source for Aratusrsquo de-pendence on Eudoxusrsquo Phaenomena is a statement in one of the an-cient biographies of the poet though these are late compilations andoften unreliable In fact Aratusrsquo adaptation of the prose treatiseis demonstrated in detail by the Hellenistic astronomer Hipparchusof Nicaea (floruit in the second half of the second century bc) inhis Commentary on the Phaenomena of Aratus and Eudoxus8 Hip-parchus compares corresponding passages of both texts in order todemonstrate Aratusrsquo dependence on Eudoxus and establishes the gen-eral principle that in those places where Eudoxus is wrong Aratuswill also be wrong On page xv another astronomical work by Eu-doxus the Enoptron (Mirror) which was probably a revised versionof his Phaenomena is mistakenly called Entropon whose meaningis then glossed with the phrase lsquoon ldquocyclicrdquo astronomyrsquo This mis-take will leave the reader baffled by the reference [xxix n10] to astatement made in an ancient life that Aratus followed a treatise byEudoxus called Katoptron lsquoKatoptronrsquo which also means lsquoMirrorrsquois most likely a slip by the author of the ancient life for lsquoEnoptronrsquoAs Hipparchusrsquo Commentary makes clear Aratus adapted EudoxusrsquoPhaenomena although in certain places he also consulted the Enop-tron The treatment of Eudoxus would have benefited from a consider-ation of Dicks 1970 151ndash189 and a reference to Rihllrsquos introductoryaccount of Greek astronomy [1999 62ndash81] might have led some read-ers to look further into the intellectual world of these explorers whomapped and modeled the celestial sphere

7 See Martin 1998 1lxxxvindashcii8 See Manitius 1894

72 Aestimatio

In introductions to Aratusrsquo poem it is customary to identifyEudoxusrsquo Phaenomena as the source of the astronomical material inorder to inform readers that Aratus himself was not an astronomerSeldom however are readers given a specimen of what Eudoxuswrote (as reported by Hipparchus) To give an example here is theastronomerrsquos description of the position of Draco relative to UrsaMajor and Ursa Minor

Between the two Bears lies the tail of Draco The tail holdsthe star at its tip above the head of the Great Bear It makesa bend by the head of the Little Bear and extends under itsfeet after making there a second bend back in the oppositedirection it tilts back and holds its head forward [Lasserre1966 fr 15]

What does Aratus make of this description in the corresponding pas-sage of his poem quoted by Hipparchus In Douglas Kiddrsquos transla-tion [1997]

It [Draco] reaches over one of them [the Bears] with the tipof its tail and intercepts the other with its coil The tipof its tail ends level with the head of the Bear Helice [UrsaMajor] and Cynosura [Ursa Minor] keeps her head withinits coil The coil winds past her very head goes as far asher foot then turns back again and runs upwards [Phaen49ndash54]

Eudoxus efficiently follows the figure of the snake from its tail toits head in relation to Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Aratus createsa word pattern through repetition and association he repeats thewords tail and coil and through the repetition he associates the tailwith Ursa Major and the coil with Ursa Minor Through the artfuldescription of these constellation figures the poem itself is revealedas a sign (and signs astronomical and meteorological are the poetrsquosgreat theme) of that cosmic order ordained by a providential andbenevolent Zeus

After comparing these two passages the reader may be surprisedat Poochigianrsquos observation that Aratus lsquoshifts the point of view fromEudoxusrsquo mathematical and objective perspective to that of the ob-serverrsquo [xvi] The key difference here is not between an objectivemathematical perspective and an observerrsquos perspectivemdashEudoxus

D MARK POSSANZA 73

and Aratus are both observers looking at the same anatomical com-ponents of three constellationsmdashbut between a straightforward prosedescription that gives the shape and orientation of the constellationsand the poetrsquos studied elaboration through repetition and patternthat creates a sense of order and design Eudoxus connects the dotsAratus paints the picture

Given that the target audience for this book will be readers withno Latin or Greek the purpose of the section on Aratusrsquo Latin transla-tors [xxiiindashxxvii] is unclear especially since readers are given no infor-mation about where they might find English versions of these Latinversions of the Phaenomena which survive complete or in fragmentsThe discussion of a substantial quotation (in English) from Ciceroor Germanicus Caesar (15 bcndashad 19) would help to illustrate for thereader some aspects of translation practice at this foundational stageof bringing the Phaenomena into a different linguistic and culturalenvironment and would reveal how reception interpretation and thetranslatorrsquos own aesthetic values have influenced strategies of transla-tion Germanicus for example transforms Aratusrsquo unadorned five-line list of the zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549] into an ex-cursus of 33 lines on the myths that explain the origins of thoseconstellations [532ndash564] a considerable departure from the wordingof the source text that was made in response to contemporary liter-ary tastes and expectations The thumbnail sketches of the Latintranslators do provide interesting information about Aratusrsquo secureplace on the reading list in ancient education but will not providereaders with enough information to understand in the case of Ci-cero for example the valid but unsupported claim that he craftedlsquoan independent work of artrsquo in his version of the Phaenomena [xxiv]In this same section what will readers gain from knowing that theEmperor Gordian (ad 159ndash238) produced in his youth a translationof the Phaenomena that is no longer extant [xxvi]

I postpone discussion of the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquountil after the review of the translation In what follows I use forcomparison D Kiddrsquos prose translation [1997] which is an accurateand for the most part literal rendering of the Greek All line num-bers preceded by the abbreviation lsquoPhaenrsquo refer to the line numbersof Kiddrsquos Greek text and the corresponding lines of his translationthe line numbers of Poochigianrsquos translation are given separately pre-fixed with the letter lsquoPrsquo

74 Aestimatio

The translation gets off to a worrisome start In the famous hym-nic proem [Phaen 1ndash18] in which the poet praises the providentialand beneficent deity of Zeus Aratus announces his theme of Zeus-given signs which make manifest the godrsquos immanence in the worldby showing humans the right times of year for the performance ofagricultural labors

ὁ [Ζεύς] δrsquo ἤπιος ἀνθρώποισιδεξιὰ σημαίνει λαοὺς δrsquo ἐπὶ ἔργον ἐγείρειμιμνήσκων βιότοιο λέγει δrsquo ὅτε βῶλος ἀρίστηβουσί τε καὶ μακέλῃσι λέγει δrsquo ὅτε δεξιαὶ ὦραικαὶ φυτὰ γυρῶσαι καὶ σπέρματα πάντα βαλέσθαι [Phaen 5ndash9]

He [Zeus] benignly gives helpful signs to men and rousespeople to work reminding them of their livelihood tells whenthe soil is best for oxen and mattocks and tells when theseasons are right both for planting trees and for sowing everykind of seed

Zeus-given signs coordinate agricultural activities with their appro-priate seasons In Poochigianrsquos version however we read

He deigns to giveSigns out of kindness to remind us restMust yield to work He shows which soil is bestFor cows and which for hoes and overseesSeasons for sowing seeds and planting trees [P4ndash8]

By substituting relative clauses (lsquowhichrsquo) for the temporal adverbialclauses (lsquowhenrsquo) of the Greek the translator represents Zeus as anagronomist rather than as the cosmic deity who helps humans bymeans of signs The mistranslation diverts attention from the calen-dric significance of the constellations for farmers which is a majortheme of the poem and is given a prominent place here at the begin-ning The proem also emphasizes that humans are the beneficiariesof Zeusrsquo providential care In Phaen 1ndash18 the words for lsquomenrsquo (ἄν-δρες) or lsquohuman beingsrsquo (ἄνθρωποι) are repeated five times eg Zeusgives helpful signs to humans [Phaen 5] he is a great boon to humans[Phaen 15]9 The collective effect of these repetitions is to make clear

9 See also Phaen 1 3 and 13

D MARK POSSANZA 75

to readers the dependence of humankind on Zeus and to stress the uni-versality of his power Poochigianrsquos use of lsquowersquolsquousrsquo does not achievethis same effect

Poochigianrsquos treatment of the proem raises concerns about theaccurate representation of Aratusrsquo meaning These concerns are notallayed by the rest of the translation in which one finds mistakesimprecise expressions and unwarranted additions to the text of thePhaenomena Here follow some instances where the translator failsto convey the meaning of the Greek and as a result may leavereaders with the impression that Aratus was not seriously interestedin giving a reliable account of the celestial sphere I will cite Kiddrsquostranslation [1997] first then follow with Poochigianrsquos

In the description of Dracorsquos position relative to Ursa Minor(Cynosura) Aratus [Phaen 52] says lsquoCynosura keeps her head withinits coilrsquo (σπείρῃ δrsquo ἐν Κυνόσουρα ἔχει) Poochigian writes lsquohis coils gripthe neck of Cynosurersquo [P50] But the coil does not grip the neck itbends around the head

At Phaen 93 Aratus refers to Ursa Major as the lsquoWagon-Bearrsquo(ἁμαξαίης Ἄρκτου) combining its two representations This is trans-lated lsquoplow-like bearrsquo [P89] though Ursa Major is not referred to asa plow here

At Phaen 162 Aratus locates the Goat on the left shoulder ofthe Charioteer (σκαιῷ ὤμῳ) In the translation the detail of the lsquoleftshoulderrsquo is omitted and we find lsquocollarrsquo instead [P163] This mayseem a small detail yet it is part of the poetrsquos attempt to give cleardirections for locating constellations

There is similar imprecision of expression at Phaen 232 [P235] Orionrsquos lsquobeltrsquo (ζώνη) is rendered as lsquowaistrsquo Phaen 461 [P483] lsquothe circles of the fixed stars and their

guide constellations in the skyrsquo (ἀπλανέων τά τε κύκλα τά τrsquoαἰθέρι σήματα) becomes lsquofixed signs and consistent thingsrsquo

Phaen 595 [P623] lsquoforefeet of the blazing Dogrsquo (πρότεροί τεπόδες Κυνὸς αἰθομένοιο) is translated by lsquothe Dogrsquos bright feetrsquowith the omission of the precise detail lsquoforefeetrsquo

Aratus uses the names of the winds to give compass directionsWhen he is giving the location of the Southern Fish he says thatit is lsquoexposed to the winds of the southrsquo (ὑπὸ πνοιῇσι νότοιο) [Phaen

76 Aestimatio

386] This expression is amplified into lsquoas if blown over the billowsby a southern squallrsquo [P398ndash399] an image incompatible with a fish

Aratus introduces the long section [Phaen 559ndash732] on the im-portance of observing the constellations that rise and set simulta-neously with the risings of the zodiacal constellations by indicatingthe purpose of such observation lsquoif you are watching for daybreakrsquo(δεδοκημένῳ ἤματος) [Phaen 559] and want to measure the passageof time during the night The observerrsquos lsquowatching for daybreakrsquo isomitted in Poochigianrsquos translation [P581ndash583]

The treatment of the tale of Orionrsquos combat with the giant scor-pion deviates considerably from Aratusrsquo account Aratus begins thestory with a plea to the goddess not to be offended by the tale ofviolence he is going to tellmdashlsquo[m]ay Artemis be graciousrsquo (Ἄρτεμις ἱλή-κοι) [Phaen 637]mdashand explains that it is a tale not of his own tellingbut one handed down by the ancients Poochigian translates lsquo[m]ayyou at last forgive him [Orion] Artemisrsquo [P672] a sentiment whichfits neither the wrath of the goddess nor Orionrsquos death from the scor-pionrsquos sting and his perpetual flight in the sky from Scorpiorsquos pursuitAratus [Phaen 637ndash638] gives as the reason for Artemisrsquo anger thatOrion attempted to lay violent hands on her (οἵ μιν ἔφαντο ἑλκῆσαιπέπλοιο) In the translation however we find a very different expla-nation Orion attempted to steal the goddessrsquo cloak in order to giveit to his host king Oenopion [P673ndash678]10

At Phaen 748ndash749 Aratus explains that in the course of thestarsrsquo seasonal risings the Sun overtakes all of them (ἤτοι γὰρ τοὺς πάν-τας ἀμείβεται εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν ἠέλιος μέγαν ὄγμον ἐλαύνων) Poochigianmistakenly restricts the poetrsquos reference to just the constellations ofthe zodiac [P801]

At Phaen 771ndash772 in an important passage that echoes theproemrsquos assertion of Zeusrsquo immanence in nature and the pervasive-ness of his signs Aratus writes

He [Zeus] certainly does benefit the human race openly show-ing himself on every side and everywhere displaying his signs

ὁ [Ζεύς] γὰρ οὖν γενεὴν ἀνδρῶν ἀναφανδὸν ὀφέλλειπάντοθεν εἰδόμενος πάντη δrsquo ὅ γε σήματα φαίνων

10 See Poochigianrsquos note on p 63

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

72 Aestimatio

In introductions to Aratusrsquo poem it is customary to identifyEudoxusrsquo Phaenomena as the source of the astronomical material inorder to inform readers that Aratus himself was not an astronomerSeldom however are readers given a specimen of what Eudoxuswrote (as reported by Hipparchus) To give an example here is theastronomerrsquos description of the position of Draco relative to UrsaMajor and Ursa Minor

Between the two Bears lies the tail of Draco The tail holdsthe star at its tip above the head of the Great Bear It makesa bend by the head of the Little Bear and extends under itsfeet after making there a second bend back in the oppositedirection it tilts back and holds its head forward [Lasserre1966 fr 15]

What does Aratus make of this description in the corresponding pas-sage of his poem quoted by Hipparchus In Douglas Kiddrsquos transla-tion [1997]

It [Draco] reaches over one of them [the Bears] with the tipof its tail and intercepts the other with its coil The tipof its tail ends level with the head of the Bear Helice [UrsaMajor] and Cynosura [Ursa Minor] keeps her head withinits coil The coil winds past her very head goes as far asher foot then turns back again and runs upwards [Phaen49ndash54]

Eudoxus efficiently follows the figure of the snake from its tail toits head in relation to Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Aratus createsa word pattern through repetition and association he repeats thewords tail and coil and through the repetition he associates the tailwith Ursa Major and the coil with Ursa Minor Through the artfuldescription of these constellation figures the poem itself is revealedas a sign (and signs astronomical and meteorological are the poetrsquosgreat theme) of that cosmic order ordained by a providential andbenevolent Zeus

After comparing these two passages the reader may be surprisedat Poochigianrsquos observation that Aratus lsquoshifts the point of view fromEudoxusrsquo mathematical and objective perspective to that of the ob-serverrsquo [xvi] The key difference here is not between an objectivemathematical perspective and an observerrsquos perspectivemdashEudoxus

D MARK POSSANZA 73

and Aratus are both observers looking at the same anatomical com-ponents of three constellationsmdashbut between a straightforward prosedescription that gives the shape and orientation of the constellationsand the poetrsquos studied elaboration through repetition and patternthat creates a sense of order and design Eudoxus connects the dotsAratus paints the picture

Given that the target audience for this book will be readers withno Latin or Greek the purpose of the section on Aratusrsquo Latin transla-tors [xxiiindashxxvii] is unclear especially since readers are given no infor-mation about where they might find English versions of these Latinversions of the Phaenomena which survive complete or in fragmentsThe discussion of a substantial quotation (in English) from Ciceroor Germanicus Caesar (15 bcndashad 19) would help to illustrate for thereader some aspects of translation practice at this foundational stageof bringing the Phaenomena into a different linguistic and culturalenvironment and would reveal how reception interpretation and thetranslatorrsquos own aesthetic values have influenced strategies of transla-tion Germanicus for example transforms Aratusrsquo unadorned five-line list of the zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549] into an ex-cursus of 33 lines on the myths that explain the origins of thoseconstellations [532ndash564] a considerable departure from the wordingof the source text that was made in response to contemporary liter-ary tastes and expectations The thumbnail sketches of the Latintranslators do provide interesting information about Aratusrsquo secureplace on the reading list in ancient education but will not providereaders with enough information to understand in the case of Ci-cero for example the valid but unsupported claim that he craftedlsquoan independent work of artrsquo in his version of the Phaenomena [xxiv]In this same section what will readers gain from knowing that theEmperor Gordian (ad 159ndash238) produced in his youth a translationof the Phaenomena that is no longer extant [xxvi]

I postpone discussion of the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquountil after the review of the translation In what follows I use forcomparison D Kiddrsquos prose translation [1997] which is an accurateand for the most part literal rendering of the Greek All line num-bers preceded by the abbreviation lsquoPhaenrsquo refer to the line numbersof Kiddrsquos Greek text and the corresponding lines of his translationthe line numbers of Poochigianrsquos translation are given separately pre-fixed with the letter lsquoPrsquo

74 Aestimatio

The translation gets off to a worrisome start In the famous hym-nic proem [Phaen 1ndash18] in which the poet praises the providentialand beneficent deity of Zeus Aratus announces his theme of Zeus-given signs which make manifest the godrsquos immanence in the worldby showing humans the right times of year for the performance ofagricultural labors

ὁ [Ζεύς] δrsquo ἤπιος ἀνθρώποισιδεξιὰ σημαίνει λαοὺς δrsquo ἐπὶ ἔργον ἐγείρειμιμνήσκων βιότοιο λέγει δrsquo ὅτε βῶλος ἀρίστηβουσί τε καὶ μακέλῃσι λέγει δrsquo ὅτε δεξιαὶ ὦραικαὶ φυτὰ γυρῶσαι καὶ σπέρματα πάντα βαλέσθαι [Phaen 5ndash9]

He [Zeus] benignly gives helpful signs to men and rousespeople to work reminding them of their livelihood tells whenthe soil is best for oxen and mattocks and tells when theseasons are right both for planting trees and for sowing everykind of seed

Zeus-given signs coordinate agricultural activities with their appro-priate seasons In Poochigianrsquos version however we read

He deigns to giveSigns out of kindness to remind us restMust yield to work He shows which soil is bestFor cows and which for hoes and overseesSeasons for sowing seeds and planting trees [P4ndash8]

By substituting relative clauses (lsquowhichrsquo) for the temporal adverbialclauses (lsquowhenrsquo) of the Greek the translator represents Zeus as anagronomist rather than as the cosmic deity who helps humans bymeans of signs The mistranslation diverts attention from the calen-dric significance of the constellations for farmers which is a majortheme of the poem and is given a prominent place here at the begin-ning The proem also emphasizes that humans are the beneficiariesof Zeusrsquo providential care In Phaen 1ndash18 the words for lsquomenrsquo (ἄν-δρες) or lsquohuman beingsrsquo (ἄνθρωποι) are repeated five times eg Zeusgives helpful signs to humans [Phaen 5] he is a great boon to humans[Phaen 15]9 The collective effect of these repetitions is to make clear

9 See also Phaen 1 3 and 13

D MARK POSSANZA 75

to readers the dependence of humankind on Zeus and to stress the uni-versality of his power Poochigianrsquos use of lsquowersquolsquousrsquo does not achievethis same effect

Poochigianrsquos treatment of the proem raises concerns about theaccurate representation of Aratusrsquo meaning These concerns are notallayed by the rest of the translation in which one finds mistakesimprecise expressions and unwarranted additions to the text of thePhaenomena Here follow some instances where the translator failsto convey the meaning of the Greek and as a result may leavereaders with the impression that Aratus was not seriously interestedin giving a reliable account of the celestial sphere I will cite Kiddrsquostranslation [1997] first then follow with Poochigianrsquos

In the description of Dracorsquos position relative to Ursa Minor(Cynosura) Aratus [Phaen 52] says lsquoCynosura keeps her head withinits coilrsquo (σπείρῃ δrsquo ἐν Κυνόσουρα ἔχει) Poochigian writes lsquohis coils gripthe neck of Cynosurersquo [P50] But the coil does not grip the neck itbends around the head

At Phaen 93 Aratus refers to Ursa Major as the lsquoWagon-Bearrsquo(ἁμαξαίης Ἄρκτου) combining its two representations This is trans-lated lsquoplow-like bearrsquo [P89] though Ursa Major is not referred to asa plow here

At Phaen 162 Aratus locates the Goat on the left shoulder ofthe Charioteer (σκαιῷ ὤμῳ) In the translation the detail of the lsquoleftshoulderrsquo is omitted and we find lsquocollarrsquo instead [P163] This mayseem a small detail yet it is part of the poetrsquos attempt to give cleardirections for locating constellations

There is similar imprecision of expression at Phaen 232 [P235] Orionrsquos lsquobeltrsquo (ζώνη) is rendered as lsquowaistrsquo Phaen 461 [P483] lsquothe circles of the fixed stars and their

guide constellations in the skyrsquo (ἀπλανέων τά τε κύκλα τά τrsquoαἰθέρι σήματα) becomes lsquofixed signs and consistent thingsrsquo

Phaen 595 [P623] lsquoforefeet of the blazing Dogrsquo (πρότεροί τεπόδες Κυνὸς αἰθομένοιο) is translated by lsquothe Dogrsquos bright feetrsquowith the omission of the precise detail lsquoforefeetrsquo

Aratus uses the names of the winds to give compass directionsWhen he is giving the location of the Southern Fish he says thatit is lsquoexposed to the winds of the southrsquo (ὑπὸ πνοιῇσι νότοιο) [Phaen

76 Aestimatio

386] This expression is amplified into lsquoas if blown over the billowsby a southern squallrsquo [P398ndash399] an image incompatible with a fish

Aratus introduces the long section [Phaen 559ndash732] on the im-portance of observing the constellations that rise and set simulta-neously with the risings of the zodiacal constellations by indicatingthe purpose of such observation lsquoif you are watching for daybreakrsquo(δεδοκημένῳ ἤματος) [Phaen 559] and want to measure the passageof time during the night The observerrsquos lsquowatching for daybreakrsquo isomitted in Poochigianrsquos translation [P581ndash583]

The treatment of the tale of Orionrsquos combat with the giant scor-pion deviates considerably from Aratusrsquo account Aratus begins thestory with a plea to the goddess not to be offended by the tale ofviolence he is going to tellmdashlsquo[m]ay Artemis be graciousrsquo (Ἄρτεμις ἱλή-κοι) [Phaen 637]mdashand explains that it is a tale not of his own tellingbut one handed down by the ancients Poochigian translates lsquo[m]ayyou at last forgive him [Orion] Artemisrsquo [P672] a sentiment whichfits neither the wrath of the goddess nor Orionrsquos death from the scor-pionrsquos sting and his perpetual flight in the sky from Scorpiorsquos pursuitAratus [Phaen 637ndash638] gives as the reason for Artemisrsquo anger thatOrion attempted to lay violent hands on her (οἵ μιν ἔφαντο ἑλκῆσαιπέπλοιο) In the translation however we find a very different expla-nation Orion attempted to steal the goddessrsquo cloak in order to giveit to his host king Oenopion [P673ndash678]10

At Phaen 748ndash749 Aratus explains that in the course of thestarsrsquo seasonal risings the Sun overtakes all of them (ἤτοι γὰρ τοὺς πάν-τας ἀμείβεται εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν ἠέλιος μέγαν ὄγμον ἐλαύνων) Poochigianmistakenly restricts the poetrsquos reference to just the constellations ofthe zodiac [P801]

At Phaen 771ndash772 in an important passage that echoes theproemrsquos assertion of Zeusrsquo immanence in nature and the pervasive-ness of his signs Aratus writes

He [Zeus] certainly does benefit the human race openly show-ing himself on every side and everywhere displaying his signs

ὁ [Ζεύς] γὰρ οὖν γενεὴν ἀνδρῶν ἀναφανδὸν ὀφέλλειπάντοθεν εἰδόμενος πάντη δrsquo ὅ γε σήματα φαίνων

10 See Poochigianrsquos note on p 63

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 73

and Aratus are both observers looking at the same anatomical com-ponents of three constellationsmdashbut between a straightforward prosedescription that gives the shape and orientation of the constellationsand the poetrsquos studied elaboration through repetition and patternthat creates a sense of order and design Eudoxus connects the dotsAratus paints the picture

Given that the target audience for this book will be readers withno Latin or Greek the purpose of the section on Aratusrsquo Latin transla-tors [xxiiindashxxvii] is unclear especially since readers are given no infor-mation about where they might find English versions of these Latinversions of the Phaenomena which survive complete or in fragmentsThe discussion of a substantial quotation (in English) from Ciceroor Germanicus Caesar (15 bcndashad 19) would help to illustrate for thereader some aspects of translation practice at this foundational stageof bringing the Phaenomena into a different linguistic and culturalenvironment and would reveal how reception interpretation and thetranslatorrsquos own aesthetic values have influenced strategies of transla-tion Germanicus for example transforms Aratusrsquo unadorned five-line list of the zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549] into an ex-cursus of 33 lines on the myths that explain the origins of thoseconstellations [532ndash564] a considerable departure from the wordingof the source text that was made in response to contemporary liter-ary tastes and expectations The thumbnail sketches of the Latintranslators do provide interesting information about Aratusrsquo secureplace on the reading list in ancient education but will not providereaders with enough information to understand in the case of Ci-cero for example the valid but unsupported claim that he craftedlsquoan independent work of artrsquo in his version of the Phaenomena [xxiv]In this same section what will readers gain from knowing that theEmperor Gordian (ad 159ndash238) produced in his youth a translationof the Phaenomena that is no longer extant [xxvi]

I postpone discussion of the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquountil after the review of the translation In what follows I use forcomparison D Kiddrsquos prose translation [1997] which is an accurateand for the most part literal rendering of the Greek All line num-bers preceded by the abbreviation lsquoPhaenrsquo refer to the line numbersof Kiddrsquos Greek text and the corresponding lines of his translationthe line numbers of Poochigianrsquos translation are given separately pre-fixed with the letter lsquoPrsquo

74 Aestimatio

The translation gets off to a worrisome start In the famous hym-nic proem [Phaen 1ndash18] in which the poet praises the providentialand beneficent deity of Zeus Aratus announces his theme of Zeus-given signs which make manifest the godrsquos immanence in the worldby showing humans the right times of year for the performance ofagricultural labors

ὁ [Ζεύς] δrsquo ἤπιος ἀνθρώποισιδεξιὰ σημαίνει λαοὺς δrsquo ἐπὶ ἔργον ἐγείρειμιμνήσκων βιότοιο λέγει δrsquo ὅτε βῶλος ἀρίστηβουσί τε καὶ μακέλῃσι λέγει δrsquo ὅτε δεξιαὶ ὦραικαὶ φυτὰ γυρῶσαι καὶ σπέρματα πάντα βαλέσθαι [Phaen 5ndash9]

He [Zeus] benignly gives helpful signs to men and rousespeople to work reminding them of their livelihood tells whenthe soil is best for oxen and mattocks and tells when theseasons are right both for planting trees and for sowing everykind of seed

Zeus-given signs coordinate agricultural activities with their appro-priate seasons In Poochigianrsquos version however we read

He deigns to giveSigns out of kindness to remind us restMust yield to work He shows which soil is bestFor cows and which for hoes and overseesSeasons for sowing seeds and planting trees [P4ndash8]

By substituting relative clauses (lsquowhichrsquo) for the temporal adverbialclauses (lsquowhenrsquo) of the Greek the translator represents Zeus as anagronomist rather than as the cosmic deity who helps humans bymeans of signs The mistranslation diverts attention from the calen-dric significance of the constellations for farmers which is a majortheme of the poem and is given a prominent place here at the begin-ning The proem also emphasizes that humans are the beneficiariesof Zeusrsquo providential care In Phaen 1ndash18 the words for lsquomenrsquo (ἄν-δρες) or lsquohuman beingsrsquo (ἄνθρωποι) are repeated five times eg Zeusgives helpful signs to humans [Phaen 5] he is a great boon to humans[Phaen 15]9 The collective effect of these repetitions is to make clear

9 See also Phaen 1 3 and 13

D MARK POSSANZA 75

to readers the dependence of humankind on Zeus and to stress the uni-versality of his power Poochigianrsquos use of lsquowersquolsquousrsquo does not achievethis same effect

Poochigianrsquos treatment of the proem raises concerns about theaccurate representation of Aratusrsquo meaning These concerns are notallayed by the rest of the translation in which one finds mistakesimprecise expressions and unwarranted additions to the text of thePhaenomena Here follow some instances where the translator failsto convey the meaning of the Greek and as a result may leavereaders with the impression that Aratus was not seriously interestedin giving a reliable account of the celestial sphere I will cite Kiddrsquostranslation [1997] first then follow with Poochigianrsquos

In the description of Dracorsquos position relative to Ursa Minor(Cynosura) Aratus [Phaen 52] says lsquoCynosura keeps her head withinits coilrsquo (σπείρῃ δrsquo ἐν Κυνόσουρα ἔχει) Poochigian writes lsquohis coils gripthe neck of Cynosurersquo [P50] But the coil does not grip the neck itbends around the head

At Phaen 93 Aratus refers to Ursa Major as the lsquoWagon-Bearrsquo(ἁμαξαίης Ἄρκτου) combining its two representations This is trans-lated lsquoplow-like bearrsquo [P89] though Ursa Major is not referred to asa plow here

At Phaen 162 Aratus locates the Goat on the left shoulder ofthe Charioteer (σκαιῷ ὤμῳ) In the translation the detail of the lsquoleftshoulderrsquo is omitted and we find lsquocollarrsquo instead [P163] This mayseem a small detail yet it is part of the poetrsquos attempt to give cleardirections for locating constellations

There is similar imprecision of expression at Phaen 232 [P235] Orionrsquos lsquobeltrsquo (ζώνη) is rendered as lsquowaistrsquo Phaen 461 [P483] lsquothe circles of the fixed stars and their

guide constellations in the skyrsquo (ἀπλανέων τά τε κύκλα τά τrsquoαἰθέρι σήματα) becomes lsquofixed signs and consistent thingsrsquo

Phaen 595 [P623] lsquoforefeet of the blazing Dogrsquo (πρότεροί τεπόδες Κυνὸς αἰθομένοιο) is translated by lsquothe Dogrsquos bright feetrsquowith the omission of the precise detail lsquoforefeetrsquo

Aratus uses the names of the winds to give compass directionsWhen he is giving the location of the Southern Fish he says thatit is lsquoexposed to the winds of the southrsquo (ὑπὸ πνοιῇσι νότοιο) [Phaen

76 Aestimatio

386] This expression is amplified into lsquoas if blown over the billowsby a southern squallrsquo [P398ndash399] an image incompatible with a fish

Aratus introduces the long section [Phaen 559ndash732] on the im-portance of observing the constellations that rise and set simulta-neously with the risings of the zodiacal constellations by indicatingthe purpose of such observation lsquoif you are watching for daybreakrsquo(δεδοκημένῳ ἤματος) [Phaen 559] and want to measure the passageof time during the night The observerrsquos lsquowatching for daybreakrsquo isomitted in Poochigianrsquos translation [P581ndash583]

The treatment of the tale of Orionrsquos combat with the giant scor-pion deviates considerably from Aratusrsquo account Aratus begins thestory with a plea to the goddess not to be offended by the tale ofviolence he is going to tellmdashlsquo[m]ay Artemis be graciousrsquo (Ἄρτεμις ἱλή-κοι) [Phaen 637]mdashand explains that it is a tale not of his own tellingbut one handed down by the ancients Poochigian translates lsquo[m]ayyou at last forgive him [Orion] Artemisrsquo [P672] a sentiment whichfits neither the wrath of the goddess nor Orionrsquos death from the scor-pionrsquos sting and his perpetual flight in the sky from Scorpiorsquos pursuitAratus [Phaen 637ndash638] gives as the reason for Artemisrsquo anger thatOrion attempted to lay violent hands on her (οἵ μιν ἔφαντο ἑλκῆσαιπέπλοιο) In the translation however we find a very different expla-nation Orion attempted to steal the goddessrsquo cloak in order to giveit to his host king Oenopion [P673ndash678]10

At Phaen 748ndash749 Aratus explains that in the course of thestarsrsquo seasonal risings the Sun overtakes all of them (ἤτοι γὰρ τοὺς πάν-τας ἀμείβεται εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν ἠέλιος μέγαν ὄγμον ἐλαύνων) Poochigianmistakenly restricts the poetrsquos reference to just the constellations ofthe zodiac [P801]

At Phaen 771ndash772 in an important passage that echoes theproemrsquos assertion of Zeusrsquo immanence in nature and the pervasive-ness of his signs Aratus writes

He [Zeus] certainly does benefit the human race openly show-ing himself on every side and everywhere displaying his signs

ὁ [Ζεύς] γὰρ οὖν γενεὴν ἀνδρῶν ἀναφανδὸν ὀφέλλειπάντοθεν εἰδόμενος πάντη δrsquo ὅ γε σήματα φαίνων

10 See Poochigianrsquos note on p 63

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

74 Aestimatio

The translation gets off to a worrisome start In the famous hym-nic proem [Phaen 1ndash18] in which the poet praises the providentialand beneficent deity of Zeus Aratus announces his theme of Zeus-given signs which make manifest the godrsquos immanence in the worldby showing humans the right times of year for the performance ofagricultural labors

ὁ [Ζεύς] δrsquo ἤπιος ἀνθρώποισιδεξιὰ σημαίνει λαοὺς δrsquo ἐπὶ ἔργον ἐγείρειμιμνήσκων βιότοιο λέγει δrsquo ὅτε βῶλος ἀρίστηβουσί τε καὶ μακέλῃσι λέγει δrsquo ὅτε δεξιαὶ ὦραικαὶ φυτὰ γυρῶσαι καὶ σπέρματα πάντα βαλέσθαι [Phaen 5ndash9]

He [Zeus] benignly gives helpful signs to men and rousespeople to work reminding them of their livelihood tells whenthe soil is best for oxen and mattocks and tells when theseasons are right both for planting trees and for sowing everykind of seed

Zeus-given signs coordinate agricultural activities with their appro-priate seasons In Poochigianrsquos version however we read

He deigns to giveSigns out of kindness to remind us restMust yield to work He shows which soil is bestFor cows and which for hoes and overseesSeasons for sowing seeds and planting trees [P4ndash8]

By substituting relative clauses (lsquowhichrsquo) for the temporal adverbialclauses (lsquowhenrsquo) of the Greek the translator represents Zeus as anagronomist rather than as the cosmic deity who helps humans bymeans of signs The mistranslation diverts attention from the calen-dric significance of the constellations for farmers which is a majortheme of the poem and is given a prominent place here at the begin-ning The proem also emphasizes that humans are the beneficiariesof Zeusrsquo providential care In Phaen 1ndash18 the words for lsquomenrsquo (ἄν-δρες) or lsquohuman beingsrsquo (ἄνθρωποι) are repeated five times eg Zeusgives helpful signs to humans [Phaen 5] he is a great boon to humans[Phaen 15]9 The collective effect of these repetitions is to make clear

9 See also Phaen 1 3 and 13

D MARK POSSANZA 75

to readers the dependence of humankind on Zeus and to stress the uni-versality of his power Poochigianrsquos use of lsquowersquolsquousrsquo does not achievethis same effect

Poochigianrsquos treatment of the proem raises concerns about theaccurate representation of Aratusrsquo meaning These concerns are notallayed by the rest of the translation in which one finds mistakesimprecise expressions and unwarranted additions to the text of thePhaenomena Here follow some instances where the translator failsto convey the meaning of the Greek and as a result may leavereaders with the impression that Aratus was not seriously interestedin giving a reliable account of the celestial sphere I will cite Kiddrsquostranslation [1997] first then follow with Poochigianrsquos

In the description of Dracorsquos position relative to Ursa Minor(Cynosura) Aratus [Phaen 52] says lsquoCynosura keeps her head withinits coilrsquo (σπείρῃ δrsquo ἐν Κυνόσουρα ἔχει) Poochigian writes lsquohis coils gripthe neck of Cynosurersquo [P50] But the coil does not grip the neck itbends around the head

At Phaen 93 Aratus refers to Ursa Major as the lsquoWagon-Bearrsquo(ἁμαξαίης Ἄρκτου) combining its two representations This is trans-lated lsquoplow-like bearrsquo [P89] though Ursa Major is not referred to asa plow here

At Phaen 162 Aratus locates the Goat on the left shoulder ofthe Charioteer (σκαιῷ ὤμῳ) In the translation the detail of the lsquoleftshoulderrsquo is omitted and we find lsquocollarrsquo instead [P163] This mayseem a small detail yet it is part of the poetrsquos attempt to give cleardirections for locating constellations

There is similar imprecision of expression at Phaen 232 [P235] Orionrsquos lsquobeltrsquo (ζώνη) is rendered as lsquowaistrsquo Phaen 461 [P483] lsquothe circles of the fixed stars and their

guide constellations in the skyrsquo (ἀπλανέων τά τε κύκλα τά τrsquoαἰθέρι σήματα) becomes lsquofixed signs and consistent thingsrsquo

Phaen 595 [P623] lsquoforefeet of the blazing Dogrsquo (πρότεροί τεπόδες Κυνὸς αἰθομένοιο) is translated by lsquothe Dogrsquos bright feetrsquowith the omission of the precise detail lsquoforefeetrsquo

Aratus uses the names of the winds to give compass directionsWhen he is giving the location of the Southern Fish he says thatit is lsquoexposed to the winds of the southrsquo (ὑπὸ πνοιῇσι νότοιο) [Phaen

76 Aestimatio

386] This expression is amplified into lsquoas if blown over the billowsby a southern squallrsquo [P398ndash399] an image incompatible with a fish

Aratus introduces the long section [Phaen 559ndash732] on the im-portance of observing the constellations that rise and set simulta-neously with the risings of the zodiacal constellations by indicatingthe purpose of such observation lsquoif you are watching for daybreakrsquo(δεδοκημένῳ ἤματος) [Phaen 559] and want to measure the passageof time during the night The observerrsquos lsquowatching for daybreakrsquo isomitted in Poochigianrsquos translation [P581ndash583]

The treatment of the tale of Orionrsquos combat with the giant scor-pion deviates considerably from Aratusrsquo account Aratus begins thestory with a plea to the goddess not to be offended by the tale ofviolence he is going to tellmdashlsquo[m]ay Artemis be graciousrsquo (Ἄρτεμις ἱλή-κοι) [Phaen 637]mdashand explains that it is a tale not of his own tellingbut one handed down by the ancients Poochigian translates lsquo[m]ayyou at last forgive him [Orion] Artemisrsquo [P672] a sentiment whichfits neither the wrath of the goddess nor Orionrsquos death from the scor-pionrsquos sting and his perpetual flight in the sky from Scorpiorsquos pursuitAratus [Phaen 637ndash638] gives as the reason for Artemisrsquo anger thatOrion attempted to lay violent hands on her (οἵ μιν ἔφαντο ἑλκῆσαιπέπλοιο) In the translation however we find a very different expla-nation Orion attempted to steal the goddessrsquo cloak in order to giveit to his host king Oenopion [P673ndash678]10

At Phaen 748ndash749 Aratus explains that in the course of thestarsrsquo seasonal risings the Sun overtakes all of them (ἤτοι γὰρ τοὺς πάν-τας ἀμείβεται εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν ἠέλιος μέγαν ὄγμον ἐλαύνων) Poochigianmistakenly restricts the poetrsquos reference to just the constellations ofthe zodiac [P801]

At Phaen 771ndash772 in an important passage that echoes theproemrsquos assertion of Zeusrsquo immanence in nature and the pervasive-ness of his signs Aratus writes

He [Zeus] certainly does benefit the human race openly show-ing himself on every side and everywhere displaying his signs

ὁ [Ζεύς] γὰρ οὖν γενεὴν ἀνδρῶν ἀναφανδὸν ὀφέλλειπάντοθεν εἰδόμενος πάντη δrsquo ὅ γε σήματα φαίνων

10 See Poochigianrsquos note on p 63

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 75

to readers the dependence of humankind on Zeus and to stress the uni-versality of his power Poochigianrsquos use of lsquowersquolsquousrsquo does not achievethis same effect

Poochigianrsquos treatment of the proem raises concerns about theaccurate representation of Aratusrsquo meaning These concerns are notallayed by the rest of the translation in which one finds mistakesimprecise expressions and unwarranted additions to the text of thePhaenomena Here follow some instances where the translator failsto convey the meaning of the Greek and as a result may leavereaders with the impression that Aratus was not seriously interestedin giving a reliable account of the celestial sphere I will cite Kiddrsquostranslation [1997] first then follow with Poochigianrsquos

In the description of Dracorsquos position relative to Ursa Minor(Cynosura) Aratus [Phaen 52] says lsquoCynosura keeps her head withinits coilrsquo (σπείρῃ δrsquo ἐν Κυνόσουρα ἔχει) Poochigian writes lsquohis coils gripthe neck of Cynosurersquo [P50] But the coil does not grip the neck itbends around the head

At Phaen 93 Aratus refers to Ursa Major as the lsquoWagon-Bearrsquo(ἁμαξαίης Ἄρκτου) combining its two representations This is trans-lated lsquoplow-like bearrsquo [P89] though Ursa Major is not referred to asa plow here

At Phaen 162 Aratus locates the Goat on the left shoulder ofthe Charioteer (σκαιῷ ὤμῳ) In the translation the detail of the lsquoleftshoulderrsquo is omitted and we find lsquocollarrsquo instead [P163] This mayseem a small detail yet it is part of the poetrsquos attempt to give cleardirections for locating constellations

There is similar imprecision of expression at Phaen 232 [P235] Orionrsquos lsquobeltrsquo (ζώνη) is rendered as lsquowaistrsquo Phaen 461 [P483] lsquothe circles of the fixed stars and their

guide constellations in the skyrsquo (ἀπλανέων τά τε κύκλα τά τrsquoαἰθέρι σήματα) becomes lsquofixed signs and consistent thingsrsquo

Phaen 595 [P623] lsquoforefeet of the blazing Dogrsquo (πρότεροί τεπόδες Κυνὸς αἰθομένοιο) is translated by lsquothe Dogrsquos bright feetrsquowith the omission of the precise detail lsquoforefeetrsquo

Aratus uses the names of the winds to give compass directionsWhen he is giving the location of the Southern Fish he says thatit is lsquoexposed to the winds of the southrsquo (ὑπὸ πνοιῇσι νότοιο) [Phaen

76 Aestimatio

386] This expression is amplified into lsquoas if blown over the billowsby a southern squallrsquo [P398ndash399] an image incompatible with a fish

Aratus introduces the long section [Phaen 559ndash732] on the im-portance of observing the constellations that rise and set simulta-neously with the risings of the zodiacal constellations by indicatingthe purpose of such observation lsquoif you are watching for daybreakrsquo(δεδοκημένῳ ἤματος) [Phaen 559] and want to measure the passageof time during the night The observerrsquos lsquowatching for daybreakrsquo isomitted in Poochigianrsquos translation [P581ndash583]

The treatment of the tale of Orionrsquos combat with the giant scor-pion deviates considerably from Aratusrsquo account Aratus begins thestory with a plea to the goddess not to be offended by the tale ofviolence he is going to tellmdashlsquo[m]ay Artemis be graciousrsquo (Ἄρτεμις ἱλή-κοι) [Phaen 637]mdashand explains that it is a tale not of his own tellingbut one handed down by the ancients Poochigian translates lsquo[m]ayyou at last forgive him [Orion] Artemisrsquo [P672] a sentiment whichfits neither the wrath of the goddess nor Orionrsquos death from the scor-pionrsquos sting and his perpetual flight in the sky from Scorpiorsquos pursuitAratus [Phaen 637ndash638] gives as the reason for Artemisrsquo anger thatOrion attempted to lay violent hands on her (οἵ μιν ἔφαντο ἑλκῆσαιπέπλοιο) In the translation however we find a very different expla-nation Orion attempted to steal the goddessrsquo cloak in order to giveit to his host king Oenopion [P673ndash678]10

At Phaen 748ndash749 Aratus explains that in the course of thestarsrsquo seasonal risings the Sun overtakes all of them (ἤτοι γὰρ τοὺς πάν-τας ἀμείβεται εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν ἠέλιος μέγαν ὄγμον ἐλαύνων) Poochigianmistakenly restricts the poetrsquos reference to just the constellations ofthe zodiac [P801]

At Phaen 771ndash772 in an important passage that echoes theproemrsquos assertion of Zeusrsquo immanence in nature and the pervasive-ness of his signs Aratus writes

He [Zeus] certainly does benefit the human race openly show-ing himself on every side and everywhere displaying his signs

ὁ [Ζεύς] γὰρ οὖν γενεὴν ἀνδρῶν ἀναφανδὸν ὀφέλλειπάντοθεν εἰδόμενος πάντη δrsquo ὅ γε σήματα φαίνων

10 See Poochigianrsquos note on p 63

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

76 Aestimatio

386] This expression is amplified into lsquoas if blown over the billowsby a southern squallrsquo [P398ndash399] an image incompatible with a fish

Aratus introduces the long section [Phaen 559ndash732] on the im-portance of observing the constellations that rise and set simulta-neously with the risings of the zodiacal constellations by indicatingthe purpose of such observation lsquoif you are watching for daybreakrsquo(δεδοκημένῳ ἤματος) [Phaen 559] and want to measure the passageof time during the night The observerrsquos lsquowatching for daybreakrsquo isomitted in Poochigianrsquos translation [P581ndash583]

The treatment of the tale of Orionrsquos combat with the giant scor-pion deviates considerably from Aratusrsquo account Aratus begins thestory with a plea to the goddess not to be offended by the tale ofviolence he is going to tellmdashlsquo[m]ay Artemis be graciousrsquo (Ἄρτεμις ἱλή-κοι) [Phaen 637]mdashand explains that it is a tale not of his own tellingbut one handed down by the ancients Poochigian translates lsquo[m]ayyou at last forgive him [Orion] Artemisrsquo [P672] a sentiment whichfits neither the wrath of the goddess nor Orionrsquos death from the scor-pionrsquos sting and his perpetual flight in the sky from Scorpiorsquos pursuitAratus [Phaen 637ndash638] gives as the reason for Artemisrsquo anger thatOrion attempted to lay violent hands on her (οἵ μιν ἔφαντο ἑλκῆσαιπέπλοιο) In the translation however we find a very different expla-nation Orion attempted to steal the goddessrsquo cloak in order to giveit to his host king Oenopion [P673ndash678]10

At Phaen 748ndash749 Aratus explains that in the course of thestarsrsquo seasonal risings the Sun overtakes all of them (ἤτοι γὰρ τοὺς πάν-τας ἀμείβεται εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν ἠέλιος μέγαν ὄγμον ἐλαύνων) Poochigianmistakenly restricts the poetrsquos reference to just the constellations ofthe zodiac [P801]

At Phaen 771ndash772 in an important passage that echoes theproemrsquos assertion of Zeusrsquo immanence in nature and the pervasive-ness of his signs Aratus writes

He [Zeus] certainly does benefit the human race openly show-ing himself on every side and everywhere displaying his signs

ὁ [Ζεύς] γὰρ οὖν γενεὴν ἀνδρῶν ἀναφανδὸν ὀφέλλειπάντοθεν εἰδόμενος πάντη δrsquo ὅ γε σήματα φαίνων

10 See Poochigianrsquos note on p 63

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 77

The impressiveness and thematic significance of these lines are under-cut by the translation

Everywhere immanentIn entrails birds storms stars he helps our raceTo help itself [P824ndash826]

The list lsquoentrails birds storms starsrsquo includes two types of signsbirds and stars and two items that do not belong in the context of thePhaenomenarsquos signs entrails which are appropriate to divination byextispicy and storms which are a manifestation of meteorologicalactivity not a sign thereof Moreover the translatorrsquos addition ofthis restricted list seems oddly inconsistent with the poetrsquos confidentassertion of Zeusrsquo presence everywhere

Aratusrsquo account of the weather-signs characteristic of the daysand phases of the Moon [Phaen 799ndash818] is a challenge for readers ofthe Greek as well as of a translation even when they have plenty ofcommentary and explanatory paraphrase to help them To give anexample from this section in Phaen 805ndash808 Aratus first observesthat weather-signs given by the Moon at specific points in its cycleare valid only for a certain number of days within the month andthen begins his account with signs from the period of the waxingcrescent to the full Moon

σήματα δrsquo οὔ τοι πᾶσιν ἐπrsquo ἤμασι πάντα τέτυκταιἀλλrsquo ὅσα μὲν τριτάτῃ τε τεταρταίῃ τε πέλονταιμέσφα διχαιομένης διχάδος γε μὲν ἄχρις ἐπrsquo αὐτὴνσημαίνει διχόμηνον

But the signs are not all established for you for all the daysof the month those that occur on the third and fourth daysare valid up to the half-Moon those at the half foretell rightup to the mid-month

From these lines and the remainder of the section the general ruleappears to be that signs given at or near the beginning of a quarterhold good for that quarter from waxing crescent to half-Moon fromhalf-Moon to Full Moon from Full Moon to waning crescent fromwaning crescent to New Moon and then the cycle repeats itself withthe waxing crescent

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

78 Aestimatio

What then will a student make of the following in Poochigianrsquosversion of Phaen 806ndash808 especially since he omits Aratusrsquo introduc-tory statement in 805 that to obtain weather-signs from the Moon itis necessary to observe it at different phases of its cycle

The third and fourth look to the seventh phaseThe seventh the fourteenth [P861ndash862]

If I understand his translation correctly there is a confusion of daysand phases signs given by the Moon on the third and fourth daysafter the new Moon are valid for the weather forecast up to the halfMoon or seventh day (not lsquophasersquo) after the new Moon What hemeans by lsquoseventh phasersquo I do not know Similarly signs given by theMoon on the seventh day are valid until the Full Moon or 14th dayafter the New Moon Whatever the translator may have gained bythis striving for syntactic compression in explaining the complicatedtopic of lunar weather-signs is lost in the riddling quality of the result

At Phaen 1091 the poet expresses the hope that lsquothe stars abovewill always be recognizablersquo for farmers as a sign of good weather (οἱδrsquo εἶεν καθύπερθεν ἐοικότες ἀστέρες αἰεί) In Poochigianrsquos translationlsquo[m]ay all the planets and the stars be clearrsquo [P1127] the additionof lsquoplanetsrsquo is inexplicable since they do not have a role to play inweather forecasting in the Phaenomena with the exception of theSun and Moon which are given separate treatment

There are places where I find myself puzzled and even baffledby Poochigianrsquos word choice In an important passage of thematicsignificance [Phaen 367ndash385 387ndash397] that illustrates the operationof human intelligence in observing and reading the signs which Zeusplaced in heaven Aratus gives an account of how an anonymousinventor devised and named the constellation figures In Poochigianrsquostranslation the activity of the inventor is described as follows

Some one of those no longer living foundA way to lump stars generally and callA group one name [P384ndash386 emphasis mine]

The verb lsquolumprsquo which corresponds to the Greek ἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόη-σεν (lsquohe devised and contrivedrsquo) [Phaen 374] undoes utterly Aratusrsquoreconstruction of the inventorrsquos deliberate method of organizing prox-imate stars into recognizable shapes and then naming those shapes so

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 79

that they could be identified repeatedly on successive nights amongthe myriad stars that appeared The role of discerning and articulat-ing an order among the individual stars so crucial to the inventorrsquosactivity is erased Kidd [1997] translates

τά11 τις ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτrsquo ἐόντωνἐφράσσατrsquo ἠδrsquo ἐνόησεν ἅπαντrsquo ὀνομαστὶ καλέσσαιἤλιθα μορφώσας [Phaen 373ndash375]

constellations that one of the men who are no more devisedand contrived to call all by names grouping them in compactshapes

The mental activity of devising and contriving is considerably morestrenuous than lumping

Other examples of peculiar word choice include the followingAt Phaen 408ndash410 Aratus explains how the appearance of the areaaround the constellation Altar can be interpreted as a weather-signgiven by Night

ἀλλrsquo ἄρα καὶ περὶ κεῖνο Θυτήριον ἀρχαίη Νύξἀνθρώπων κλαίουσα πόνον χειμῶνος ἔθηκενεἰναλίου μέγα σῆμα

Yet even round that Altar ancient Night sad for the sufferingof men has set an important sign of storm at sea

This is rendered by

Night is an old old crone who pities usShe stuffs the Altar with conspicuousAdvice [P423ndash425]

Aratus gives a more dignified picture of personified Night as ancientor primeval (ἀρχαίη) and introduces Altar and its vicinity as an impor-tant sign of storm for sailors It is difficult to see what is achieved bydescribing Night as an lsquoold old cronersquo and by replacing the Phaenom-enarsquos key word lsquosignrsquo (laquoσῆμαraquo) with lsquoadvicersquo especially when thelatter is the object of the verb lsquostuffrsquo

11 ie constellation figures

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

80 Aestimatio

A little later in this same passage Aratus [Phaen 433ndash434] sayssimply

ἀτὰρ μετόπισθεν ἐοικότα σήματα τεύχοιΝὺξ ἐπὶ παμφανόωντι Θυτηρίῳ

behind it [Centaur] Night is fashioning recognizable signs onthe radiant Altar

This becomes

Night like a high priestSends forth distinctive signals from behindHer sacrificial Shrine [P452ndash454]

The phrase lsquohigh priestrsquo is an unwarranted addition lsquosacrificial Shrinersquois an odd substitution for Altar and lsquofrom behindrsquo construed withlsquosacrificial Shrinersquo is a mistake for an adverb indicating that Altarrises behind Centaur

When Aratus says that the head of Draco

νεύοντι δὲ πάμπαν ἔοικενἄκρην εἰς Ἑλίκης οὐρήν [Phaen 58ndash59]

looks altogether as if it is inclined towards the tip of Helicersquostail

Poochigian expands this into

his head appears to nodAt Helikersquos tail like an assenting god

At Phaen 164 where the naming of the Goat as Olenian is ex-plained Aratusrsquo high-sounding phrase lsquointerpreters of Zeusrsquo (Διὸςὑποφῆται) is replaced with lsquoevery scholarrsquo [164] But scholars arelearned Zeusrsquo interpreters are inspired

Although Aratus [Phaen 253] describes Perseus as a runnerἴχνια μηκύνει κεκονιμένος ἐν Διὶ πατρί

he takes long strides as he runs in the realm of his fatherZeus

in Poochigianrsquos translation he becomes a walker

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 81

[he] walks his father Zeusrsquo property [P259]At P977 Poochigianrsquos use of the word lsquoweathermenrsquo suggests

a special group involved in interpreting weather-signs when Aratusspeaks more generally of men (ἀνδράσι) [Phaen 932] who may havedifficulty in determining the meaning of a weather-sign

These examples of peculiar word choice which I assume weremotivated by a desire to create a more vivid image or a more strikingexpression or to make a rhyme are in my judgment signs of a failureto trust the simplicity of Aratusrsquo style

There are fine passages of poetry in the translation I note in par-ticular the description of the storm-tossed sailors [P293ndash308] as wellas the sections on wind-signs [P953ndash969] and rain-signs [P986ndash998]In a famous acrostic Aratus spells out the adjective laquoλεπτήraquo thefirst word in Phaen 783 with the first letters of lines 783ndash787 laquoλε-πτήraquo means lsquothinrsquo lsquofinersquo or lsquodelicatersquo and in a metaphorical senselsquosubtlersquo lsquorefinedrsquo The adjective in context describes the appearanceof the waxing crescent Moon but it also has an aesthetic resonanceidentifying a valued quality in the poetry itself The acrostic is skill-fully rendered into English with the adjective lsquoslenderrsquo [P837ndash843]

Poochigianrsquos habit of attributing to the constellation figures theforms of movement that belonged to the original humans and ani-mals although somewhat exaggerated in comparison to Aratusrsquo morerestrained language is largely successful However even after gener-ous allowance has been made for the translatorrsquos own aesthetic inten-tions and the tight constraints imposed on him by his chosen formrhyming iambic pentameter couplets it seems to me that he too of-ten strays from an accurate rendering of the original When Aratusspecifies the left shoulder of Charioteer or the forefeet of the Dogor gives detailed instructions for interpreting weather-signs given bythe Moon in its phases or points out that the Altar and the areaaround it function as an important weather-sign for sailors thenin my judgment the translator is obliged to find a way of commu-nicating that information in the target language it should not besubjected to improvisation or free invention A more diligent studyof the resources that are available for the understanding of AratusrsquoGreek for the interpretation of the poem and for the explicationof matters astronomical and meteorological and a more vigilant re-view of the manuscript by the pressrsquo readers would have resulted

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

82 Aestimatio

in a more accurate and reliable translation As it is PoochigianrsquosPhaenomena will give readers some impression of Aratusrsquo poem as afinely wrought literary work but not as a didactic masterpiece thatreveals an inspired vision of the cosmos and was deemed worthy ofthe learned attentions of no less an astronomer than Hipparchus

In the section lsquoTranslation Methodologyrsquo [xxviiindashxxix] Poochi-gian offers the following enigmatic statement about English transla-tions of the Phaenomena

The two most frequently read translations were intended asservice translations or cribs for the original Greek [xxviii]

Neither lsquoservicersquo nor lsquocribrsquo is a complimentary term I assume he isreferring to the prose translations of G R Mair [1921] and D Kidd[1997] In my own view these versions are more than cribs Inhis prose Mair maintains a stylistic dignity especially in the proemwith the help of archaisms and mild dislocations in word-order thatis well suited to the subject and leaves one with the feeling of havingbeen edified by a good sermon about the divine order of the cosmosAnd there is an artfulness in the simplicity of Kiddrsquos prose that givesreaders a sense of Aratusrsquo knack for the clear description of celestialtopography and his strategic use of pattern and repetition in layingout the constellation figures These two lsquoservicersquo translations deserveexplicit recognition

In addition to the prose translations of Mair and Kidd StanleyLombardorsquos poetic version Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena [1983]should also be mentioned Lombardo is a distinguished translatorwho has a gift for composing verse that reads well aloud His looselymetrical translation accurately conveys the astronomical and meteo-rological information while at the same time giving readers a goodimpression of the economy and austerity of Aratusrsquo style He is notafraid to repeat words of thematic significance In addition Lom-bardorsquos introduction offers a sensitive appreciation of the Phaenom-ena as a didactic poem on astronomy and meteorology as well as ameditation on the recognition and meaning of Zeus-given signs It isregrettable that this book is no longer in print

It is also worth mentioning that Poochigian is not alone in trans-lating the Phaenomena into rhyming pentameter couplets The firstcomplete English translation of the poem is written in the same po-etic form John Lambrsquos The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 83

published in London in 1848 It is a fascinating performance Fol-lowing the method of free adaptation employed by Aratusrsquo Latintranslators Lamb makes additions to the text often in the formof mythological references Taurus is identified as the lsquoTyrian BullEuroparsquos treacherous beastrsquo [Phaen 180] and the Swan is

thrsquo adulterous bird they sayThat lent his fair form Leda to betray [Phaen 283ndash284]

These allusions to Zeus as rapist in disguise have no place in a poemthat exalts Zeus as a providential and beneficent deity But likeothers before him Lamb felt that the constellations are in need ofsome erotic excitement to spice up the descriptions Lamb anachro-nistically incorporates into the text the names used for individualstars for example lsquoAldebaranrsquos firersquo ie α Tauri [Phaen 183] andlsquoScorpiorsquos gem Antarrsquo ie α Scorpii [Phaen 320] The diction isa stately mix of Shakespeare Milton and the Romantic poets Atone point [Phaen 114] Lamb actually inserts a line from HamletrsquoslsquoTo be or not to bersquo soliloquy with one small change into the storyof Virgo In keeping with the conventions of the time Greek Zeusbecomes Roman Jove And since in his introduction Lamb stressesthat Aratus and St Paul were both natives of Cilicia and that theheathen poet was quoted by the Christian apostle [Acts 1728] it isnot surprising that the Jove of the proem is hymned like the God ofthe Psalms lsquoOur FathermdashWonderfulmdashour Helpmdashour Shieldrsquo [Phaen14] The general format of Lambrsquos book may have served as some-thing of a model for his successors an introduction that focuses onthe life of Aratus the translation itself accompanied by illustrationsand explanatory notes that contain generous quotation from AratusrsquoLatin translators from Maniliusrsquo Astronomica and from the ancientcommentaries on the poem preserved in condensed and abbreviatedform in the scholia

Three more English translations of the Phaenomena were pub-lished in the 19th century In The Skies and Weather Forecasts ofAratus [1880] E Poste writing in a predominately iambic line thatvaries in syllable count produced a more accurate translation thanLamb and for the most part employs a much simpler diction es-chewing the kinds of ornament and embellishment that misrepresentAratusrsquo stylistic austerity Even when he waxes somewhat Miltonic

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

84 Aestimatio

the epic elevation seems appropriate as in the description of Orionrsquosencounter with the Scorpion sent by Artemis [Phaen 639ndash642]

She dashing in twain the islandrsquos central mountain rangeFrom the yawning gulf sent against him far other monsterThe Scorpion who him struck and slew gigantic though he stoodFar more gigantic because he outraged Artemis divine

In many ways Poste is the best of the 19th century poetic trans-lators He is especially good on technical passages and his noteswith Greek and Latin quotation kept to a minimum are efficienthelpful and interesting on matters astronomical and meteorologicalIn The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of Aratos [1885] RobertBrown rendered into blank verse the astronomical portion of thepoem [Phaen 1ndash732] and omitted the weather-signs Brown statesthat he is placing lsquobefore the English reader a faithful translation ofthe poem as distinguished from a loose and inaccurate paraphrasersquo[1885 2]

In taking up the banner of faithfulness in translation Brown wasapparently responding to what he perceived as the shortcomings ofLambrsquos version Poste is certainly not guilty of the charge of lsquolooseand inaccurate paraphrasersquo Brown does produce a faithful transla-tion to the extent that a line-for-line blank verse rendering will allowAs a sign of his fidelity to the Greek original he translates Aratusrsquo un-adorned list of the names of zodiacal constellations [Phaen 545ndash549]as a list without adding descriptive epithets or other embellishmentsa temptation that not all of Aratusrsquo translators have resisted Hisconcern for fidelity also finds expression in a useful warning he offersat the end of his introduction After commenting on the repetitivenature of Aratusrsquo material and the limited scope for artistic achieve-ment in a faithful rendering of the Greek he observes that thoseconsiderations do not license attempts to improve the content

But the attempt to improve facts when it is our duty to re-produce them constitutes one of those faults which howevercommon is when applied to ancient art or literature almostunpardonable [1885 7]

Sage advice to translators of the PhaenomenaTo close out the 19th century C Leeson Prince had printed for

private distribution only A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 85

Meteorology of Aratus [1895] Unlike Lamb Poste and Brown Princeproduced a prose version apparently the first in English which likethe versions of Mair and Kidd aims at a close rendering of the Greekand avoids poetic adornments Prince was a physician with a stronginterest in astronomy and meteorology In fact he had already pub-lished in 1871 as part of a larger work The Climate of Uckfield Sus-sex a translation of the section on weather-signs In undertaking atranslation of the whole poem he was motivated by a desire to set be-fore his contemporaries what he regarded as an important documentin the history of the observation of celestial phenomena and to in-corporate Aratusrsquo weather-signs into his own meteorological researchand collection of weather-signs [1895 iii] Prince clearly regardingAratus as an important predecessor and model continued the tradi-tion of recording and organizing weather-signs into categories Histranslation is followed by a section entitled lsquoSome Remarks upon Lo-cal and Other Weather Prognosticsrsquo [1895 53ndash82] in the introductionto which he writes

However for many years I have paid such close attentionto most of the recorded prognostics that I am justified inendorsing the expressed opinions of the Ancients respectingthem and more particularly those which have stood the testof two thousand years and upwards [Prince 1895 54]There is much to be learned from these translations of the Phae-

nomena about the reading and interpretation of the poemmdashIs it apractical guide to the stars A literary tour de force with no practicalapplication A philosophical meditation on the cosmosmdashabout at-titudes towards poetic discourse as a vehicle for the communicationof scientific knowledge about the literary trends tastes and expec-tations of the translatorrsquos own cultural milieu about strategies forturning the Phaenomena into an English poem or prose essay andabout the role of commentary and illustrations in supporting thetranslation and helping the reader through the details of astronomyand meteorology But above all these translations show that a poetictext of 1180 lines that offers instruction in fields of knowledge ratherthan historical or fictional narratives presents tremendous challengesto a translator working in verse or prose The greatest challenge to

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

86 Aestimatio

translators of the Phaenomena is the challenge of trusting the poetand respecting the poem

bibliography

Brown R 1885 The Phainomena or lsquoHeavenly Displayrsquo of AratosDone into English Verse London

Dicks D R 1970 Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle IthacaHornblower S and Spawforth A 1996 The Oxford Classical Dictio-

nary 3rd edn OxfordNew YorkKanas N 2009 Star Maps History Artistry and Cartography

BerlinHeidelbergNew YorkKidd D 1997 Aratus Phaenomena Edited with Introduction Trans-

lation and Commentary CambridgeLamb J 1848 The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus Trans-

lated in English Verse with Notes LondonLasserre F 1966 Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos BerlinLevenson J A 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration New

HavenLondonLombardo S 1983 Sky Signs Aratusrsquo Phaenomena BerkeleyMair A W and Mair G R 1921 Callimachus Hymns and Epi-

grams Lycophron Aratus Cambridge MALondonManitius C 1894 Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena com-

mentariorum libri tres LeipzigMartin J 1998 Aratos Pheacutenomegravenes Texte eacutetabli traduit et com-

menteacute 2 vols ParisPoste E 1880 The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus Trans-

lated with Notes LondonPrince C L 1895 A Literal Translation of the Astronomy and Mete-

orology of Aratus with Some Bibliographical Remarks LewesRashed R 1996 ed Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3

vols LondonRihll T 1999 Greek Science Greece amp Rome New Surveys in the

Classics 29 Oxford

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg

D MARK POSSANZA 87

Sider D and Brunschoumln C W 2007 edd Theophrastus of EresusOn Weather-Signs LeidenBoston

Voss J H 1824 Des Aratos Sternerscheinungen und WetterzeichenHeidelberg