Aquatic Plants and Animals

Chapter 2

US Aquatic Plant Species

• Important in Asia• Europe and North America are dead last in

plant production• Cultivate aquatic plants– Production of food, feed, and chemical products– Wastewater treatment– Biomass production for conversion to energy

Common Name Scientific Name Water Type

Uses Notes

Spirulina Spirulina spp. F Food Protein content of some species 70%; collected and dried into patties for human cosumption is some Asian countries and Mexico; nutritious supplement; distinct taste

Brown algae or kelp Undaria pinnatifida macroMacrocystis pyriferaMacrocystis intergrifolia

S FoodMulchFertilizerPhycocolloids

Called wakame in Japan; dried, chopped, and used in salads; brownish color comes from xanthophyll; giant kelp may grow to 200 feet

Green algae Monostroma macroEnteromorphaChlorella

S, F FoodMulchFertilizer

Least cultured of three macroalage; called aonori in Japan

Red algae or Laver Porphyra spp.Gelidium spp.Gracilaria spp.

S, B FoodFeedMulchFertilizerPhycocolloids

Cultured in Japan back to 1570; dried and high in protein; some harvested for livestock feed; United States leads in carrageen prodcution-a phycocolloid

Duckweed Lemna spp. Spirodela spp.Wolffia spp.Wolfiella spp.

F FeedWaste water treatment

Favorite food of herbivorous fish and water fowl; harvested and used for livestock feed; one of least expensive to produce

Common Name Scientific Name Water Type

Uses Notes

Water spinach Ipomoea reptans F Feed food Commonly cultured in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore; often in polyculture; low protein and carbohydrate content

Water hyacinth Eichhrnia crassipes F Waste water treatmentFuel source

Effectively removes waste from water and easy to harvest; possible used for methane gas production

Chinese waterchestnut

Eleocharis dulcis F Food Small-scale production in the US compared to Asia; corm consumed; each corm produces about 20 lbs. of new corms in about 220 days; labor intensive; useful in polyculture

Common Name Scientific Name Water Type

Uses Notes

Watercress Nasturtium officinale

F Food Primary freshwater aquatic plant produced in the US; requires abundant continuous flowing water; many people harvest wild crop

Cattail Typha latifoliaT. Angustifolia

F Ornamental Grown in aquatic gardens and used in dried flower arrangements; edible parts but not cultured for food

Arrowhead Sagittaria sp. F Ornamental Grown in aquatic gardens; edible parts but not cultured for food

• Phycocolloid – carrageen – obtained from plants– Used in foods for gelling, thickening, and

stabilizing• Phytoplankton – Primary producers– Photosynthesis – using sunlight and carbon

dioxide to produce oxygen– Food source for zooplankton– Bloom – helps shade out unwanted rooted aquatic

plants (pond fertilization)

US Aquatic Animal SpeciesCommon Name Scientific Name Water

Temp Water Type

Diet Notes

Atlantic salmon Salmo salar C A C Important as rod catalyst, sport fish, and commercial netting; fishing regulated by national, international, and local laws

Bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis

W F C Excellent food animal; suited for polyculture; acceptance increasing in the US

Black bullhead Ictalurus melas W F O Susceptible to disease; tolerant of adverse water conditions; demand low

Blue catfish Ictalurus furcatus

W F C Some culture work; silvery white to light blue color

Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis

C F C Used in hybrid crosses with Lake Trout-Splake

Brown Trout Salmo trutta C F C Naturalized populations on every continent except Antarctica

Buffalofish Ictiobus cyprinellus

W F C Technology for spawning and rearing available; possible polyculture species

Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp

Water Type

Diet Notes

Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus

W F O Principal farm-raised species in the US; oxygen depletion major problem

Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

C A C Coastal species; researched and cultured in New Zealand; may live in freshwater

Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta

C A C Most cold tolerant of Pacific salmon; widest distribution; hatchery techniques developed in Japan

Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch

C A C Grow rapidly second year when feeding on other fish; introduce into Great Lakes to feed on alewife, smelts, and sea lampreys

Common Carp Cyprinus carpio W F O Deep yellow body; member of minnow family

Crappie Pponoxis spp. W F C Member of sunfish family, centrachidae; spawn readily

Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki C F C Possible to propagate artificially; hybrid potential

Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp

Water Type

Diet Notes

Fathead minnow

Phimephales w W F O Baitfish; short-ived; seldom reach 3 in. or 3 years

Flathead catfish Pylodictic olivaris

W F C Predator species; not economical to raise on large scale

Golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas

W F C Baitfish; large member of minnow family; grows to over 8 in

Goldfish Carassius auratus

W F H Baitfish; very hardy; used as feed fish or forage fish

Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella

W F H Slim carp feeds on aquatic plants but accepts pelleted feed when cultured; cultured in Asia

Lake Trout Salvelinus namaychus

C F C Used in hybrid crosses with Brook Trout-Splake

Largemouth Bass

Micropterus salmoides

W-C F C Large bass eat small ones; spawn in gravel nest; jaw extends beyond eye

Milkfish Chanos chanos W S-B H Very disease resistant; popular in tropical Pacific; will not spawn in captivity

Mullet, striped Mugil cephalus W-C F-B-S H Commonly cultured; tropical and semitriopical; possible polyculture

Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp

Water Type

Diet Notes

Muskellunge Esox masquinongy

C F C Some cannibalism; prefer temperatures warmer than trout but cooler than catfish

Northern pike Esox lucius C F C Wild stock usually captured for egg-taking; requires forage fish

Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha

C A C Attempts to extend range not very successful; ranched in Alaska

Pompano Trachinotus carolinus

W S C Tolerant to relatively high water temperatures and low oxygen levels; fast growth

Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

C F C Tolerant to relatively high water temperatures and low oxygen levels; fast growth

Red drum Sciaenops ocellata

W S – B O Popular in Cajun-style restaurants; popular sport fish; some successful culture

Smallmouth bass

Micropterus dolomieui

W F C Special equipment and techniques to collect fry

Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka

C A C Landlocked form called kohanec; crustaceans diet; pigments flesh red

Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss

C A C Anadromous form of Rainbow trout

Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp

Water Type

Diet Notes

Striped Bass, Hybrid

Morone saxatilis x Morone chrysops

W F C Cross of female striped bass and male white bass; approved for aquaculture late 1970s

Sturgeon Acinpenseridae spp.

C F O Cultured to increase numbers; some culture for roe

Sunfish (green, bluegill, redear

Lepomis spp. W F C Spawn readily; hybridize easily; female drap

Tilapia Tilapia spp. W W F H Controlling reproduction a major problem to culture; feed on algae, detritus, and waste feed

Walleye Stizostedion vitreum vitreum

W-C F C Wild stock captured for egg-taking; requires long, slender forage fish

White catfish Ictalurus catus W F C Determined inferior to channel catfish for aquaculture; hard; stocked for fee-fishing ponds

White sucker Catostomus commersoni

C F C Forage fish; adapt to formulated feed as a supplemental diet

Yellow perch Perca flavescens

C F C Famous in the Midwest; cultured in Holland; some culture trials in US

Common Name Scientific Name Water Type

Notes

Abalone, red Haliotic rugescens S The only gastropod of significance cultured in US; largest hatchery in California; prolific spawners

Clams (hard, soft) Mercenaria mercenaris

S More culture of hard clam; not widely cultured around the world; the US has most advanced culture; two to seven years to market size depending on location

Crabs (blue) Callinectes Spidus S Primarily a fisheries product; aquaculture techniques produce soft-shelled crabs

Crawfish Procambarus clarkii P. Blandingi acutus

F About 300 species in the US; harvested from wild and cultured; found on every continent except Africa and Antarctica; six to fourteen months to reach market size

Mussels Mytilus edulis S New to US culture; easy to raise; grow faster than other shellfish

Lobster Homarus americanus

S Farming from egg to market size not profitable; minimum of five years to reach market size

Prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii

F-B High demand; started in Hawaii

Oysters Crassostrea virginica S Culture over 100 years old in the US; larvae swim free then attach to something for rest of life

Shrimp Penaeus spp. s Widely cultured in Asia but new to the US ; great demand for shrimp

• Ornamental fish– Over 100 species– Occur in tropical – brackish water– Major industry in central Florida– Water temperature management – huge concern– Culturalists specialize in the production of colorful

varieties– Sailfin mollies, guppies, clown barbs, black tetras,

angelfish, and blue gouramies

• Bullfrogs – Most come from wild – Used for consumption– Biological research – high demand compared to

supply– Difficult to culture– Japanese and Taiwanese practice open pond

culture of bullfrogs from eggs to adults

• Alligators– Valued for meat and hide– Overhunted and habitat destruction reduced

numbers– Extensive conservation efforts restored numbers –

led to culture techniques (Texas, Georgia, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida)

– Demand keeps prices high and production and profitable

• Eels– Gourmet food in Japan, Taiwan, and European

countries– Complicated life cycles– Spawn at sea and seed stock must be captured

from wild – migrate upstream

• Zooplankton– Copepods (small crustaceans)– Rotifers– Serve as vital food source for all fish– Primary consumers

Common Characteristics of Aquatic Species

• Greater productive potential than terrestrial (land) plants and animals

– Body temperature about same as environment• Energy used for growth

– Body density similar to habitat• Energy to overcome gravity can be used for growth

– Reduced energy required for getting food• Filter feeders – energy to growth

– Efficient feed conversion• 1lb of gain for 1.5 to 2 lbs of feed

– Rapid growth• Rate of 10%/day

– Live in multidimensional environment• Polyculture• Floating cages,

• Successful culture needs to consider– Reproductive habits

• Major requirement• Stable supply of seed• Reproductive processes need to be understood• Genetic selection and improvement

– Egg and larvae requirements• Female oyster – 500 million eggs per year• Crustaceans, crayfish – 500,000 to 1 million eggs

– Nutritional needs and feeding habits• Low on food chain – uses low cost vegetable matter – carp, tilapia,

and crawfish• High on food chain – more expensive high protein diet – shrimp, trout

and bass• All needs met by aquatic environment

– Polyculture possibilities• Depends on type of production system• Intensive systems – growth rate more a concern than efficiency of

water space and nutrients• Increases total aquatic production in volume of water

– Adaptability to crowding• Increases productivity of a space while increasing management

for space – Disease resistance

• Based on conditions at production sites– Market demand

• Desired by consumers• Price consumers can afford• Prepared, easy-to-use forms of product• Storage to reach consumer• Desired flavor

Species Spawning Frequency

Eggs per pound of Fish

Chinook salmon Once per life span 350

Coho salmon Once per life span 400

Sockeye salmon Once per life span 500

Atlantic salmon Annual-biennial 800

Trout Annual 1,000-1,200

Northern pike Annual 9,100

Walleye Annual 25,000

Striped bass Annual 100,000

Channel catfish Annual 3.750

Largemouth bass Annual 13,000

Smallmouth bass Annual 8,000

Bluegill Intermittent 50,000

Golden shiner Intermittent 75,000

Goldfish Intermittent 50,000

Common carp Intermittent 60,000

Structures and Functions of Aquatic Animals and Plants

• Animal surfaces

– Dorsal – upper surface– Ventral – lower or abdominal surface– Anterior – applies to front or head– Posterior – tail or rear of animal

• Morphology– Structure and form of fish– Herbivores • small upturned mouths – surface feeders like tilapia• Downturned mouths – bottom feeders like catfish

– Homocercal • single-lobed tail fins – slow swimmers – thrive in water

free of movement– Heterocercal • Forked tail fins – fast swimmers – thrive in flowing

water

• Body shape– Fusiform – long body tapered toward the end– Fast swimmers and need water space

• Wide and flat or ventrally compressed– Stay on bottom and require lots of bottom space for

growth• Laterally compressed– Rounded and thin from side to side– Hover in water

• Physiology– Function of body– Skeletal system• Rigid framework – body shape and protect organs• Bony or hard material and cartilage• Internal (endoskeleton) or external (exoskeleton)

– Muscular system• Provides movement for food and oxygen gathering and

eliminating wastes– Digestive system• Converts feed into form for body maintenance, growth,

and reproduction

– Digestive system• Converts feed into form for body maintenance, growth,

and reproduction• Assimilation – incorporation into the body• Mouth to anus• Vary according to diet

– Herbivores – plants– Carnivores – animals– Omnivores – both plants and animals

– Excretory system• Eliminates wastes• Kidneys, urinary ducts, urinary bladder, and urinary

opening– Respiratory system• Takes in oxygen, delivers to tissues and cells, picks up

carbon dioxide• Gills take in oxygen by diffusion

– Circulatory system• Distributes blood throughout body

– Nervous system• Supplies body with information about its environment• Impulses – electrical chemical changes• Sense organs or receptors

– Sensory system• Five senses• Relays information through nervous system• Find food, identify predators, hearing, lateral lines that

detect vibrations and motion

– Reproduction system• Creating new organisms• Gametes – male and female sex cells• Zygote – fertilized egg• Incubation – period the zygote develops into a new

organism• Some reproduce asexually

• Anatomy– Anatomy of Finfish• Bony fish with hard calcium-based endoskeletons• Form and protects organs• Bony plates or scales – scales grow with fish• Digestive systems vary – herbivores have small stomach

and long intestines – carnivores have large stomachs and short intestines• Well develop nervous systems – lateral line important to

sensory organ – maintain balance and position• External fertilization• Gills remove oxygen from water – semipermeable –

allows gases to pass through

– Anatomy of Crustaceans• Shrimp, prawns, lobsters, crabs, crawfish• Exoskeleton of chitinous material

– Polysaccharide of hexose proteins and inorganic salts– Protects and supports soft body

• Decapods (10 legs)• Molting – shedding of old exoskeleton as it grows• 3 body segments

– Head, » 2 pairs of antennae Mandibles or true jaws » two pairs of maxillae (little jaws)

– Thorax» 3 pairs of jaw feet (hold food)» Large claws – protection and food getting» Last 4 – 2 tiny pincers at tip and 2 on claws

– Abdomen » Swimmerets – egg attachment» Sixth swimmeret develops into a flipper or uropod for locomotion

– Regeneration – regrowth of limbs– Internal anatomy

• Simple circulatory, nervous, and excretory systems• Open circulatory system sinuses spaces that collect blood• Ear sacs aid in balance• Use gills to breathe• Life cycle and reproduction complex

– Duct from testes or ovaries leads to outside to deposit sperm or eggs

– Pandalids group of shrimp begin as males and after two years change to females

– Anatomy of Mollusks• Bivalve – two shells – clams and oysters• Calcareous material – hard and resembles limestone• Adductor – muscles hold shells together• Muscular, hatchet-shaped foot digging• Mantle lays over internal organs and secretes hard shell• Simple digestive and nervous system• Gills filter material from water – contains cilia• Siphon – water enters pass over gills and out another

siphon via anus• Protandrous – change sex one or more times in their lives• Hermaphroditic – have gonads for both sexes• Gastropods have only one shell (snails, abalones)

– Aquatic Plants• Make own food via photosynthesis (requires light and

chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugar, oxygen, and water• Use stored energy by respiring – use energy for growth

and reproduction• Algae: diatoms, desmoids, blue-green algae, euglena,

volvox, and filamentous green algae, giant kelp• Reproduce asexually by spores – some produce

gametes or sex cells• Fleshy corms of Chinese water chestnuts produce more

corms – • Propagate by cuttings

• Remove ammonia and nitrite wastes from water• Algae

– Primitive plants without true roots, stems, or leaves– Filamentous algae form floating mats or hairlike strands (moss or

pond scum)• Macrophytes

– Vascular plants with true roots, stems, and leaves– Free-floating – tiny green plants (duckweed or watermeal)– Emergent – attached to bottom, but extend out of water (water

lilies, or lotus)– Submergent – pondweed or hornwort are rooted and grow

underwater– Marginal – very shallow water (cattails and bulrushes