aquaculture in egypt under changing climate · aquaculture and climate change ... million tons in...

Aquaculture in Egypt

under Changing Climate

Challenges and Opportunities

January 2017

Alexandria University

Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change

(ARCA)

By

Naglaa F. Soliman (Ph.D.) Institute of Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR),


Egypt

Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate

1 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series

ARCA Working Paper

Working Paper No. (4)

Aquaculture in Egypt

under Changing Climate Challenges and Opportunities

By

Naglaa F. Soliman (Ph.D.)

Institute of Graduate Studies and Research


Egypt

January 2017



Table of contents

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3

2. Objective ......................................................................................................................................... 4

3. Data Source .................................................................................................................................... 4

4. Aquaculture and climate change ................................................................................................... 4

4.1. Egyptian aquaculture: A situation analysis ...................................................................................................... 4

4.2. Socioeconomic aspects of Egyptian aquaculture .............................................................................................. 6

4.3. Production systems ...................................................................................................................................... 7

4.3. Sustainability constraints on Egyptian aquaculture ........................................................................................ 12

a) Water resources ............................................................................................................. 12

b) Land .............................................................................................................................. 13

c) Energy ........................................................................................................................... 14

d) Feed .............................................................................................................................. 14

e) Seeds ............................................................................................................................ 16

f) Climate change .............................................................................................................. 16

5. Vulnerability of Aquaculture to climate change .......................................................................... 16

5.1. Aquaculture effects on climate change ......................................................................................................... 17

5.2. Implications of climate change on Egyptian aquaculture activities ................................................................... 18

a) Water ............................................................................................................................ 19

b) Land .............................................................................................................................. 24

c) Feed .............................................................................................................................. 30

d) Seed .............................................................................................................................. 32

6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 33

6. References .................................................................................................................................... 35



1. Introduction Fish plays an important role in food security by providing an inexpensive source of nutrients, including high

quality protein, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and micronutrients (Li and Hu, 2009). Food fish currently

represents the major source of animal protein (contributing more than 25 percent of the total animal protein

supply) for about 1 250 million people within 39 countries worldwide, including 19 sub-Saharan countries (FAO,

2009). The stagnation on wild fish catch has created a gap between the supply and the increased demand for fish.

This difference has been filled by aquaculture (Delgado et al., 2003). A simple definition of aquaculture is the

farming of marine and freshwater species. Aquaculture also means the growing of aquatic organisms namely, fish,

shellfish, unicellular plants under controlled conditions (Tohmas, 1983). Aquaculture has been responsible for most

of the net growth in fish production during the last decade (Delgado et al., 2003). Aquaculture production is

playing an increasing role in meeting the demand for fish and other fishery products (Swaminathan, 2012).

Aquaculture, which accounts for nearly 50% of the world food fish, is the fastest growing food producing sector. In

this respect, it was argued that global production has increased from about 49.9 million tons in 2007 to 73.8

million tons in 2014, with most of this growth taking place in China (FAO, 2016).

Despite all debates and controversies, a global consensus has been reached that climate change is a reality

with a wide range of adverse and irreversible implications on the earth. These implications will have direct or

indirect impacts on food production systems and global biodiversity. Aquaculture is no exception (De Silva, 2012).

The impacts of climate change on aquaculture are more complex than those on terrestrial agriculture owing to

the much wider variety of species produced (Brander, 2007). Changes in rainfall will cause a spectrum of changes

in water availability ranging from droughts and shortages to floods and will reduce water quality. Also, salinization

of groundwater supplies and the movement of saline water further upstream in rivers caused by rising sea levels

will threaten inland freshwater aquaculture (IPCC, 2007).

Rising temperatures similarly reduce levels of dissolved oxygen and increase metabolic rates of fish, leading to

increase in fish deaths, decline in production and/or increase in feed requirements while also increasing the risk

and spread of disease (FAO, 2008). Moreover, climate change may indirectly affect aquaculture activities. For

example, wide areas of aquaculture ponds existing in the low laying land may be highly vulnerable to inundation by

sea level rise.

Egypt, which is considered as one of the top five countries expected to be vulnerable to sea level rise impacts

(Dasgupta, et al., 2007), is, in terms of aquaculture production, the largest African country and the 10th globally,

with about 1.14 million tons/year (FAO, 2016). Most of fish farms in Egypt, are located in the Nile Delta region and

concentrated mainly in the Northern lakes (Maruit, Edko, Burullus and Manzala) (FAO, 2010). As a result of global

sea level rise, wide areas of the Nile Delta coastal zone is expected be susceptible to saltwater intrusion and

inundation, with wide range of implications. In other words, climate change associated risks may affect

aquaculture activities in Egypt both directly by influencing fish stocks and hence production quantities and



efficiency, and indirectly by influencing fish prices or the cost of goods and services required by fishers and fish

farmers (World Fish Center, 2006). This consequently, may have significant impacts on aquaculture productivity

and thus may adversely food security in Egypt.

2. Objective The main objectives of this working paper can be summarized as follows:

Assessing opportunities and challenges for future aquaculture development and the likely impacts of

climate change on these activities and on food security in Egypt.

proposing possible adaptation measurements to climate change impacts on aquaculture activities in

order to ensure sustainability of this sector.

3. Data Source The situation analysis of aquaculture in Egypt is based on data from recently published United Nations

FAOSTAT (FAO, 2014, 2016) for the global and national seafood supply (in million metric tons) and data published

in reports by GAFRD (General Authority for Fish Resources Development) and Central Agency for Public

Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS). To assess climate change impacts on aquaculture and vice versa, the author

searched the relevant peer-reviewed Literature using Google Scholar and PubMed until December 2016 using the

following search terms: aquaculture, climate change, potentials, water resources, feed, seed, and energy. On the

other hand, to investigate the potential adaptive measures of aquaculture, the author searched the relevant peer-

reviewed Literature using Google Scholar and PubMed until December 2016 using the following search terms:

adaptive measures, aquaculture, ponds cages, and climate change. The author also looked for relevant articles and

reports that were cited in papers found through searching. The articles and reports used in this review cover

climate change, environment, food security and/or aquaculture.

4. Aquaculture and climate change

4.1. Egyptian aquaculture: A situation analysis Aquaculture in Egypt, which is the largest aquaculture industry in Africa, is currently considered as the main

source of fish supply accounting for almost 78.8% of the total fish production of the country (1.56 million tons) and

is expected to increase to 1.8 million tons in 2018, which will represent 85.7 percent of total fish production, an

increase of 600,000 million tons or a 50 percent growth from 2015 (Figure 1). In this respect, fish aquaculture has

increased rapidly from 0.54 million tons in 2005 to 1.23 million tons in 2015 due to rapid expansion in the

application of new technologies such as the use of extruded feed, water circulation systems, and improved farm

management practices. Small and medium scale fish farms have intensified their fish production from earthen



ponds using these new technologies, rendering farmed tilapia one of the cheapest sources of animal protein

available to Egyptians. This semi-intensive aquaculture system is by far the most widely-used fish farming system in

Egypt, contributing up to 80 percent of total production. Intensive systems in tanks and cages are rapidly

developing. Concomitant to that production growth, there will be an increase in fish feed demand of around

720,000 million tons, of which 302,000 million ton will be met by imported soybean meal (Wally, 2016).

Figure (1): Total annual fisheries and aquaculture production in Egypt

Source: GAFRD 2015

On the other hand, the production of capture fisheries remained stable around 0.33 million tons during the

same period (Figure 2). Capture fisheries in Egypt are in decline due to overfishing, pollution, illegal, unreported

and unregulated fishing, relaxation in the implementation of laws and regulations, lack of interest in clearing

Straits and waterways, poor sustainable management of fisheries and aquaculture, and illegal fishing operations of

fry. This is in addition to the construction of Aswan High Dam that reduced the annual flood cycle of the Nile

(Shaheen and Nouala, 2013).

The Government of Egypt believes that both fresh water and marine aquaculture have an important role to

play in creating jobs, raising incomes, lifting people out of poverty, as well as promoting healthy diets. The

government is set to reveal a number of major projects in marine aquaculture in the months ahead. Experts expect

government-led development projects will to be presented to domestic and foreign investors (Wally, 2016).

Currently there is an ambitious plan in Egypt to construct new aquaculture farms as part of the development

project in the Suez Canal Region as a governmental strategy to reduce the increasing food gap, new aquaculture

farms are planned along the eastern bank of the Suez Canal. The project intends to create large-scale basins that

extend over 120 km parallel to the Suez Canal (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015).

Wild Catch330000

21%

Aquaculture1230000

79%



The Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture (MALR) maintains a division dedicated to promoting and expanding the

fish industry. The General Authority for Fish Resources Development (GAFRD) drafts legislation and regulations

affecting fisheries. GAFRD also manages farm licensing, aquaculture land use regulations, as well as extension and

research services. The organization’s stated goal is to enhance the development of aquaculture, increase

production, and transfer knowledge to the fish farming community. The GAFRD’s current strategy is to raise total

fish production by 34.6 percent to reach 2.1 million tons by 2018 (Wally, 2016).

Figure (2): Fish production in Egypt over the period 2005 to 2015

Source: (GAFRD, 2015).

4.2. Socioeconomic aspects of Egyptian aquaculture Fish is an important source of dietary protein in Egypt, but a bountiful supply of fish production from natural

fishery resources does not meet the demand. Therefore, full utilization and proper management of marine and

inland fisheries is needed to increase production of fish by means of modern techniques of fish culture not only to

enhance nutrition employment and personal income, but also to reduce foreign exchange expenditures (Eassa,

2001).

Aquaculture has a role in increasing the per capita fish consumption in Egypt from 14.3kg in 2002 to be close

to or slightly exceeding the world average at about 22.4/ kg per person by 2015 representing growth in per capita

consumption of 62 percent over this period (Figure 3).

The increase in fish consumption is attributed to an increasing population, expanding domestic supply, as well

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as some economically incentivized changes in consumer preferences among low-income consumers. Growth in

low-cost domestic fish production, improvements in distribution networks and increased importation of

inexpensive canned products have made fish more accessible to the lower socioeconomic strata. For higher-

income consumers, high-value salt water species are widely available including imported salmon, shrimp, and

mollusks like octopus, oysters and mussels (Wally, 2016).

Figure (3): Per capita consumption of fish in Egypt 2002-2015

Source: (Wally, 2016).

Aquaculture, also, plays an important role in the economy (Soliman and Yacout, 2015). The total market value

of the industry was US $2.2 billion in 2015 (1 USD = 8.88 Egyptian pounds) (Wally, 2016). Rapid development in

aquaculture has created a large number of jobs for farm technicians and skilled labors. Furthermore, new

industries and financial services in support of aquaculture are also providing employment opportunities (FAO

2010). Over, 580,000 people are employed in aquaculture sector in recent years (FAO, 2014). Labor costs

represent approximately 8 percent of operational costs (Macfadyen et al. 2011). Moreover, a wide range of

activities related aquaculture also provide job opportunities (Soliman and Yacout, 2015). On the other hand, this

expansion of aquaculture has succeeded in reducing and stabilizing the price of fish in Egypt allowing accessibility

to the poorer rural population to healthy and affordable animal protein (FAO 2010).

4.3. Production systems There are several aquaculture practices in Egypt that include, but not limited to, excavated earthen ponds,

pens and enclosures, concrete and raceways ponds, circular tanks and floating fish cages (Ghanem and Haggag,

2015).

Several criteria can be used to classify an aquaculture system. From an economic point of view, the most

significant criterion is intensity, i.e. the division into intensive, semi-intensive or extensive forms of culture.

Measures of intensity include stocking density, production by area, feeding regime and input costs, while the most



interesting features is the degree of control within the production process (Asche et al., 2008) (Table 1 and Figure

4) or according to the fish cultured species (monoculture and polyculture). In Egypt, the most prevailing

aquaculture practice is the semi-intensive earthen ponds. In last 15 years the intensive aquaculture farming has

grown increasingly, especially in the deserts of northern Sinai based on agricultural drainage waters (Ghanedm and

Haggag, 2015). Fish farms are distributed through the Nile Delta region and concentrated mainly in the Northern

lakes (Maruit, Edko, Burulus and Manzala) area (Soliman and Yacout, 2015), with most of the aquaculture

production derived from semi-intensive fish farms in earthen ponds (Figure 5). This is due to the construction of

Aswan High Dam in 1967, which controlled Nile River water flow and reduced the area of northern lakes leaving

vast area of unused land around those lakes. This meant that this land was close to lake water and/or at the end of

irrigation and drainage canals going to the lakes, which meant their sites were ideal for aquaculture use rather

than agriculture crops (CIHEAM, 2008). It is worth mentioning in this respect that more than half the farmed fish

production in Egypt is produced in Kafr El Sheikh Governorate, mainly produced in small and medium-scale

privately owned farms (Figure 6).

Table 1: types of aquaculture production systems

System type Description Production

(kg/ha/year) Efficiency of land

use (m2/ton)

Extensive On farm resources 100-500 20000-100000

On farm resource, fertilizers 100-1000 10000-100000

Semi-intensive Supplemental feeds, water exchange 4000-20000 500-2500

Semi-intensive Supplemental feeds, water exchange, night aeration 15000-35000 300-700

Intensive Complete feeds, water exchanges, constant aeration 20000-100000 100-500

Source: (Verdegem et al., 2006)



Cage; Mohamed Hagag Fish farms in Damietta

Governorate

Earthen ponds; Ahmed Kamal Morsy fish farm in

Kafr El Shaikh Governorate

Plastic ponds, Abdelsalam Hegazy fish farm in Kafr

El Shaikh Governorate

Concrete ponds; Ismail Radwan fish farm in Kafr El

Shaikh Governorate

Figure (4): Different fish farming systems in Damietta and Kafr El Shaikh Governorate

Source: Soliman and Yacout, 2016



Figure (5): Geographical distribution of Egyptian aquaculture production (million ton)

Source: (GAFRD, 2014)

Figure (6): Flow of drainage system in the coastal area of the Nile Delta

Source: (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015).

Three decades ago tilapia and mullet were the main species reared in earthen ponds. Today ten finfish

(Tilapia; Mullet spp.; Grass Carp; Silver Carp; African Catfish; Bayad; Gilthead seabream; European sea bass;

Meagre and Slia) besides four crustacean species (Macrobrachiumrosenbergii, Penaeussemisulcatus; P.japonicus

and P.indicus), are part of the aquaculture finfish production (Sadek, 2013). However, Nile tilapia alone

contributes over 67 percent to production quota followed by carp 17 and mullet 11 percent (GAFRD, 2014) (Figure

7).

Tilapia aquaculture characteristics include tolerance to poor water quality and the fact that they eat a wide

range of natural food organisms (Shaheen et al., 2013). They feed on low trophic levels (short food chain) and use

the aquatic detritus (bioflocs). They accept artificial feeds immediately after yolk-sac absorption. Tilapia are 98%

vegetarian and can obtain most of its protein requirement from the plant origin. The blue and Nile tilapias can

reproduce in salinities above 10-15 ppt, but perform better at salinities below 5 ppt. Fry numbers decline

substantially at 10 ppt salinity (Popma and Masser, 1999). They are also characterized by high growth rate, as; it

Delta West135256

Delta middle540858

Damietta125597

Delta East212106

Red Sea1440

Nile valey13266



can grow to almost 800 g in 1 year. Tilapia is a prolific breeder; females produce about 500 eggs every second

week, in some species. They resist disease very well. Tilapia can tolerate low dissolved oxygen concentration,

high ammonia concentration, and low water quality in general. They have the ability to reproduce in captivity and

short generation time. They are environmentally friendly fish. Their musculature tissue has a scanty amount of

fat so, they accumulate a very tiny amount of the organic pollutants. They reach market size at a short period and

consequently minimize the time of exposure for the pollutants (Popma and Masser, 1999).

On the other hand, the intolerance of tilapia to low temperature is a serious constraint for commercial

culture in temperate regions. The lower lethal temperature for most species is 50 to 52F for a few days, but the

Blue tilapia tolerates temperature to about 48F (Popma and Masser, 1999).

Marine species represent only 14.5 percent of the total Egyptian aquaculture, with total salt water

production reaching around 178,000 million tons in 2015. Among the marine species, mullet is by far the most

produced at 129,000 million tons in 2015, or 10.5 percent of total aquaculture production. It remains a key

species in Egyptian marine aquaculture because of its low feed intake, and is in high demand by Egyptian

consumers. Other marine species produced are European seabass, gilt-head sea bream, meagre, and shrimp

(Wally, 2016).

Private firms make up the majority of Egyptian marine aquaculture producers. Most producers 86 percent)

raise fish using earthen ponds, while a smaller percentage (13 percent) uses cages. A limited number of producers

use concrete ponds and raceways. The bulk of marine aquaculture production (81 percent) is located in Damietta

Governorate, on the Mediterranean coast at the northeast corner of the Nile delta. The neighboring governorates

of Port Said, Alexandria, and Suez account for the remaining 19 percent of marine aquaculture (Wally, 2016).

Figure (7): Aquaculture production, by fish type

Source: GAFRD 2014



4.3. Sustainability constraints on Egyptian aquaculture As in other animal production sectors, several important aquaculture inputs land, freshwater, feed, and

energy are associated with significant environmental impacts. At the same time, the availability of these inputs is

limited, and will likely become even more limited in the future. Unless the aquaculture industry is able to boost

productivity, the limited availability of these inputs may constrain its future growth (Waite et al., 2014).

Despite the fact that aquaculture sector in Egypt has witnessed a spectacular development, there are some

major constraints and challenges facing aquaculture industry. The future of aquaculture growth in Egypt greatly

depends upon resolving these problems. Major problems in this sector are related to resource use conflicts (water

and land), energy consumption, reliable source of fish fry and its quality, changes in the prices of main raw

materials used in fish feed industry. Consequently, there are many opportunities for future development and

improvement (Soliman and Yacout, 2016). The following section discusses different types of constraints currently

facing the Egyptian aquaculture industry.

a) Water resources

Egypt is one of the countries which has limited water resources and that reflects the quantity and quality of

water available for fish farming (CIHEAM 2008). Although aquaculture is a major industry, the sector is not

allowed to use irrigation/Nile water and is generally dependent on water from agricultural drainage channels and

groundwater (Naziri 2011). In order to conserve fresh water, aquaculture in Egypt is operated exclusively on

drainage water. Law 124 of year 1983 prohibits the use of fresh water for aquaculture production. Fish farms

which are established along the drains use pumping system to circulate the water into the farm and discharge the

water back to the drain after it reaches unbearable quality for the fish. This practice results in fish production of

extremely poor quality (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015). It is mandatory to acquire sufficient supply of water with

adequate quality for the operation of the aquaculture industry (Agoz et al., 2005). However, most of the current

production practices are carried out as run-through system with no recirculation of water or treatment of effluent

prior to its disposal. On the long term this practice results in negative impacts on the receiving water bodies.

Conventional excavated earthen aquaculture farms in the northern Nile Delta are reported to cause increase in

nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and organic wastes, through the feeding inputs, leading to general

deterioration of water quality (Sipaúba-Tavares et al., 2013). In addition, the production system is not efficient in

terms of yield or resource recovery. On the national level, there is little information to predict the impact of this

conventional approach on quality of receiving water bodies for this emerging industry, and there is limited effort

to improve the management of this resource (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015).

Poor water quality results in declined fish production, increased production costs for hatchers, as well as

fish farmers, and increases the risk of disease outbreaks which may in turn reduces the opportunities for fish

export. In addition, poor water quality may have negative impacts on the environment and a negative effect on

human health for laborers as well as consumers (Mur 2014). Nowadays, farmers are requesting freshwater as



they reuse this water for crops. Moreover, farmers argue that drainage water negatively affects quality of farmed

fish owing to the accumulation of pollutants and potential contamination of fish (FAO 2014).

As previously mentioned, underground is one of the main water sources utilized for aquaculture purposes

besides agricultural drainage water (El-Guindy, 2006), which vary in salinity from 1–30 g/litre and temperature

from 22 to 26 °C. El-Guindy (2006) raised concerns about the use of groundwater aquifer systems in Egypt,

estimating a potential safe pumping yield of 1 744 million m3 per year (Figure 8).

Figure (8): Current and potential extraction of fresh groundwater in Egypt

Source: El-Guindy 2006

In addition, El-Guindy (2006) defined several key issues that should be taken into consideration to achieve a

sustainable intensive use of underground water. Firstly, there are gaps in the existing capacities for effectively

using brackish water and no work on how these gaps should be filled. Secondly, the action plans considering

underground brackish water resources for developmental initiatives (quantity, quality, potential uses and time

perspective) need to be developed. Finally, a mechanism for inter-ministerial coordination for brackish water

utilization needs to be established.

b) Land

By law, fish farming is not allowed to be developed on agricultural lands. Salty lands are temporarily allowed

to aquaculture for a specific period and switch to agriculture once salt is leached and land suits agricultural

production (CIHEAM 2008).

On the other hand, converting the temporarily fish farms into agriculture after salt washing –if happened-

would significantly reduce the acreage of fish farms and so fish production. Furthermore, desert when used for



aquaculture requires much higher investments (El Gamal, 2014).

Farmers usually rent lands from the government through the General Authority for Fish Resources

Development (Rothuis et al. 2013) and the land rent itself represents 62 % of fixed costs (Macfadyen et al. 2011).

Almost all suitable land for aquaculture has been taken out (limiting horizontal expansion). Owned land

represents 14.5 % of the total area; the remaining areas are either leased or utilized temporarily for aquaculture

(Soliman and Yacout, 2016). Outdated laws and difficult licensing procedures force many operators into the

informal economy (Wally, 2016).

c) Energy

The importance of optimizing energy usage in industry is increasing worldwide. Recent studies found that

one of the major problems in Egyptian aquaculture is related to energy consumption. Furthermore, with the

exponential expansion in aquaculture industry and feed production, more focus is required in this area. Eltholth

et al. (2015) reported that one of the main production constraints in the aquaculture sector is fuel and energy

sources. Fuel shortages and high price, particularly in the last 2 years, have impacted on the aquaculture farming

activities.

Many farms are not connected to the electricity grid and are prevented from installing electricity on rented

land. Hence, the cost incurred for the generation of power is more because of the need to use generators and/or

diesel pumps. Power/fuel costs have risen in recent years and are periodically unavailable in some locations. Fuel

and power constitute about 3 % of total production costs (Macfadyen et al. 2011). They are used in all the

processes of the aquaculture system including feed raw material production, feed manufacturing, hatchery,

grow-out fish cultivation and transportation of materials (Samuel-Fitwi et al. 2013). Consequently, due to the

increased production through aquaculture in the country, the energy usage increased as well by 25.9 % from

2008 till 2011 (CAPMAS 2014). Improving the efficiency of used energy in this industry is becoming a must in

order to overcome the current energy crisis in the country. Moreover, future studies should investigate the

possibility of utilizing renewable energy as an alternative to conventional one in the different processes of the

aquaculture industry (Soliman and Yacout, 2016, Eltholth et al. 2015).

d) Feed

Annual growth in the fish farming sector is currently estimated at five to seven percent (Wally, 2016). The

expansion in Egyptian aquaculture has been accompanied by a gradual shift from extensive and semi-intensive

low-input culture systems to more intensive feed-dependent system. This approach has resulted in an increase in

demand for commercial fish feeds (El-Sayed, 2014).

During the past decade, the sector has witnessed an outstanding expansion, with a significant engagement



of the private sector. Recent surveys indicated that there are nine state-owned fish feed mills and over 50

registered private feed continued mills distributed throughout the country, particularly in the areas of, or close

to, the aquaculture production. Nonetheless, no accurate official data are available on the current fish feed

production. However, the current production has been estimated at about 900,000–1,000,000 t/year. About 80

% of this production is in the form of compressed feed, while the remaining 20 % are extruded feeds (El-Sayed

2014). The market for extruded feeds is growing, and several projects are in progress for the establishment of

extruded feed industries (Rothuis et al. 2013).

The most common recipes for fish feed production use soybean meal at 30 to 40 percent and fish meal at 5

to 22 percent, although the latter is increasingly displaced due to its high cost (Wally, 2016).

The main protein sources used for fish feed production in Egypt are soybean meal (included at 28.8–43%)

corn (17.3-24 %) and fish meal (8–12%). Egyptian production levels of major feed ingredients currently used for

animal and aquaculture feed production do not meet local demand (Wally, 2016).

Current domestic crush capacity of soybeans is estimated at 8,000 MT per day compared to 3,000 MT a

decade ago. Due to increasing animal feed demand, the soybean crush capacity is expected to increase to 15,000

per tons over the next five years. Soybean meal is the major protein source in Egyptian aquaculture. In 2015/16

Egypt’s soymeal demand amounted to 2.85 MMT out of which approximately 1.2 MMT of soybean meal was

used in aquaculture (Wally, 2016).

Rapid increase in the cost of fish feed is one of the main constrains faced by the fish feed industry and

farmers. In 2011, imports accounted for 99 % of soybean cake (988,000 t), 97 % of soybean seeds (1,116,000 t)

and 50 % (7,048,000 t) of maize used or consumed in Egypt. More than 60 % of raw materials for fish feed to be

imported in Egypt. Increasing world market prices of raw materials resulted in an increase of fish prices by 200–

250 % over the last 6–7 years. In 2012, feed prices increased from 450 to 550 Euro/MT for the feed containing 32

% protein. These prices will seriously affect the profitability of the farmers (Macfadyen et al. 2011; Rothuis et al.

2013; El-Sayed, 2014).

Producers sometimes were forced to use low quality feed or other alternatives to the expensive ingredients

such as ground small size tilapia as a substitute for fishmeal with the assumption that it would be cheaper than

fishmeal; however, as this contains 75% moisture, it is not actually cheaper. This practice could increase risks of

transmission of fish diseases between farms as there was no heat treatment for this feed. About 60% of

producers used poultry manure to fertilize fishponds which may also influence the consumption of tilapia in

people’s diets and their nutritional and food safety benefits and risks. The direct use of poultry manure without

treatment, and the presence of excreta from other animal species on a high proportion of fish farms (which

could contaminate fish ponds), are potential public health threats (Sapkota et al., 2008).

The feed industry estimates that aquaculture feed market demand will exceed 1.5 MT annually by 2020. To

meet the increase in feed required, significant investments in aquaculture feed are taking place. Two of the



largest feed producing companies are Skretting’s Nutreco, which recently tripled its annual tilapia fish feed

capacity to 150,000 MT, followed by Aller Aqua which is doubling its marine feed production in Egypt to reach

150,000 MT by 2017. Aller Aqua is the only company that produces shrimp feed in addition to fish feed (Wally,

2016).

e) Seeds

The number of fish hatcheries has increased from 14 in 1998 to over 600 of which many are unlicensed

private hatcheries (GAFRD 2013). The production of fry from hatcheries is about 411 million units of a different

species, mainly tilapia, carp and catfish (GAFRD 2014). On the other hand, the supply of mullets, meager fry, and

to some extent sea bream and sea bass, is dependent on collection from the wild. There are several fry collection

stations in seven governorates, where wild caught and fingerlings are collected for distribution. There are also

indications of large-scale illegal collection of wild fry that may affect wild stocks considerably (Rothuis et al.

2013).

f) Climate change

Egypt is considered one of the countries that most vulnerable to the potential impacts of climate change.

Climate change will have serious repercussions for all sectors of development in the country (El Raey, 2010),

aquaculture industry is no exception. While the importance of aquaculture is often understated, the consequent

implications of climate change for aquaculture are difficult to ignore. Climate change has the potential to affect

aquaculture through changes in fish stock, species, reduced area for aquaculture, production quantities and

efficiency, water quality, and fish prices. Over and above, the impacts of climate change are also posing threats

to sustainable aquaculture development thus requiring focused implementation of mitigation and adaptation

strategies. Such measures will entail both technological and socio-economic approaches.

5. Vulnerability of Aquaculture to climate change Climate change is currently of major concern to the growing aquaculture production centers in Asia (China,

Bangladesh, India and Vietnam, etc.), and Africa (esp. Egypt). Climate change has altered the wet and dry

seasons. Over the past decade the dry season has come earlier and lingered longer for many Southeast Asian

nations (most noticeably in Vietnam, for example). Upstream dams have caused a loss of freshwaters,

salinization and subsidence in southern Bangladesh, altering valuable aquaculture farming systems in this region.

As IPCC projections call for major shifts in rainfall patterns and storm intensities, pro-active and adaptive

approaches will be required to preserve these important food production centers to accelerated climate change

(Costa-Pierce et al., 2010).



It is increasingly recognized that social, economic and ecological systems are dynamic, interacting and

interdependent (Folke, 2006). In this respect interactions between climate change and aquaculture are two-way

–aquaculture contributes to climate change, and climate change impacts on aquaculture.

5.1. Aquaculture effects on climate change Aquaculture has a limited emission of greenhouse gas, in comparison with beef meat and with some

fisher activities. It has also a limited impact on deforestation, a limited amount of liquid and solid wastes per

kg of meat produced, and a better adaptation to the climate change due to the specific physiology of fishes. In

order to evaluate the environmental impacts pf a product or service, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), which was

developed in the early 1960s (Hendricksonet al., 2005), can be readily applied to estimate the global warming

potential (GWP) of different types of aquaculture.

As mentioned before, tilapia is the major cultured species in Egypt. Egypt is the worlds' second largest

producer of farmed tilapia after China (Mur, 2014, FAO, 2016). It is cultured in both intensive and semi-

intensive systems (Shaheen et al., 2013). Fish cage culture systems are also widely used especially in the Nile

Delta region. In a study by Yacout et al., 2016, Life cycle assessment (LCA) was employed to determine the

environmental impacts of tilapia production and compare semi-intensive and intensive production systems.

Data for life cycle inventory were collected from two case study farms for tilapia production in Egypt (Figure 9).

Results showed that global warming potentials from semi-intensive systems shows extreme variation of almost

four times higher results than intensive systems. The results obtained indicate that the 1 tone live weight

production of tilapia emitted 961 kg CO2 eq in intensive systems to the environment, which is relatively lower

than those reported by Mungkung et al. (2013): 1253–1444 kg CO2 eq from their study regarding tilapia

production (tone) in cages. However, higher values 2100 and 2960 kg CO2 eq were reported by Pelletier and

Tyedmers (2010) and Pongpat and Tonnegpool (2013), respectively.

Furthermore, Yacout et al. 2016 noted that feed production is the major contributor to global warming for

intensive aquaculture systems of tilapia rather than semi-intensive aquaculture systems in Egypt. LCA of feed

production revealed that fish meal production is one of the major hot spots affecting the environmental

performances. The major emission from feed production is CO2 to air. Additionally, energy consumption

through aeration and water pumping has high impact on cumulative energy demand. Thus, the feeding

management and the optimal operation of aerators must be given the attention in order to reduce the GHG

emissions.

Iribarren et al. (2012) reported the same results, concluding that the high impact of raw materials

production specially soya bean, fish meal, and rice is due to the demand of great amounts of these specific

materials according to the current feed formulation. They suggested that reduction in overall impacts can be

done by changing feed formula, usage of new ingredient ratios with lower impact on the environment, and at



the same time contain proper contents of proteins, lipids, and phosphorus. For example, formulations that use

more soya beans and wheat grains but less fish meal are expected to have better environmental impacts in

acidification and global warming. They also suggest using novel raw materials for fish feed production with

better environmental performance (Iribarren et al. 2012). Alternate protein sources can lower the cost of

aquaculture diets to reduce the amount of wild fish used as protein, and potentially reduce the nutrient levels

in effluent waste. However, for most species, there is a limit to how much fishmeal can be replaced by

alternative protein sources without any adverse effects on the fish (Xu et al., 2012).

Aquaculture also offers opportunities for the reduction and mitigation of GHG production and

sequestration of carbon through good aquaculture production practices, such as use of freshwater effluents

for irrigation of rice fields and orchards and replanting of mangrove buffers for coastal protection of ponds

bordering the sea and a nutrient sink for marine and brackish water effluents (FAO/ Worldfish Workshop,

2009).

Figure(9): System boundaries of tilapia production

Source: Yacout et al., 2016

5.2. Implications of climate change on Egyptian aquaculture activities

Aquaculture depends upon resource inputs (water, energy, land, seed, and feed) that connected to

various food, processing, transportation, and other sectors of society. Outputs from aquaculture ecosystems

can be valuable, uncontaminated waste waters and fish wastes, which can be important inputs to ecologically

designed aquatic and terrestrial ecological farming systems and habitats.

The negative impacts of climate change on these inputs will have a number of implications on



aquaculture productivity and livelihood of communities dependent on aquaculture activities. The following

subsections will discuss briefly the main implications of climate change on aquaculture inputs such in the case

of natural resources including water, land, feed and seed, and energy and the current and proposed adaptive

and mitigative options to cope with the consequences of climate change.

a) Water

As mentioned in a previous section, Egypt is considered to be one of the top five countries expected to

be vulnerable to sea level rise impacts (Dasgupta, et al., 2007). Higher sea levels may make coastal

groundwater more saline, especially in low lying areas reducing the availability of freshwater for aquaculture

(Swaminathan, 2012), particularly in desert areas where aquaculture activities rely partly on underground

water. In Egypt, there are 20 commercial Aquaculture located in desert areas with total surface area about

893 hectares producing about 13000 tons/year (El Guindy, 2006; Sadek 2011).

There is a need to move towards cage farming systems (non-consumptive water use) and mariculture to

mitigate the impact of climate change on freshwater hydrology. It should be noted that such intensive

farming technique has some deficiencies associated, which may lead to a number of environmental

implications. However, these deficiencies and their environmental implications can be mitigated, if all

necessary measures that ensure limited environmental implications, such as site selection, are undertake

(Sadek, 2013).

Research will be needed to develop new strains of aquaculture species that are tolerant of lower water

quality and higher levels of salinity to cope with changes driven by climate change.This is a relevant issue for

countries where freshwater is a limiting factor that will be exacerbated by climate change, as seems to be the

case for Egypt (FAO/WorldFish Workshop, 2009).

El-Guindy (2006) also noted that brackish water and brine could play a significant role in the sustainable

development of desert aquaculture (both environmentally and socially) by implementing: (1) economically

and technically feasible options, obtained through desalination of the underground brackish water; and (2)

cost-effective technological solutions related to underground brackish water extraction and exploitation for:

human food (crops and fish); fodder (crops and aquatic products); fuel (wood and biofuel); existing plant

species (halophytes); and new and more salt tolerant agricultural products and other commodities (oils,

lubricants, pharmaceuticals, fibres, etc.). For desert aquaculture farms to be successful, many factors must be

considered when selecting the species to be reared: low cost of feeding; ease of propagation; resistance to

disease and tolerance to adverse climatic conditions; rapid growth and high survival. These factors facilitate

management in relatively high population density culture systems such as those developed in the Egyptian

desert areas. Egyptian desert fish farms, both artisanal and commercial, produce various finfish including Nile

tilapia, hybrid red tilapia, North African catfish, common carp, silver carp, grass carp, European seabass,

gilthead seabream and ornamental species such as koi, fantail and molly. In the desert and arid lands of Egypt,



Nile tilapia and North African catfish are the main cultured species when freshwater from underground

reservoirs is used. However, European seabass and gilthead seabream are also reared in areas where most of

the brackish and saline underground waters (>26 g/litre) are found (Sadek et al., 2011).

A preliminary study by Anonymous (2002) has shown that the brine effluent water from the desalination

plant of the El-Gouna resort that is located 22 km north of Hurghada in the Red Sea Governorate is suitable

for growing hybrid red tilapia, grey mullet, gilthead seabream and European seabass. Water is supplied from

three different sources: effluent brackish water (salinity 12 g/litre) from the desalination unit with a daily

production of 3 000 m3; groundwater (salinity 60 g/litre) with a capacity of 60 m3/hr from different wells near

the fish farm project and groundwater (4.5–6 g/litre) originating from the agriculture farm which belongs to

the Orascom Company behind the mountains. The water requirements of the fish farm can be adjusted from

the three above-mentioned water sources to meet a daily requirement of 3 000 m3. Salinity is adjusted for

each species, at 12–20 g/litre for the hybrid red tilapia during the various rearing phases (nursing, pre-growing

and growing tanks) and 4.5–6 g/litre for the brood stock maintenance and breeding tanks. Water salinity is

adjusted to a maximum of 20 g/litre for marine finfish species. The effluent from the fish farm does not drain

into the Red Sea; it is used to culture mangrove trees in artificial shallow lakes (Sadek, 2011).

A promising aquaculture technique of fish farming that can be used in Egypt is recirculation aquaculture

system (RAS). In RAS, fish is cultured under fully controlled environmental conditions independent of their

natural environment. RAS are land-based fish production systems in which water from the rearing tanks is

reused after mechanical and biological purification to reduce water and energy consumption and to reduce

emission to the environment (Schneider et al. 2010) (Figure 10).

Figure (10): Simplified recirculating aquaculture system

Source: (FAO, 2014b)



Since water is reused, the water volume requirements in RAS are only about 20 % of what conventional

open pond culture demands. They offer a promising solution to water use conflicts, water quality and waste

disposal. These concerns will continue to intensify in the future as water demand for a variety of uses

escalates (Bahnasawy et al. 2009). RAS are particularly useful in areas where land and water are expensive

and not readily available. They require relatively small amounts of land and water. They can be located close

to large markets and thereby reduce hauling distances and transportation costs. Moreover, RAS can use

municipal water supplies (after dechlorination) and discharge waste into sanitary sewer system (Brazil 2006).

The challenge to the use of recirculation systems will be to reduce the energy costs and thereby maintain the

GHG emissions per unit production at an acceptable level, through engineering innovations (DeSilva, 2012).

A case study on developing financially viable recirculation aquaculture system for tilapia production in

Egypt was funded by the Netherland. Twenty four tanks (3x8x1 m) were modified to match the recirculation

system requirements. The tanks were arranged in two rows, each row having an irrigation channel with a

drain channel in the middle. Sufficient space was made available alongside the fish tank to build a solid waste

removal tank. A separate concrete pond was used to form the base for a trickle filter. The solid waste removal

tank was connected to a 2x2m square, concrete tank where the water was then pumped to the top of the

trickle-down filter (Radwan and Leschen, 2011) (Figure 11). The early production cycle of RAS trials revealed

great potentials for being adopted widely in Egypt, for example, the production cycle of 2010 resulted in

18935 kg of fish with total cost of L.E. 141368, which means the economic feasibility of such a system (Van der

Heijden, 2011).

Figure (11): Concrete ponds; Ismail Radwan fish farm at Kafr El Shaikh Governorate

Source: (Radwan and Leschen, 2011)



Furthermore, the use of brackish groundwater for integrated production of fish and salt tolerant crops

is another prerequisite of the sector. At Wadi El Natroun in El Beheira Governorate, an experimental farm is

growing sea bass, sea bream and red tilapia, using saline underground water. The saline fish farm effluent is

used to develop an integrated aquaculture horticulture system. Currently, salt-tolerant species (Samphrie

Salicorina europaeae), Mediterranean salt bush (Atriplex halimus) and sea blite (Suaeda vermiculata) are

tested (van der Heijden et al. 2012) (Figure 12).

Figure (12): Pioneer aquaculture projects in The Egyptian desert (Recycle Aquaculture System-RAS):

Rula For Land Reclamation, Wadi Group, Wadi El-Natroun

Source: (Van der Heijden et al. 2012)

Another promising technique that is environmental friendly aquaculture system called “Biofloc

Technology (BFT)” Biofloc systems (also called Activated Suspension Ponds or Aerated Microbial Reuse

systems) are intensive systems to grow detritus-eating fish species like Nile tilapia and some species of

shrimps like Litopenaeus vannamei with reduced use of water if compared with common culture in ponds.An

important difference with recirculation systems is that in biofloc systems the waste that is generated during

fish farming (sludge, carbon dioxide and ammonia) are treated in the pond or fish tank itself while in

recirculation systems the waste is treated outside the fish basins.

In biofloc systems the water is aerated intensively and mixed continuously to create optimum

conditions for bacteria (that treat the waste) and good conditions for fish to grow. Intensive aeration, proper

design of the ponds and proper location in the ponds of the paddlewheels and other aerating devises keep

the water moving in all parts of the pond and avoid settlement and accumulation of sludge (all the feed and



manure particles are kept in suspension). The sludge particles that drift in the water column are quickly

covered with bacteria and other small creatures (protozoans, algae, etc). This layer of bacteria and other

micro-organisms is a protein-rich coating around the particle. When eaten by the fish or shrimp the coating is

digested and is a protein-rich feed. The particle itself my leave the fish again as part of manure, and once in

the water it will soon be covered again with a layer of bacteria, eaten again by the fish, etc (van der Heijden

et al., 2013).

Biofloc technology is considered as an efficient alternative system since nutrients could be continuously

recycled and reused. The sustainable approach of such system is based on growth of microorganism in the

culture medium, benefited by the minimum or zero water exchange (Crab et al., 2009).

Bioflocs are aggregates (flocs) of algae, bacteria, protozoans, and other kinds of particulate organic

matter such as feces and uneaten feed. Each floc is held together in a loose matrix of mucus that is secreted

by bacteria, bound by filamentous microorganisms, or held by electrostatic attraction. The biofloc

community also includes animals that are grazers of flocs, such as some zooplankton and nematodes. Large

bioflocs can be seen with the naked eye, but most are microscopic (Hargreaves, 2013). These

microorganisms (biofloc) has two major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen

compounds generating “in situ” microbial protein; and (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing

feed conversion ratio and a decrease of feed costs (Crab et al., 2009).

Biofloc technology is a technique of enhancing water quality through the addition of extra carbon to the

aquaculture system, through an external carbon source or elevated carbon content of the feed (Hargreaves,

2006). This promoted nitrogen uptake by microbial growth decreases the ammonium concentration more

rapidly than nitrification (Hargreaves, 2006). Immobilization of ammonium by heterotrophic bacteria occurs

much more rapidly because the growth rate and microbial biomass productivity per unit substrate of

heterotrophic organisms are a factor 10 higher than that caused by the nitrifying bacteria (Crab et al., 2012).

As a closed system, BFT has primordial advantage of minimizing the release of water into rivers, lakes

and estuaries containing escaped animals, nutrients, organic matter and pathogens. Also, surrounding areas

are benefitted by the “vertically growth” in terms of productivity, preventing coastal or inland area

destruction, induced eutrophication and natural resources losses. Drained water from ponds and tanks often

contains relatively high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous, limiting nutrients that induce algae

growth, which may cause severe eutrophication and further anaerobic conditions in natural water bodies. In

BFT, minimum water discharge and reuse of water prevent environment degradation and convert such

system in a real “environmentally friendly system” with a “green” approach. Minimum water exchange

maintain the heat and fluctuation of temperature is prevented (Crab et al., 2009), allowing growth of tropical

species in cold areas.



Compared to conventional water treatment technologies used in aquaculture, biofloc technology

provides a more economical alternative (decrease of water treatment expenses in the order of 30%), and

additionally, a potential gain on feed expenses (the efficiency of protein utilization is twice as high in biofloc

technology systems when compared to conventional ponds). Therefore, biofloc technology is a low-cost

sustainable constituent to future aquaculture development (Avnimelech, 2009). It could also be used in the

specific case of maintaining appropriate water temperature, good water quality and high fish/shrimp survival

in low/no water exchange, greenhouse ponds to overcome periods of lower temperature during winter (Crab

et al., 2012). In addition, Crab et al. (2010) have recently shown that biofloc technology constitutes a

possible alternative measure to fight pathogens in aquaculture.

Figure (13): Biofloc pond

Source: (Suloma et al., 2015)

According to the first biofloc trial at Wadi El Natroun red tilapia can indeed be grown in this very

water-efficient growing system and valuable lessons were obtained that will be used to improve the

technique. The biofloc method uses very little water per kg of fish produced when compared with other

intensive fish culture methods. This method can also be applied in freshwater tilapia culture and contributes

to the reduction of the use of freshwater, a resource with limited availability in Egypt at the moment and

becoming more scarce in the near future as result of population expansion and agricultural developments.

Contrary to expectations the Egyptian consumers were willing to pay more for this type of tilapia than for

the commonly produced grey tilapia (van der Heijdenet al., 2013).

b) Land

The Nile Delta, like all world deltas, is considered to be vulnerable areas to sea level rise. Potential

impacts of SLR on the delta may include increased coastal erosion, overtopping of coastal defenses and

increased flooding, damage to urban centers, retreat of barrier dunes, decreased soil moisture, increased

soil and lagoon water salinity, and decreased agriculture and fisheries productivity (MSEA 2001). Sea level



rise (SLR) leads to loss of land due to inundation and would lead to reduced area available for aquaculture,

loss of freshwater fisheries and aquaculture due to reduced freshwater availability, changes in estuary

systems and shifts in species abundance and the distribution and composition of fish stocks and

aquaculture seed. Seawater intrusion into freshwater aquifers is an increasing problem with rising sea level

(Moore, 1999).

Yet, it was argued that inundation of wetlands cannot be seen as a net economic loss. Rather, if

proper adaptation options are carried out, it could turn into a good opportunity for increasing fisheries

productivity (Hassan and Abdrabo, 2013). This in turn entails an integrated analysis for the impacts of

different risks associated with climate changes.

As sea levels rise, flooding of low lying areas and salinization of groundwater and soil will create ideal

conditions for aquaculture in many areas (MAB, 2009), while simultaneously rendering them unsuitable for

regular agriculture (WorldFish Center, 2007). Aquaculture diversification due to a shift to brackish water

species resulting from reduced freshwater availability is a possibility. Increased areas might be suitable for

the brackish water culture of high-value species such as shrimp and mud crab.

Saline water intrusion and associated flooding are likely to make a large acreage of current

agricultural activities, primarily rice cultivation, untenable in such areas. However, such areas can continue

to be utilized for aquaculture, thereby continuing to provide alternative livelihoods and much-needed food

production (De Silva, 2012).The major challenge confronting aquaculture, therefore, is to commence new

farming systems in salinity-intruded areas. In order to meet this challenge, the planning processes have to

be put in place soon (De Silva, 2012).

On the other hand, traditional farming is risky and farmers invest heavily in crop production to get

maximum return. With increasing pressure from the growing human population, only vertical expansion is

possible by integrating appropriate farming components, requiring lesser space and time and ensuring

periodic income to the farmer. The integrated farming system therefore, assumes greater importance for

the sound management of farm resources to enhance the farm productivity, reduce the environmental

degradation, improve the quality of life for poor farmers and to maintain sustainability.

Aquaculture provides opportunities to adapt to climate change by integrating aquaculture and

agriculture. A combination of aquaculture (raising fish in a controlled environment) and hydroponics

(growing plants without soil, providing the nutrients to the plants mixed into the water fed to the plants)

called Aquaponics is a way forward to utilize available land and water efficiently.

Aquaponics is a sustainable food production system that combines a traditional aquaculture with

hydroponics in a symbiotic environment (Figure 14). The water is efficiently recirculated and reused for

maximum benefits through natural biological filtration and recirculation. The waste that is excreted by

aquatic species or uneaten feed is naturally converted into nitrate and other beneficial nutrients in the



water. Those nutrients are then absorbed by the vegetables and fruits in a “natural fertilization way”

(Emerenciano et al., 2013).

Figure (14): Simple aquaponic unit

Source: (FAO, 2014b)

Aquaponics is ideal for developing countries because the fish provide much-needed protein and a

second source of income. High value cash crops, such as vegetables, can be grown with aquaponics in

areas where conventional farming methods can only produce grains. Additionally, aquaponics produce is

entirely organic (and thus can be sold for a higher price) because no pesticides are needed in this closed-

water system. Aquaponics is also less labor intensive than conventional farming and requires less water

because it can be recycled using a circulatory pump (INMED, 2015). Therefore, aquaponics is ideal for

drought-prone and water-scarce regions. Because the system is usually enclosed in a greenhouse,

aquaponics is resistant to climate and weather changes.

The benefits of aquaponics are huge. Aquaponics can grow ten times more crops per unit area than

conventional methods, (PELUM, 2013) uses 75% less energy than mechanized agriculture, and consumes

80-90% less water (INMED, 2015). Aquaponics is growing woods in the desert and yielding harvests in the

city. In practice, Nile tilapia is the most popular fish chosen for this system. In Egypt, few trials have been

experienced. One of these trials was transferred from Virgin Islands University and brought the technique

to Egypt, where the country’s first commercial aquaponics farm started. Water circulates through tanks full

of Nile tilapia, then the fish-waste laden water was treated and filtered and then flows over through trays

where vegetables grow, and eventually out to irrigate the olive trees that line the farm (Shaheen et

al.,2013). El Bustan Aquaponics farm is another example of aquaponics in Egypt. It is a 1,000 m2 operation

located on the outskirts of Cairo, and is the first and only commercial aquaponics farm in Egypt, producing

pesticide-free tilapia fish, four varieties of lettuce, baby spinach, purple kale, swiss chard, celery, etc. (FAO,

2015).



Integrated aquaculture and agriculture has expanded rapidly in the Egyptian desert since 2000. This is

the most common farming system and a large number of desert land owners have established fish rearing

facilities. Desert aquaculture began with growing fish in the tanks that are used as water reservoirs for

irrigation. Success in this activity encouraged some farm owners to seek technical support towards

integrating fish farming with their agriculture businesses. Recently, as the efficient and economical

utilization of water sources becomes a necessity, aquaculture production systems are being developed.

Integrated systems are particularly attractive to farmers, as water sources enriched with organic fish

wastes from intensive aquaculture ponds serve as a fertilizer for land crops (such as corn and alpha-alpha),

as well as providing water for breeding sheep and goats, thus, resulting in the production of three different

crops from the same quantity of water (Sadek, 2011).

The Qattara Depression and the Egyptian Sand Sea in the Libyan Desert, nearly 560 km from Cairo, are

well known for their agriculture cultivation systems, as well as their medicinal and restorative properties.

More than 1 500 water reservoirs with a total water volume of 1 million m3 are used for irrigation,

particularly in the cultivation of dates, olives and basketry. A few farmers have cultivated tilapia in 400 m3

tanks and have succeeded in producing between 350 to 400 kg of tilapia per tank over a period of 6 to 7

months (Sadek, 2011).

El-Keram, a trading investment company that is located between Cairo and Alexandria in the desert of

Beheira, about 100 km northwest of Cairo, has applied a methodology that involves nutrient sharing and

waste recycling. Since 1990, El-Keram has demonstrated the efficient utilization of every drop of water

pumped from its desert wells (100 m3/hr). The El-Keram aquaculture systems have been carefully

designed so that each output stage forms the input for the next stage, as summarized by El-Guindy (2006)

(Figure 15 and Table 2).

Figure (15): El-Keram agriculture system in the Egyptian desert

Source: (Sadek, 2011)



Adopting this strategy, thefarm has been able to integrate the production of two different fish crop

types each year, as well as arable, animal and biogas production. One hundred tonnes of tilapia can be

produced alongside 100 tonnes of catfish annually. The effluent water from the fish farm is used to

produce 7 800 tonnes/year of Egyptian clover, which provides fodder for 1 300 sheep/year. Ultimately, the

manure of the livestock is used to produce biogas to heat water for the tilapia hatcheries (Figure 16).

Figure (16): The integration of El-Keram agriculture system in the Egyptian desert


Figure (17): El Keram fish farm



Source: (Feidi, 2013)

Table (2): Comparison between the non-integrated agriculture system and El-Keram agriculture integration project

system (fish/clover/sheep/organic-fertilizer/biogas) in the Egyptian desert

Item Non-integrated agriculture

production systems El-Keram integration system

Water units 3 1

Tilapia 100 tons 100 tons

Catfish 100 tons 100 tons

Clover 4500 tons 7800 tons

Sheep (Head) 1000 1300

Warm water Nil Yes

Organic fertilizer Nil Yes

Waste Variable Nil

Irrigated land (hectares) 42 55

Water conservation 0% 67%


Integrated crop and livestock production systems are highly efficient; potentially crop residues are

used as livestock feed; the waste products (e.g. feces and urine) are fed into biogas digesters and the

effluent used to fertilize ponds for aquatic plant/algae production, with fish farming as the terminal

activity. These systems are very worthwhile pursuing as a means of providing nutrients/fuel for the family,

minimizing fossil fuel combustion and methane generation and, thus, reducing environmental pollution

(Preston, 1990).

Van der Heijden and Verdegem (2009) reported that the commercial tilapia desert farm El-Wataneya

Fish Farm began in 1998 on 25 hectares of unused land as an integrated farm producing tilapia, chicken,

vegetables (cucumbers, tomatoes, bananas, wheat, peppers, mangos, etc.) and flowers, mainly gladiolas.

For crop production, freshwater is used from the Ismailia Canal, which is connected to the Nile River,

together with groundwater and fish farm effluent. The only difference between these three sources is

that the groundwater is used entirely for fish culture. Water in the concrete fish basins is normally

replaced at a rate of 25–35 percent/day but can be as high as 60 percent/day in the latter stages of the

fish production cycle. Even though water is already available at a depth of 3 m, the farm pumps water

from 70 m. All fry and nursery tanks are aerated with blowers, while grow-out tanks are equipped with 2

HP paddlewheels which maintain constant levels of oxygen. In terms of profitability, tilapia is on top of

the list, followed by bananas, vegetables and flowers (Sadek, 2011).



Tilapia, grass carp, common carp and silver carp are placed in the drainage ponds; this results in a

yield of 2 000 kg/year without any supplementary feeding. The waste water flows from the drainage

ponds to the sprinkler irrigation systems, which are maintained in good working condition by the laborers.

Until two years ago, the El-Wataneya farm also raised ducks, although this activity was then terminated,

as the demand for ducks is only seasonal (holidays, special events, etc.) (Sadek, 2011).

According to Sadek (2011) integrated aquaculture systems seem to be the most cost-effective in

Egypt for several reasons:

• They allow the farm to store water; an important factor, since ordering water from the irrigation

district can take time.

• They aid irrigation in pressurized systems like drip or sprinkler systems.

• The fish wastes provided crops fertilization. Farmers have used fish water effluent for many crops,

from vegetables and fruits to wheat.

• Productivity and income can be increased by using the same volume of water for two, or possibly even

three crops (fish, plant and animal products).

Integration is done to recycle resources efficiently. In Asia, the integration of livestock, fish and

crops has proved to be a sustainable system through centuries of experience. In China, for example, the

integration of fishpond production with ducks, geese, chickens, sheep, cattle or pigs increased fish

production by 2 to 3.9 times (Chen, 1996), while there were added ecological and economic benefits of

fish utilizing animal wastes.

According to Al Mamun1 et al., 2011 the more recent integration of Fish with the Livestock and

Crop has helped to improve the fertilizer and feed supplies, plus the high market value of fish as feed

and/or food increasing the incomes substantially. Technically, this important addition of a second cycle

of nutrients from fish wastes has benefited the enhanced integration process, and has improved the

livelihoods of many small farmers considerably.

However, the next years will see an increase in the efficient use of land, water, food, seed and

energy through intensification and widespread adoption of integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming

ecosystems approaches. However, this will not be enough to increase aquaculture production as these

will improve only the efficiency of use, and increase aquaculture yields per unit of inputs.

c) Feed

Aquaculture depends heavily on capture fisheries for fishmeal. Climate change could have dramatic

impacts on fish production which would affect the supply of fishmeal and fish oil. Tacon et al.(2006)

estimated that in 2003, the aquaculture sector consumed 2.94 million tonnes of fishmeal globally,



considered to be equivalent to the consumption of 14.95 to 18.69 million tonnes of forage fish/trash

fish/low-value fish, primarily small pelagics. The potential for adverse impacts of climate change on

global fishmeal production is well illustrated by periodic shortages associated with climate fluctuations

such as El Nino. Expansion of aquaculture industries is placing increasing demand on global supplies of

wild-harvest fishmeal to provide protein and oil ingredients for aqua-feeds. About 30 percent (29.5

million tonnes) of the world fish catch is used for non-human consumption, including the production of

fishmeal and fish oil that is employed in agriculture, in aquaculture and for industrial purposes.

Depending on the species being cultured, they may constitute more than 50 percent of the feed. So,

here is an urgent need to find plant protein-based alternatives to fishmeal (Swaminathan, 2012).

Aquaculture expansion in Egypt has been accompanied by a gradual shift from extensive and semi-

intensive low-input culture systems to more intensive feed-dependent system. This approach has

resulted in an increase in demand for commercial fish feeds (El-Sayed 2014). Depending on the

formulations used, between 50% and 99% of feed ingredients used in aquafeed production in Egypt are

imported (Tacon et al., 2012; FAO, 2013). As international prices for feed raw materials have risen and

with a declining exchange rate for the Egyptian pound against major currencies, prices of feed

ingredients and processed feeds have increased substantially in recent years (El-Sayed et al., 2015).

Furthermore, feed represents 70–95% (85% in average) of total farm operating costs. The development

of commercial aquafeeds or complete formulated diets has usually been based upon the use of fishmeal

as the main source of dietary protein; the nutritional characteristics of fishmeal protein approximating

almost exactly to the nutritional requirements of cultured finfish (Tacon, 1993). Increasing fish meal

cost, decreasing availability, irregular supply and poor quality of fish meal have put forward emphasis on

its partial or complete replacement with alternative protein sources (Ramachandran and Ray,

2007).Plant proteins might be the most viable alternative in this respect as these are widely available and

reasonably priced. Therefore, there is continuing interest in identifying and developing ingredients as

alternatives to the high feed cost of fish meal for the thriving global aquaculture industry (Goda et al.,

2014) and to limit the use of fish meal in the other hand.

Researchers in The WorldFish Center, Abu Hammad, Abbassa, Egypt, carried out a successful field

trial on replacement of fishmeal with locally produced fish meal and soybean meal in diets for Nile tilapia

(Oreochromis Niloticus L.) in pre-fertilized ponds. They obtained results which demonstrated clearly a

significant increase in tilapia production from the ponds that were fed with soybean-based diets in

comparison with those fed with the commercial feed containing fishmeal as the sole animal protein

source. Feed conversion ratios (FCR) from the trial were very encouraging and demonstrated very

strongly the significant improvement of the FCR values for the soybean-based diets over that for the

commercial fishmeal-based diet (Shaheen et al. 2013).



On the other hand, the production cycle is about six-to-eight months (April/May-

September/October) (El-Sayed, 2014). The seasonal nature of aquaculture production systems in Egypt

means that there is much higher demand for feeds in summer and autumn than in winter and spring.

Although feed mills are operating at full capacity for half the year they stand idle at other times but this

does not mean that there is spare capacity. As fish farm production continues to grow the peak feed

requirement and employment opportunities will also grow, for both full-time and seasonal staff. There

are potential strategies to smooth out feed production through the year, thereby increasing the ratio of

permanent to seasonal workers. One option would be to produce more feeds in the off-season and store

finished feeds in temperature controlled stores for sale in the peak season. However, prolonged feed

storage is undesirable and is likely to be more expensive than just increasing peak capacity of existing

feed mills (El-Sayed et al., 2015). There may be opportunities to improve the efficiency of feed mills,

particularly in inefficient public sectormills, through training and rationalization. There may also be

opportunities to extend the feed processing season by supplying export markets. Egyptian feeds appear

to be competitive with international feed prices. As aquaculture is set to grow in other parts of Africa,

Egyptian feed mills could target new markets (El-Sayed et al., 2015).

d) Seed

Climate change is predicted to have impacts on ocean productivity, fish migration and recruitment.

This together with continued habitat deterioration, overfishing, etc. will affect the availability of seeds

from the wild. Therefore, increased efforts should be made to increase the production of seeds in

hatcheries. Other adaptation advantages could include research and genetic selection of seeds better

adapted to new environmental conditions.

Expansion of Egypt’s aquaculture industry has been matched by the development of a large number

of tilapia hatcheries all producing sex-reversed all-male fry and fingerlings (Nasr-Allah eta l., 2014).

One of the main challenges faced by Egyptian aquaculture is the seasonality of the climate seasonality.

While summer temperatures are very suitable for growth and reproduction of the main farmed species,

Nile tilapia, winter temperatures fall below optimal levels for growth and propagation (25-30 °C). In

order to meet the high demand for seed by fish farmers early in the season (Macfadyen et al., 2012), an

increasing number of tilapia hatcheries in Egypt advance and extend their breeding season by warming

the water in their systems (Naiel et al., 2011). The most common technique is to use solar heating

(enclosing breeding tanks or ponds in greenhouse tunnels), but this may be augmented by heating using

a boiler or using underground water which has a higher temperature than surface water. This allows the

hatchery to meet high demand for seed at the start of the season (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014).

On the other hand, the aquaculture production of seeds and larvae for the establishment of



new/additional fish resource for fisheries and livelihoods is an important positive output of the process.

Hatchery-produced larvae can also contribute to the conservation and improvement of endangered

species. Restocking to enhance fisheries or to recover endangered stocks can provide important

opportunities also under climate change threats.

All of the above climate change elements could impact aquaculture directly and/or indirectly. As

previously mentioned, such impacts cannot always be attributed to one single facet of climatic change,

in most cases the impacts due to being a combination of many factors (De-Silva, 2012).

6. Conclusion Aquaculture industry is the fastest growing sector in Egypt. It is considered as the main source of

fish supply accounting for nearly 85.7% of total fish production. Egypt's aquaculture production (1.23

million tons in 2015) and is expected to increase to 1.8 million tons in 2018. The expansion in

aquaculture production has been accompanied by a gradual shift from extensive and semi-intensive to

intensive fish farming with the rapid expansion in the application of new technologies such as the use of

water circulation systems and improved farms management practices. This approach has resulted in an

increase in demand for fish feeds, seeds, energy, water, and land.

Despite the fact that aquaculture sector in Egypt has witnessed a spectacular development, there

are some major constraints facing aquaculture production that is related to resource use conflicts

(water and land), energy consumption, feed and seeds. By reviewing the current aquaculture situation

and the expected future development it was noted that water, energy and land usage in aquaculture

are all interactive and challenges to the sustainability of aquaculture sector.

Climate change is considered as one of those constraints, as it may have negative implications on

aquaculture productivity that dependent upon such inputs (water, land, feed, and seeds). Consequently,

a potential adaptation option to improve Egyptian aquaculture resilience to climate change impacts is a

must for future development and sustainability of the sector. The paper in hands addressed the

potential impacts of climate change on aquaculture and aquaculture contribution to climate change,

and the possible solutions for adaptations which may be summarized as follows:

The marine aquaculture and the integrated aquaculture and agriculture through the use of ground

water and effluent discharge should be developed in order to overcome the present and future

anticipated limitations of fresh water and brackish water.

Water and land resources would be limiting factor for aquaculture development and intensification

of existing production system is must to meet resources limitation (CHIEAM, 2008). Increase in the

efficient use of land, water, food, seed and energy through intensification (recirculation systems

and biofloc), which use less land and freshwater, but have higher energy and feed requirements



with exception of biofloc which safe feed requirement through reuse. The use of alternative

renewable energy systems and (non-marine) feed sources could improve the sustainability of reuse

considerably.

Reducing the amount of imported fishmeal and feed ingredients through the usage of local ones is

another important thrust area to be taken care.Research on the use of agricultural meals and oils to

replace use of fish meals and fish oil is a major subject of aquaculture research and development.

Development of new strains specific to certain farming systems, for example, increased salinity

tolerance or increased temperature tolerance is also highly recommended. On the other hand,

increase the production of seeds in hatcheries and genetic selection of seeds better adapted to new

environmental conditions is needed.

Focus should be addressed toward reducing the impact of aquaculture industry on climate change

and fossil fuels depletion by investigating how to reduce energy use through energy conservation,

proper energy management in feed manufacturing, and introduce possible renewable energy

approaches in aquaculture industry.

Awareness and capacity building by providing climate change education and create greater

awareness among all stakeholders is highly recommended. Many farmers have the technical skill or

able to make joint venture with international consultant office to develop high intensive production

system (CIHEAM, 2008).

Finally, aquaculture may offer opportunities for the reduction and mitigation of GHG production

and sequestration of carbon through good aquaculture production practices, such as use of water

effluents for irrigation of certain crops and orchards.



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