Chapter 2: Transplantations and Borderlands1. The Early Chesapeake

a. The Founding of Jamestowni. Charter granted to London Company in 1604 by King James I, Godspeed,

Discovery, and Susan Constant left England and landed in Jamestown, VA in 1607

ii. Colony mostly al men, inadequate diets contributed to disease, by 1608 colony had almost failed (poor leadership, location, disease, food) except Capt. John Smith saved it by imposing work and order and organizing raids against Indians

b. Reorganizationi. London Company became Virginia Company 1609, gained expanded

charter, sold stock, wish to grew VA colony with land grants to plantersii. Winter of 1609-1610= starving timeiii. First governor Lord De La Warr arrived 1609, established harsh discipline

w/ work gangsiv. Communal system didn’t work well, Governor Dale thought better off with

personal incentive to work and private ownershipc. Tobacco

i. 1612 VA planter John Rolfe began to grow tobacco, cultivation spread, created a tobacco economy that was profitable, uncertain, and high labor and land demands, created need for territorial expansion

d. Expansioni. Tobacco still not enough to make profits, 1618 campaign to attract settlersii. Headright system- land grants to new settles, encouraged family groups to

migrate together, rewarded those who paid for passages of othersiii. Company brought women and skilled workers, allowed for a share in self-

govt (VA House of Burgesses met July 30, 1619)iv. 1919 saw arrival of first Negro slaves on Dutch ship, but palnters continued

to favor indentured servants until at least 1670s b/c cheaper and more abundant

v. Colony grew b/c Indians suppressed, Sir Thomas Dale led assaults, huge uprising staged by Powhatans in 1622 but eventually put down, again 1644

vi. By 1624 Virginia Company defunct, lost all funds, charter revoked by James I and colony put under control of crown

e. Exchanges of Agricultural Techi. Survival of Jamestown result of agricultural tech developed by Indians and

borrowed by English, such as value of corn w/ its high yields, beans alongside corn to enrich soil

f. Maryland and the Calvertsi. Dream of George Calvert (first Lord Baltimore) as speculative venture +

retreat for English Cath. oppressed by Anglican church, 1632 son Cecilius

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(second Lord Balt) got charter from king, made complete sovereigns of new land

ii. 1634 Lord Balt named brother Leonard Calvert governor, settlers arrived in Maryland

iii. Calverts invested heavily, needed many settlers to make profit, encouraged Prot. as well as Catholics (Cath became minority), “Act Concerning Religion” granted toleration; yet politics in MD plagued by tension btwn Catholic minority and Prot. majority, civil war 1655

iv. Proprietor was absolute monarch, Lord Balt. granted land to relatives and other English aristocrats, labor shortages required headright system

g. Turbulent Virginia

i. Mid 17th century VA colony had larger pop, complexity and profitability of economy, debates over how to deal with Indians

ii. Sir William Berkeley apptd governor by King Charles I 1642, put down 1644 Indian uprising and agreed to not cross settlement line. Impossible to protect Indian territory b/c of growth of VA after Cromwell’s victory in English Civil War and flight of opponents to colony

1. Choice lands along river occupied, new arrivals pressed westwardiii. At first vote extended to all, later only to landowners and elections rare, led

to recent settlers in “back country” to be underrepresentedh. Bacon’s Rebellion

i. Nathaniel Bacon and other members of backcountry gentry disagreed on policies toward natives, backcountry in constant danger from Indian attack b/c on land reserved to natives by treaty, believed east. aristocracy wanted to protect dominance by holding down white settlers in west

ii. Bacon on governors council, in 1675 led counter-attacks against Indians against governors orders, kicked off council, unauthorized assault on Indians became a military challenge to colonial govt

iii. Bacon’s army marched on Jamestown twice, died suddenlyiv. Rebellion showed unwillingness of settlers to abide by agreements with

natives, also potential for instability in colony’s large population of free, landless men eager for land and against landed gentry—common interest in east and west aristocracy to prevent social unrest, led to African slave trade growing

2. The Growth of New Englanda. Plymouth Plantation

i. 1608 Pilgrims (Separatists from Ang. Chur) went to Holland to seek freedom, unhappy with children entering Dutch society

ii. Leaders obtained permission from VA Company to settle in VA, king would “not molest them”. William Bradford was their leader and historian

iii. Left 1620 aboard Mayflower with 35 “saints” (members of church) and 67 “strangers”, original destination Hudson River but ended up @ Cape Cod

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iv. Land outside of London Company’s territory, therefore signed Mayflower Compact to establish a civil govt and give allegiance to king

v. Found cleared land from Indians killed by disease, natives provided assistance (Squanto), Indians weaker than Southern counterparts, 1622 Miles Standish imposed discipline on Pilgrims to grow corn, develop fur trade

vi. William Bradford elected governor, sought legal permission for colony from Council for New England, ended communal labor and distributed land privately, paid off colonies debt

b. b)The Massachusetts Bay Experimenti. Puritans persecuted by James I, and afterward by Charles I who was trying

to restore Catholicism to England. 1629 sought charter for land in Massachusetts, some members of Massachusetts Bay Company saw themselves as something more than a business venture, creating a haven for Puritans in N.E.

ii. Governor John Winthrop led seventeen ships in 1630, Boston became company headquarters and capital but many colonists moved into a number of other new towns in E. Mass. 

iii. Mass. Bay Company became colonial govt, corporate board of directors gave way to elections by male citizens. Didn’t separate from Anglican church but more leeway in church than centralized structure in England, “congregation church”

iv. Mass Puritans serous and pious ppl, led lies of thrift and hard work, “city upon a hill” (Winthrop). Clergy and govt worked close together, taxes supported church, dissidents little freedom, Mass a “theocracy”

v. Large number of families ensured feeling of commitment to community and sense of order, allowed pop to reproduce very quickly

c. Expansion of New Englandi. As more ppl arrived many didn’t accept all religious tenets of colony’s

leaders, Connecticut Valley attracted settlers b/c of fertile land and less religious

ii. Thomas Hooker led congregation to Hartford, established Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- created govt with more men given right to vote and hold off

iii. Fundamental Orders of New Haven established New Haven b/c viewed Boston as lacking in religious orthodoxy, later made Connect. with Hartford (royal)

iv. Rhode Island origins in Roger Williams, minister from MA who John Winthrop and others viewed as heretic. Was a Separatist, called for sep of church and state, banished + created Providence, 1644 obtained charter from Parliament to establish govt, “liberty in religious concernments”

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v. Anne Hutchinson believed that Mass clergy were not among elect and ad no right to spiritual office, went against assumptions of proper role of women in Puritan society. Developed large following from women who wanted active role in religious affairs, and those opposed to oppressive colonial govt

1. Unorthodoxy challenged religious beliefs + social order of Puritans, banished and moved to Rhode Island, 

vi. Followers of Hutchinson moved to New Hampshire and Maine, established in 1629 by Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges who received grant from Council for New England (former Plymouth Company)

d. Settlers and Nativesi. Natives less powerful rivals to N.E. settlers, small to begin with and nearly

extinguished by epidemicsii. Provided assistance to settlers, whites learned about local food crops +

technique, trade with Indians created fortuneiii. Peaceful relations did not last, whites appetite for land grew as pop

increased, livestock required more land to graze. Character of conflict and white bruatity emerged in part out of Puritan attitude toward Natives now seen as “heathens” and “savages’

e. e)The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and Technology of Battlei. First major conflict 1637 w/ settlers in Connecticut Valley and Pequot

Indians over trade w/ Dutch and land, English allied with rival Indians to Pequots. Capt John Mason killed many Indians, Pequots almost wiped out

ii. Most prolonged and deadly encounter began n 1675 btwn chief of Wampanoags under chief named King Philip, believed only armed resistance could protect land from English invasion and imposition of English law

1. for three years natives destroyed towns, Mass economy and society weakened, white settlers eventually fought back

2. 1676 joined with rival Indians, Wampanoags shortly defeated, pop decimated and made powerless

iii. Settlements still remained in danger from surviving Indians, & new competition from French and Dutch

iv. Indians had made effective use of new weapon technology: flintlock rifle, which allowed them to inflict higher amounts of casualties. But Indians were no match for advante of English in numbers and firepower

3. The Restoration Coloniesa. The English Civil War

i. Charles I dissolved Parliament 1629 and ruled as absolute monarch, 1642 some members organized military challenge to king. Cavaliers (king, Cath) vs. Roundheads (Parl, Puritans + Prot). 1649 king defeated

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ii. After Cromwell’s death in 1658, Stuart Restoration put Charles II back on throne, rewarded courtiers with grants of land. Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania all chartered as proprietary ventures

b. The Carolinasi. Carved out of Virginia and given to eight proprietors 1663, proposed to sell

or give land away using headrights and collect annual payments (quitrents), freedom of worship to Christians, but efforts failed

ii. Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) financed migration from England 1670, founded Charleston 1690. Wanted planned and ordered community, with help of John Locke drew up Fundamental Constitution for Caroline 1669- elaborate system of land distribution and social order

1. (1)Colony never united, north and south separated socially and economically. N=backwoods, poor. S=Charles Town, trade, prosperous, aristocratic. Rice principal crop

iii. SC close ties to overpopulated Barbados where slavery had taken root. White Carribbean migrants- tough profit seekers- brought with them slave-based plantation society

iv. Tension btwn small N farmers and S wealthy planters, after Coopers death in 1719 colonists seized col from prop., king divided region into 2 royal colonies: North and South Carolina

c. New Netherland, New York, and New Jerseyi. 1664 Chalres II gave brother James duke of York territory btwn Connecticut

and Deleware River, much of which was claimed by Dutch. Conflict part of wider commercial rivalry, but English fleet under Richard Nicolls forced New Amsterdam and Peter Stuvyesant to surrender it to English. Became New York

ii. Diverse colony w/ may ppl, granted religious toleration, but tension over power distribution. Dutch “patrons” (large landowners”, also wealthy English landlords, fur traders w/ Iroquois ties

iii. Colony was growing and prosperous, most ppl settled within Hudson valleyiv. Duke gave land to political allies in John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret,

named their territory New Jersey. 1702 ceded control back to crownd. The Quaker Colonies

i. Pennsylvania born out of effort of dissenting English Prt. to find home for religion and distinctive social order. Led by George Fox, Margaret Fell

ii. Society of Friends (Quakers) anarchistic, democratic, pacifist, no class distinction. They were unpopular, some jailed. Looked to America for asylum

iii. Wanted colony of their own, in William Penn found son of Navy admiral and Quaker. After death of father 1681 claimed debt owed by Charles II in form of a large grant of territory w/ Penn having virtual total authority

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iv. Penn advertised PA (wanted profit), became cosmopolitan, settlers flocked there from Eur, but also wanted it to be a “holy experiment”

1. Created liberal Frame of Government with Rep assembly, 1682 founded Philadelphia, befriended Indians and always paid them for land

2. PA prospered but was not without conflict. By 1690s ppl upset by power of proprietor, south believed govt unresponsive.  1701 Penn agreed to Charter of Liberties establishing rep assembly with limited power of proprietor, “lower counties” allowed own rep assembly—result was later Delaware

4. Borderland and Middle Groundsa. The Caribbean Islands

i. Early 17th century migrants flocked to Caribbean. B4 settlers substantial Native populations, wiped out by Eur epidemics, Islands became nearly deserted

ii. Spanish claimed title to al islands but only settled Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico. After Spain and Netherlands went to war 1621 English colonization

increased thru 17th century raids by Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutchiii. Colonies built economy on exporting crops, tobacco and cotton

unsuccessful, turned to sugar cane and rum. Sugar labor intensive and native population too small for workforce, planters found it necessary to import laborers

1. Started with indentured servants but work too hard, began to rely more heavily on enslaved African work force. English soon outnumbered

b. Masters and Slaves in the Caribbeani. successful population, large bonded African population led to fear of revolt,

1660s legal codes to regulate relations between master and slaves1. Many white slave owners concluded cheaper to buy new slaves

than to protect well-being, worked them to deathii. Establishing stable society and culture difficult b/c of harsh and deadly

conditions, wealthy returned to England, whites left behind were poor + mostly single and contributed little, no church, family, community

1. Africans developed world of their own, sustained African religion and social traditions

iii. Caribbean connected to NA colonies, principle source of slaves, plantation system provided models to mainland peoples

c. The Southwestern Borderlandsi. In C and S America Span established impressive empire, settlers

prosperous. Areas N of Mexico unimportant economically, peopled by minorities, missionaries, soldiers

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ii. New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as Span in Mexico and other denser areas

iii. Span began to colonize California after other Eur began to establish presence 1760s. Missions, forts (prestidos) trading areas led to decline in native population, rest forced to convert to Catholicism. Spanish wanted prosperous agricultural economy, used Indian laborers

iv. Late 17th century early 18th cent Spanish considered greatest threat to northern borders French. French traveled down Mississippi R., claimed Louisiana 1682. 

1. Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts, missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731 

2. North Arizona part of N Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest Mexican region Sonora. Heavy Jesuit missionary presence, little success though

v. Spanish colonies in SW created les to increase wealth of empire than to defend it from threats by other Eur powers in NA, but helped create enduring society unlike those established by English. Enlisted natives instead of displacing them

d. The Southeast Borderlandsi. Direcy challenge to English in NA was Spanish in southeastern areas.

Florida claimed in 1560s missionaries and traders expanded north into Georgia. 1607 founding of Jamestown Span felt threatened, built forts, area between Carolinas and Florida site of tension btwn Span English and Span French

ii. By 18th century Spanish settlers driven out of Florida, confinded to St Augustine and Pensacola, relied on natives and Africans, intermarried

iii. Eventaully English prevailed, acquired Florida in Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), English had always wanted to protect southern boundary

e. The Founding of Georgiai. Founders group of unpaid trustees led by General James Oglethorpe,

interested in economic success, military and philanthropic motives. Military barrier against Spanish and refuge for impoverished English to begin anew

ii. Treaty recognized English lands 1676, fighting continued in 1686 w/ raid against Carolina, hostilities broke out in 1701 in Queen Anne’s War/ War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713

iii. Oglethorpe wanted colony south of Carolinas, wanted prisoners and poor people in debt to be farmer-soldiers of the new colony

iv. George II granted trustees land, compact settlement to defend against Spanish and Indians, excluded Africans, prohibited rum, regulated trade w/ Indians excluded catholics—all to prevent revolt/conflict

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v. 1733 founded at mouth of Savanna R, few debtors released form jail so hundreds of impoverished ppl from England and Scotland as well as religious refugees from Switzerland and Germany settled colony

vi. stifled early development- ppl demanded right to buy slaves, restrictions on size of individual property, power of trustees

vii. 1740 Ogelthorpe failed assault on St Augustine, trustees removed limitation on individual landholdings, 1750 allowed slavery, 1751 gave control of colony to king who then allowed for representative assembly

f. Middle Groundsi. Struggle for NA not only among Eurs, but btwn Eurs and native populationsii. In VA and New England settlers quickly established dominance and

displaced natives, but in other areas balance of power more precariousiii. In western borders neither side dominant, in “middle grounds” frequent

conflict but each side had to make concessions. In these areas influence of colonial govt invisible, had own relationship with tribes

iv. To Indians Eurs menacing and appealing. Feared powerful weapons, but wanted them to moderate their own conflicts, offer gifts

v. 17th century before English settlers French adept at beneficial relationships with tribes, many were solitary fur traders

vi. By mid 18th century French influence declinging and British settlers becoming dominant, had to deal with leaders thru gifts, cememonies, mediation instead of simple commands and raw force

vii. and American influece grew, new settlers had difficulty adapting to these complex rituals, stability btwn whites and Indians deteriorated, by

19th century “middle grounds” collapsed. Sotry of whites and Indians not only of conquest and subjugation but in some regions of difficult but stable acomodation and mutual adaption

5. The Evolution of the British Empirea. The Drive for Reorganization

i. Imperial reorganization some believed would increase colonial profits, power of govt, success of mercantilism. Colonies= market for manufactured goods, source for raw materials, but foreigners had to be excluded

ii. Govt sought to monopolize trade with its colonies, but at times American colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ Spanish, French, Dutch. Trade developed btwn them and non-English markets

iii. @ First govt made no effort to restrict, but during Oliver Cromwell’’s Protectorate in 1650 + 1651 passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of English colonies,  Charlies II adopted three Navigation Acts

1. First 1660 allowed trade to occur only in British ships. Second 1663 all goods to Eur had to pass thru England on way, taxable. Third

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1673 created duties on coastal trade and allowed customs officials to enforce Acts

iv. Laws advantage for England, but some for colonies as well: created important shipbuilding industry, encouraged and subsidized the development production of goods English needed

b. The Dominion of New Englandi. 1679 Charles II tried to increase control over MA yb making New

Hampshire a royal colony, five years later after MA refused to enforce Navigation Acts Charles revoked Massachusetts corporation charter, became royal colony

ii. James II 1686 created Dominion of New England, combined govts of MA w/ rest of NE colonies, 1688  NY and NJ as well. Eliminated assemblies, appt a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Rigid enforcement of Navigation Acts, dismissal of claims “rights of Englishmen”, strengthened Anglican church

c. The “Glorious Revolution”i. James II ruled autocratically, Cath. ministers, w/o Parliament, 1688

daughter Mary and husband William of Orange assumed throne= bloodless coup

ii. Bostonians heard of overthrow of James II, unseated unpopular viceroy. Dominion of NE abolished, separate govts restored- except 1691 Plymouth + MA merged 2 royal colony, charter restored General Court but governor too, replaced church membership w/ property ownership as basis 4 voting + office

iii. Adros governed NY thru Captain Francis Nicholson (supported by wealthy merchants and fur traders), dissidents were led by Jacob Leisler who raised militia and captured city fort, drove Nicholson to exile. 1691 William and Mary appd new governor, Leisler charged with treason, rivalry btwn “Leislerians” and “anti-Laslerians” dominated NY poitics for years

iv. Maryland ppl erroneously assumed Cath Lord Baltimore had sided with James II, so 1689 John Coode started revolt, drove out Lord Balt’s officials, thru elected convention chose committee to govern and applied for chater, 1691 William and Mary granted. Church of Eng. offical religion, Cath

prevented to hold office, vote, practice religion in public. 1715  5th Lord Baltimore became proprietor after joining Anglican Church

v. Colonies revived rep assemblies, thwarted plan for colonial unification, asserted idea that colonists had some rights within the empire

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Chapter 3: Society and Culture in Provincial America

1. The Colonial Populationa. Indentured Servitude

i. Young men and women bound themselves to masters for a fixed term of servitude, in return received passage to America, food shelter, and males clothing, tools, and land at end—in reality left with nothing at all

1. Provided means of coping with severe labor shortage, masters received headrights, for servants hope to escape troubles, establish themselves

ii. Most former servants formed large floating population of young single men, traveled from place to place, source of social unrest

iii. 1670s flow began to decline b/c of prosperity in England, decrease in birth rate

b. Birth and Deathi. Inadequate food, frequent epidemics, large number  early deaths. But

growth of population even after immigration, after 1650s natural increase= most growth

ii. N= cool climate, relatively disease-free, clean water, no large population centers for epidemics= long lives. S= mortality rates high (infants too), life expectancy low, disease and salt-contaminated water. growth b/c immigration

iii. By late 17th cent ratio of males to females becoming more balanced, led to increase in natural growth

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c. Medicine in the Colonies

i. 17th + 18th cent no concept of infection + sterilization, midwives in childbirth and recommended herbs

ii. Humoralism led to purging, expulsion, bleeding. Most ppl treated themselves

d. Women and families in the Chesapeakei. B/c of sex ration women married young, high mortality rates, premarital sex

common. Life of childbearing, average of 8 children, 5 of which typically died in childhood or infancy. Had greater levels of freedom @ first b/c of ratio

ii. High mortality rates led to many orphans, special courts and institutions to

protect and control them. By 18th century life expectancy increasing, indentured servitude decreasing, more equal sex ratio, life easer for whites

e. Women and Families in New Englandi. Family structure more stable + traditional, women minority married young,

children more likely to survive, much of life spent rearing and childbearingii. Family relationships and women status dictated by religion. S established

churches weak, NE power in men who created patriarchal view of societyf. The Beginnings of Slavery in British America

i. Demand for black servants to supplement scare southern labor supply, limited @ first b/c Atlantic slave trade did not serve American colonies-

Portuguese to SA and Caribbean, by late 17th century came to America w/ French and Dutch

1. Sugar economies of Caribbean + Brazil demanded slaves, not until 1670s did traders import blacks directly 2 (b4 mostly W. Indies to America)

ii. Mid 1690s Royal African Company’s monopoly broken, prices fell, number of Africans increased. Small number in NE, more in middle colonies, majority in S b/c flow of white laborers had all but stopped

iii. Early 18th century rigid distinction established btwn blacks and whites, no necessity to free black workers, serve permanently, children= new work force

1. Assumptions of white superior race, applied like it had to natives. Slave codes limited rights of blacks in law, almost absolute authority of masters

g. Changing Sources of European Immigration

i. BY early 18th century immigration from England in decline- result of better economic conditions and govt restrictions on emigration. French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Scandinavian immigration increased

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1. French Huguenots, German Protestants (many from Palatinate)- settled in NY, PA (Dutch mispronunciation of Deutsch), around 1710 Scotch-Irish immigrated + pushed out to edges of Eur settlements- significant in NJ and PA, established Presbyterianism as important religion there

2. The Colonial Economiesa. The Southern Economy

i. Chesapeake- tobacco basis of economy, bust and boom pattern, enabled some planters to grow enormously wealthy

ii. South Carolina and Georgia staple was rice. Arduous + unhealthful, whites refused to cultivate, dependent on African labor more than elsewhere. Blacks showed greater resistance 2 disease, more adept at agricultural tasks than white

1. Early 1740s indigo contributed to SC economy, high demand in England

iii. B/c of S dependence on cash crops developed less of a commercial or industrial economy, few cities, no large local merchant communities

b. Northern Economic and Technological Lifei. Agriculture dominated, more diverse but conditions less favorable, hard to

develop large-scale commercial farming, middle colonies more suited 4 wheat

ii. Home industries, craftsmen and artisans, mills for grinding grain, large scale shipbuilding operations, 1640s MA metals industry w/ ironworks. Metal became important part of colonial economy, largest enterprise was German Peter Hasenclever in NJ- but Iron Act of 1750 limited surpassing England

iii. Biggest obstacles for industrialization were inadequate labor supply small domestic market, inadequate transpiration facilities and energy supplies

iv. Natural resources- lumber, mining, fishing, impt commodities to tradec. The Extent and Limits of Technology

i. Ppl lacked guns, plows, lack of ownership of tools b/c of poverty, isolation

ii. Few colonists self-sufficient in late 17th early 18th cent, ability of ppl to acquire manufactured implements lagged behind capacity to produce them

d. The Rise of Colonial Commercei. At first no commonly accepted medium of exchange, difft forms of paper

currency ineffective + could not be used for goods from abroadii. Imposing order on trade difficult, production and markets of goods not

guaranteed, small competitive companies made stabilization more difficultiii. Commerce eventually grew, large coastal trade w/ each other + W. Indies,

expanding transatlantic trade w/ England, Eur continent, west Africa. iv. “Triangular trade”, trade in rum, slaves, sugar, manufactured goods

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v. New merchant class developed in port cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia), protected from competition by Navigation Acts, access to market in England. Ignored and developed markets with other nations, higher profits, financed import of English manufactured goods

vi. During 18th century commercial system stabilized, merchants expandede. The Rise of Consumerism

i. Growing prosperity created new appetite and ability to satisfy, material goods

ii. Increasing division of societies by class, ability to purchase and show goods impt to demonstrate class, especially in cities w/o estate to prove wealth

iii. Industrial Revolution allowed England and Eur to produce more affordable goods, increasingly commercial society created social climate where buying goods considered social good. Merchants and traders began advertising

iv. Things once considered luxuries came to be seen as necessities once readily available, such as tea, linens. Quality of possessions associated with virtue + refinement, strive to become more educated

v. Growth of consumption and refinement led cities to plan growth and ensure elegant public squares, parks, boulevards, public stages for social display

3. Patterns of Societya. The Plantation

i. Some plantations enormous, but most 17th cent plantations were rough and small estates, work force seldom more than 30 ppl

ii. Economy precarious- good years growers could earn great profit and expand, but couldn’t control markets, when prices fell faced ruin

iii. Most plantations far from towns, forced to become self-contained communities, some larger ones approached size of town

iv. Society highly stratified, wealthy landowners exercised greater social and economic influence. Small farmers with few or no slaves formed majority

b. Plantation Slavery

i. By mid-18th cent ¾ blacks lived on plantations with 10+ slaves, ½ lived w/ 50+

ii. In larger establishments society and culture developed btwn slaves, attempts at nuclear families made but members could be sold at any time, led to extended families. Developed own languages, religion w/ Christianity and African lore

iii. Occasional acts of individual resistance, at least twice actual slave rebellions. Stone Rebellion in SC 1739- 100 Africans rose up + attempted to flee to Florida, quickly crushed by whites. Other slaves tried to run away

iv. Some slaves learned skills, set up own shops, some bought freedomc. The Puritan Community

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i. Social unit of NE was town, “covenant” of members bound all in religious + social commitment to unity. Arranged around a “common”, outlying fields divided by family size, social station. Little colonial interference, self govt

ii. English primogeniture (passing of all to firstborn son) replaced by division amongst all sons, women more mobile than brothers b/c no inheritance

iii. Tight knit community controlled by layout, power of church, town meeting. Strayed by pop increases, ppl began farming further lands, moved houses to be closer, applied for church of their own, eventually led to new town

iv. Patriarchal society weakened by economic necessity, needed help w/ farm, ect.

d. The Witchcraft Phenomenoni. Gap btwn expectation of united community and reality of increasingly

diverse and fluid one difficult for NEers to accept- led to tensions that produced hysteria such as witchcraft (Satanic powers) in the 1680s and 1690s

ii. Salem, MA- accusations spread from W Indians to prominent ppl. This model would repeat itself, mostly middle-aged, childless widowed women who may have inherited property. Puritan society no tolerance for “independent women”

iii. Reflection of highly religious character of society, witchcraft was mainstream

e. Citiesi. Commercial centers emerged along Atlantic by 1770s- New York,

Philadelphia, Boston, Charles Town, Newport (RI)ii. Trading centers for farmers, marts for international trade, leaders

merchants w/ large estates, large social distinctions. Center of industry such as ironworks and distilleries, advanced schools, cultural activities. Crime, vice, epidemics, ect.

iii. Vulnerable to fluctuations in trade, countryside effects muted. Places where new ideas could circulate, regular newspapers, books from abroad= new ideas

4. Awakenings and Enlightenmentsa. The Pattern of Religions

i. Religious toleration flourished in America b/c of necessity. Church of England official religion for some colonies, ignored except in VA and MA. Protestants extended toleration more readily to each other than to Roman Catholics- persecuted in MA after 1691 overthrow of proprietors. NEers viewed Cath French agents of Rome

ii. Early 18th cent some troubled w/ decline religious piety in society, movement west + scattered settlements= loss with organized religion, commercial success created more secular outlook in urban areas. jeremiads= sermon of despair

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b. The Great Awakeningi. Began in 1730s climax 1740s, new spirit of religious fervor, appeal to

women and younger sons b/c of rhetoric of potential for every person to break away from constraints and renew relationship with God

ii. Evangelists from England such as John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield spread revival. Most famously NE Congregationalist Jonathan Edward

c. The Enlightenment

i. Product of great scientific and intellectual discoveries in Eur in 17th cent, natural laws discovered that regulated nature, celebrated human reason + inquiry. Reason and not just faith create progress and knowledge

ii. Ppl should look at themselves for guidance to live and shape society, not to God. Didn’t challenge religion, insisted rational inquiry supported Christianity

d. Educationi. Even b4 Enlightenment colonists placed high value on education, MA 1647

law required each town to have a public school. Most white males were literate, women’s rate lagged, Africans virtually no access to education

ii. Six colleges by 1763, most founded by religious groups: Harvard (Puritans)  created to train ministers, William and  Mary (Anglicans) Yale (Congregationalists). Despite religious basis, liberal education. Kings College (Columbia) and UPenn created as secular institutions

e. The Spread of Sciencei. Prominent members of society members of the Royal Society of London. ii. Value placed on scientific knowledge can be seen by rise of inoculation,

spread by Cotton Mather and adopted in Boston 1720s, became common procedure

f. Concepts of Law and Politicsi. Americans believed they were re-creating institutions of Europe but b/c of

lack of lawyers before 1700 English legal system was simplified- rights to trial by jury maintained but pleading and procedure simpler, punishment different b/c of labor-scarce society, govt criticism not libel if accurate

ii. Large degree of self-govt. Local communities ran own affairs, had delegates to colonial assemblies filed role of Parliament, apptd provincial governors powers were limited

iii. Provincial govts accustomed to acting pretty independently, expectations about rights of colonists began to take hold in America that policymakers in England did not share. Few problems before 1760s b/c British did little to exert authority they believed they possessed

 

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Chapter 4: Empire in Transition

1. Loosening Tiesa. A Tradition of Neglect

i. After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profits

ii. Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritism

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iii. Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor power

b. The Colonies Dividedi. Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns

still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal serviceii. Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation

in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies

2. The Struggle for the Continenta. New France and the Iroquois Nation

i. By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior

ii. To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy 

iii. “Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships

iv. Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground

b. Anglo-French Conflictsi. Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose

Frenchii. King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought

border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to English

iii. Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748

iv. After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated

v. 1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender

c. The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War

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i. First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack. 

1. Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English

ii. Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction

iii. Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760

iv. Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. R

v. War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions

vi. Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs

vii. Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble

3. The New Imperialisma. Burdens of Empire

i. After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable

ii. Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new colonies

iii. English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way

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iv. New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure

1. Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire

b. The British and the Tribesi. To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued

Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line

1. Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists

ii. More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs

iii. Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well

c. The Colonial Responsei. Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required

colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing

ii. Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners

iii. Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assembliesiv. Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents v. New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues.

Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over “backcountry” settlers

vi. 1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor

vii. After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problems

viii. Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt.

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Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance

1. Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed

4. Stirrings of Revolta. The Stamp Act Crisis

i. Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval

ii. Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as “Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own reps

iii. In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.

iv. Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideologicalv. Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other

colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)

b. The Townshend Programi. Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to

increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real power

ii. 1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refused

iii. 1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed “external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax

iv. Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent

v. MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA

vi. Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in

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Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement

vii. 1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on teac. The Boston Massacre

i. Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market

ii. March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl

iii. Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd

iv. Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s

d. The Philosophy of Revolti. Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England.

Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, “radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments

ii. New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked

iii. English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powers

iv. Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community

v. Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority

e. The Tea Excitementi. Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation

Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideas

ii. 1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants

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iii. Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed

iv. Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Libertyv. Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company

from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”

vi. When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses

vii. Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion

viii. Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance5. Cooperation and War

a. New Sources of Authorityi. Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where

history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycotts

ii. Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress

iii. First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions

1. Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority2. (Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive

legislation3. Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of

British attack against Boston4. Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop

all trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements

5. Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organization

iv. CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops,

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Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired

b. Lexington and Concordi. Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training

“minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775

ii. William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British army

iii. Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension

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Chapter 5: The American Revolution1. 1)The States United

a. Defining American War Aims

i. 2nd  Continental Congress (CC) agreed to support war, disagreed on purpose. One group led by John and Sam Adams favored full independence, others wanted modest reforms in imperial relationship. Most sought middle ground

ii. Olive Branch Petition” conciliatory appeal to king, then July 1775 “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms”

iii. Public @ first fought not for independence but redress of grievances, later began to change reasons b/c cost of war too large for such modest aims, anger over British recruitment of Indians, slaves, mercenaries, and b/c GB rejected Olive Branch Petition and enacted “Prohibitory Act” w/ naval blockade

iv. January 1776 Common Sense by Thomas Paine was revolutionary propaganda, argued that problem was not parliamentary acts but English constitution, king, and ruling system. GB no longer fit to rule b/c of brutality, corruption

b. The Decision for Independencei. After Common Sense support grew, CC recommended colonies establish

independent govt’s from British, July 4 1776 Declaration of Independenceii. Dec of Indep. written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, restated contract theory

of John Locke that govts formed to protect rights of “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”, then listed alleged crimes of king and Parliament 

iii. Dec. inspired French Revolution’s Dec. of the rights of Men, claimed sovereign “United States of America”, led to increased foreign aid

c. Responses to Independencei. At news of Dec many rejoiced others disapproved b/c still had great loyalty

to king, called themselves Loyalists but independents called them Toriesii. States drafted constitutions to replace loyal govts by 1781, states

considered centers of authority but war required central directioniii. 1777 Articles of Confederation passed to confirm weak, decentralized

system in place. Continental Congress was main coordinator of war effortd. Mobilizing for War

i. Nation needed to raise, organize, equip, and pay for army. W/o British markets shortages of materials, gunsmiths couldn’t meet demand for funs and ammunition. Most supplies captured from Brits or supplied by Eur nations

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ii. Financing problematic, Congress had no power to tax ppl + had to ask states for funds. Eventually issued paper money, led to inflation, value of money plummeted. Most farmers + merchants preferred business w/ British who could pay for goods in gold and silver. Govt forced to borrowed $ from other nations

iii. After patriotic surge 1775 few American army volunteers. States used persuasion, force, drafts. To correct problem of states controlling army units 1775 created Continental army w/ single commander, George Washington. In new nation unsure of structure and govt, he provided the army and the ppl a symbol of stability around which they could rally, held nation together

2. The War for Independencea. The First Phase: New England

i. After Concord and Lexington American forces besieged army of General Thomas Gage in Boston, Battle of Bunker Hill fought June 1775. Heaviest British casualties of entire war occurred

ii. By 1776 Brits concluded Boston not best place to wage war from b/c of geography and fervor. March 1776 withdrew to Halifax, Nova Scotia

iii. In south Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists February 1776 at Moore’s Creek Bridge, NC. In north Americans invaded Canada, Patriot General Benedict Arnold + Richard Montgomery threatened Quebec in order to remove British threat and recruit Canadians. Siege failed, Canada not to become part of US

iv. British evacuation not so much victory as changing English assumptions about war. Clear conflict not local phenomenon around Boston but larger war

b. The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Regioni. During summer 1776 British army of 32,000 landed in New York City under

William Howe. Americans rejected Howe’s offer or royal pardon, Washington’s 19,000 man army pushed backed from LI, thru NJ, to PA

ii. Eur warfare was seasonal activity, British settled for winter in NJ leaving outpost of Hessians at Trenton. Christmas 1776 Washington attacked across Deleware

iii. British 1777 sought to capture Philadelphia to discourage Patriots, rally Loyalists, end war quickly. Captured city September, Washington defeated at Germanton in October, went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. CC, dislodged from capital, met in York, PA

iv. British John Burgoyne led British campaign in north, at first successful- captured supplies of Fort Ticonderoga. Defeats led Congress to remove General Philip Schuyler and replace with Horatio Gates. But series of Patriot victories followed, Burgoyne forced to withdraw to Saratoga where Gates surrounded him and forced surrender of 5,000 man army

v. Campaign Patriot success, led to alliance btwn US and France

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vi. British failure due to William Howe abandoning northern campaign and letting Burgoyne fight alone, allowed Washington to retreat and regroup instead of finishing him, left Continental army unmolested in Valley Forge

c. The Iroquois and the Britishi. iIroquois Confederacy declared neutrality in 1776, but Joseph and Mary

Brant persuaded some tribes to support British (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga). Belived British victory would stem white movement onto tribal lands

1. Only 3 of 6 nations supported British(Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga split)

d. Securing Aid From Abroadi. Failure of Brits to crush Continental army in mid-Atlandtic states + rebel

victory at Saratoga was turning pointii. After Dec of Indep, US sent reps to Europe’s capitals to negotiate

commercial treaties. Most promising potential Ally was France where King Louis XVI and his Count de Vergennes eager to see Britain lose part of empire

iii. Thru covert deals French supplied Americans supplies but would not officially recognize US diplomatically. Ben Franklin went to France, after news of Saratoga in February France formally recognized US as nation. Allowed for expanded assistance- money, munitions, navy

e. The Final Phase: The Southi. After defeat at Saratoga and French intervention British govt put limit on

commitment to conflict, tried to enlist loyalist dissidents believed to be centered in South to fight from within

ii. British forced moved from battle to battle 1778-1781, but much less Loyalist sentiment than predicted. Some refused to rise up b/c of fear of Patriot reprisal + British attempts to free slaves in order to fight. Patriots=no threat to slavery

iii. British had disadvantage of enemy in hostile territory, new form of combat. Segments of population previously apathetic now forced to involve themselves

iv. In North fighting stalemate after British moved forces to New York. Benedict Arnold became traitor, scheme to betray Patriot fort at West Point was foiled

v. In South British captured Savannah 1778, Port of Charleston 1780. Won conventional battles but harassed as they moved thru countryside by Patriot guerillas. Lord Cornwallis (Brit general for South) defeated Patriot Horatio Gates, led Washing to give command to Gen. Nathanael Greene

vi. Battle of King’s Mountain 1780 a Patriot victory, Greene split army into small, fast contingents and refrained from open battles. British had to abandon Southern campaign after battle at Guilford Courth House, NC in 1781

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vii. Cornwalis ordered by Clinton to wait for ships at Yorktown. Washington, French Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, and Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse all coordinated army and navy to surround British on peninsula

viii. Cornwallis surrendered October 17, 1781. Fighting over, but Brits continued to hold seaports of Savannah, Charleston, Wilmington, & New York

f. Winning the Peacei. Cornwallis’s defeat let to outcry aginsnt war, Lord North resigned and Lord

Shelbrune succeeded. British emissaries in France began speaking to diplomats there (Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay). Final settlement Peace of Paris signed Sept 1783 when France and Spain also agreed to end hostilities

ii. Treaty recognized US independence, gave land from southern Canada to north boundary of Florida, from Atlantic to Mississippi River

3. War and Societya. Loyalists and Minorities

i. Up to 1/5 of white population Loyalists- some officeholders in imperial govt, others merchants engaged in trade tied to imperial system, others who had lived in isolation of revolutionary ideas, others expected Brits to be victors

ii. Hounded by Patriots, harassed by legislative and judicial actions- fled to Canada or to England. Most Loyalists of average means but many were wealthy, after they left estates and social and economic leadership vacancies

iii. Anglicans were mostly Loyalists, in colonies where it was official religion (such as MA and VA). Taxes to church halted, support from England ceased, few ministers remained. Quakers weakened b/c their pacifism unpopular

iv. Catholic Church gained respect b/c most American Caths supported Patriot cause, French alliance brought Cath troops and ministers. Gratitude eroded hostility, after war Vatican named Father John Caroll American archbishop

b. The War and Slaveryi. War led to some slaves to escape due to British presence in South + their

policies meant to disrupt American war effort. Revolutionary ideas introduced slaves to idea of liberty. This situation put slave dominated states like SC and Georgia to be ambivalent to revolution b/c opposed British emancipation efforts but feared revolution would foment slave rebellions

c. Native Americans and the Revolutioni. Patriots and Brits wanted Indians to remain neutral, and by and large they

did. Some supported British b/c feared replacing ruling class whom they had developed limited trust with and who had fought against white expansion

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ii. Patriot victory weaked natvies bc increased white demand for western lands, many Americans resented Mohawk and other Indians assistance to British and wanted to treat them as conquered people

iii. Revolution increased deep divisions and made it difficult for tribes to form common front for resistance b/c of neutral and pro-Brit alliances

iv. After war Indian and American fighting continued w/ Indian raids against froneir whites, white militia responded with attacks into Indian territories

d. Women’s Rights and the Women’s Rolesi. Patriot men going off to fight eft wives, mothers, sisters in charge of farms

and businesses- sometimes successful and other times not so much. In many cities and towns impoverished women class emerged

ii. Sometimes women chose, other times forced to join camps of Patriot armies, raised morale and performed necessary tasks on cooking, nursing, cleaning. Some women ended up in combat (legendary Molly Pitcher)

iii. After revolution certain assumptions about women questioned- some like  Abigail Adams called for modest expansion of women’s rights and protections. Others such as Judith Sargent Murray wanted equal education and rights

iv. New era for women did not arrive, legal doctrines of English common law gave married women barely any rights, Rev did not change these legal customs

v. Revolution encouraged ppl to reevaulate contributions of women b/c of womens participation in revolution and part general reevalutaion of American life after struggle- search for a cultural identity

e. The War Economyi. No longer protection of trade by British navy, no more access to markets of

the empire including Britain itself. Privateering used by Americans to pretty on Brit commerce. 

ii. End of imperial relation in long run opened up enormous new areas of trade for nation b/c no more Brit regulations. Trade w/ Asia, South America, Caribbean

iii. End of English imports thru prewar boycotts and war itself led to stimulation of domestic manufacturing of necessities, desire for sufficiency grew

4. The Creation of State Governmentsa. The Assumptions of Republicanism

i. Republicanism meant all power came from ppl, active citizenry important and could not be just a few powerful aristocrats and mass of dependent workers- idea of independent landowner was basic political ideology

ii. Opposed Eur ideas of inherited aristocracy- talents and energies of individuals and not birth would determine role in society- equality of opportunity

b. The First State Constitutions

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i. States decided tat constitutions had to be written b/c believed vagueness of England’s unwritten constitution produced corruption, believed power of executive had to be limited, separation of executive from legislature

ii. Except GA and PA upper and lower chambers, property requirements for voters

c. Revising State Governmentsi. By late 1770s state govts divided and unstable, believed to be so b/c they

were too democratic—steps taken to limit popular powerii. To protect constitutions from ordinary politics created the constitutional

convention- special assembly to draft constitution that would never meet again

iii. Executive strengthened as rxn to weak governors, fixed salary + elected by ppl

d. Toleration and Slaveryi. New states allowed complete religious freedom, 1786 VA enacted Statue of

Religious Liberty by Thomas Jefferson which called for separation of church and state

ii. Slavery abolished in New England and PA b/c of Quakers, every southern state but SC and GA prohibited further importation of slaves from abroad- slavery continued though b/c of racist assumptions about black inferiority, enormous economic investments in slaves, and lack of alternatives

5. The Search for A National Governmenta. The Confederation

i. Articles of Confed adopted in 1777, Congress had power to conduct wars, foreign relations, appropriate money- would not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes on ppl. Each state had one vote, articles ratified only after VA and NY gave up western land claims in 1781

b. Diplomatic Failuresi. GB failed to live up to terms of peace treaty of 1783- forces continued to

occupy posts, no restitution to slave-owners, restrictions on access to empire’s markets. 1784 John Adams sent to make deal but British refused

ii. Treaty w/ Spain 1786 solidified Florida’s borders, limited US rights to navigate Mississippi R.- Souterhn states blocked ratification, weakened Articles

c. The Confederation and the Northwesti. Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 districts, Ordianance of

1785 Congress created surveying + sale system, areas north of Ohio R. were to be parceled and sold w/ some money going to create schools

ii. Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abandoned ten districts, designated five territories that when had 60,000 ppl would become states, slavery prohibited

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iii. S of Ohio R. chaotic, Kentucky and Tennessee entrance conflict not resolved

d. Indians and the Western Landsi. Western land policies meant to bring order and stability to white settlement,

but many territories claimed by Confederation were also claimed by Indiansii. Series of treaties with Indians failed, violence climaxed in early 1790s.

Negations not continued until General Anthony Wayne defeated Indians 1794 at Battle of Fallen Timbers. Treaty of Grenville w/ Miami indians ceded lands

e. Debts, Taxies, and Daniel Shaysi. Confederation had war bonds to be repaid, owerd soldiers money, foreign

debt- had no way to tax, states only paid 1/6 of requested fundsii. Group of nationalists led by Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James

Madison called for a 5% impost on imported goods, when Congress rejected plan they withdrew involvement from Confederation

iii. To pay war debts states increased taxes, poor farmers burdened by their own debt and new taxes rioted throughout New England

iv. Some farmers rallied behind Daniel Shays, 1786 Shayites prevented debt collection. Boston legislature denounced them as traitors, when rebels advanced on Springfield state militia defeated them January 1787

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Chapter 6: The Constitution and The New Republic1. Framing A New Government

a. Advocates of Centralizationi. Confederation had averted the danger of remote and tyrannical authority,

but during 1780s powerful groups began to want a national govt capable of dealing with nation’s problems- mainly economic that affected themselves

ii. Artisans wanted a single high national duty, merchants wanted a single, national commercial policy, people owed money wanted states to stop issuing paper money and causing inflation, land owners wanted protection from mobs

iii. Reformers led by Alexander Hamilton called for convention. Inter-state conference on trade held in MA advised congress to call a convention to “render the constitution… adequate to the exigencies of the union” in 1786

iv. George Washington’s support of new convention in Philadelphia 1787 gave it credibility, feared disorders like Shay’s Rebellion spreading

b. A Divided Conventioni. 55 delegates from all but RI, mainly young, educated, and propertiedii. Washington chosen as presiding officer, sessions closed to public and

pressiii. VA delegation led by James Madison, had plan drafted. Edmund Randolph

proposed a new nat’t govt with executive, judiciary, legislatureiv. VA Plan called for 2 house legislature w/  lower house based on population

and upper house elected by lower house

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v. Proposal opposed by Delaware, NJ, other small states. Proposal by William Paterson of NJ would reform Confederation + give it power to tax. Tabled, VA Plan remained basis for discussion

vi. VA Plan supporters realized concessions to small states needed for agreement, conceded upper house be elected by state legislatures, each state at least 1 rep

vii. Questions of equal rep in upper house, of slaves counted in states population but feared would be taxed if states taxed based on population

c. Compromisei. In July grand committee established with Franklin as head, produced basis

of “Great Compromise” where lower house would be based on populating with each slave counted as 3/5 o of a person in representation and direct taxation, in upper house each state had 2 reps- July 16, 1787 compromise accepted

ii. Reps agreed legislature forbidden to tax exports b/c of Southern fear of interfering with cotton economy, slave trade couldn’t be stopped for 20 years

iii. Constitution provided no definition of citizenship, absence of list of individual rights that would restrain powers of nat’l govt

d. The Constitution of 1787i. James Madison created VA Plan, helped resolve question of sovereignty

and of limiting powerii. Sovereignty at all levels, nat’l and state, came from people. States and nat’l

govt both had sovereignty from ppl and therefore Constitution could distribute powers btwn federal govt and states- but Constitution was “supreme law”

iii. Federal govt had power to tax, regulate commerce, control currency, pass laws

iv. Leaders frightened of creating a tyrannical govt, believed small nation needed to stop corruption. Madison convinced others that large nation would produce less tyranny b/c many factions would check one from being too powerful

v. Separation of powers + checks and balances forced branches to compete, federal structure divided power btwn states and nation

vi. Fear of despotism, but also fear of the “mob” and “excess of democracy”, only House of Reps elected directly by ppl. 

vii. Constitution signed on September 17, 1787e. Federalists and Antifederalists

i. Delegates decided that Constitution would come into existence when 9 of 13 states had ratified it thru conventions instead of unanimous state legislature approval required by Articles

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ii. Supporters of Const well organized, supported by Washington and Franklin, called themselves Federalists. Had best political philosophers in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay. Wrote Federalist Papers arguing for Const under pseudonym Publius

iii. Antifederalists believed Const would betray principles of Revolution by establish a strong, potentially tyrannical central govt that would increase taxies, obliterate states, favor the “well born”. 

1. Biggest complaint was that Const lacked a bill of rights, any govt with central authority could not be trusted to protect citizens’ liberties, therefore natural rights had to be enumerated in order to be preserved

iv. Federalists feared disorder, anarchy, power of masses, Antifederalists feared the state more than they did the ppl, feared concentrated power

v. Delaware first to ratify, New Hampshire 9th state in June 1788. New govt could not flourish w/o participation of VA and NY. VA, NY, MA ratified on assumption that bill of rights would be added

f. Completing the Structurei. First elections took place 1789, George Washington elected first president

unanimously, John Adams became VP- inauguration April 30, 1789ii. First Congress passed bill of rights 1789, 10 ratified by states by end of

1791. Nine forbid Congress from infringing basic rights, 10th reserved powers to states unless specifically withheld from them or delegated to fed govt

iii. Judiciary Act of 1789 created 6 member Supreme court, 13 district courts, 3 courts of appeal, Sup Court had final decision in constitutionality of state laws

iv. Congress created departments of executive- State led by Jefferson, Treasury by Hamilton, War by Henry Knox, attorney general Edmund Randolph

2. Federalists and Republicansa. Hamilton and the Federalists

i. Federalists dominated govt for 12 years under leadership of Treasurer Alexander Hamilton (Washington supported, but avoided direct involvement)

ii. Believed stable and effective govt required enlightened ruling class, therefore rich and powerful needed stake in its success

iii. To do so made govt responsible for existing debt + states debts, would create new large national debt w/ continuous bonds issued to give wealthy stake

iv. Creation of federal bank would fill absence of developed banking system, safe place for deposit of federal funds, collect taxes and pay expenses

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v. Funding of debts required new revenue to pay bonds interest, govt sales of Western land not enough. Hamilton proposed tax on alcohol distillers- heavy toll on whiskey distillers of backcountry PA, VA, NC- & tariff on imports to raise $ + stimulate growth of industry- his 1791 “Report on Manufactures

b. Enacting the Federalist Programi. Few members opposed plan for funding nat’l debt, but disagreement over

whether payment should be to original holders or to speculators who bought many bonds from originals during hard times of 1780s. James Madison proposed dividing btwn two. Hamilton won out and current bondholders paid

ii. Hamilton faced stiffer opposition to fed’l assumption of state debts b/c ppl of states with few debts (such as VA) would pay taxes to service large debts of other states (like MA). Compromise w/ Virginians moved capital from Philadelphia to a southern location along Potomac R.  for VA support of bill

iii. Bank bill most heated debate, Madison, Jefferson, Randolph, others argued Congress should exercise no powers Const did not assign it. Bill passed House and Senate, Bank of United States began operating 1791 under 20 yr charter

iv. Passage of excise tax and tariff 1792. Whole program won support of the influential population- restored public credit, speculators, manufacturing + merchants prospered. However, small farmers (maj of pop) complained of tax burden, taxes to state, excise tax on distillation, + tariff- feeling Federalist program served interests not of ppl but of wealthy elites

c. The Republican Oppositioni. Framers believed organized political parties dangerous, should be avoided

would lead to factions (Madison Fed Papers #10), but eventually Madison and others convinced that Hamilton and Federalists had become a majority and used their power to control appts, offices, and rewards to supporters

ii. B/c Federalist structures thought to resemble corrupt Brit govt and menacing structure, critics felt only alternative vigorous opposition thru emergence of alternative political organization- the Republican Party

iii. By late 1790s Republicans creating even greater apparatus of partisan influence- correspondence btwn groups, influenced state and local elections

iv. Both groups believed represented only legitimate interest group, neither conceded right of other to exist- factionalism known as “first party system”

v. Leaders of Repubs James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson believed in an agrarian republic w/ independent farmer-citizens tilling own soil. Didn’t oppose commerce, trade or industry, but feared cities, urban mobs, and advanced

3. Establishing National Sovereignty

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a. Securing the Frontieri. 1791 PA farmers refused to pay whiskey excise tax, Washington called

militia from 3 states, Whiskey Rebellion collapsed- intimidation won allegiance

ii. Fed govt won loyalty of frontiersmen by accept territories as new states (NC 1789, RI 1791 last of 13 colonies)- VT 1791, Kentucky 1792, Tennessee 1796

b. Native Americans and the New Nationi. Clashes with natives raised question of Indians’ place of in federal

structure. Constitution recognized tribes as legal entities, but not outright nations

ii. Constitution did not address main issue of land, Indians lived within US boundaries but offered some measure of sovereignty

c. Maintaining Neutralityi. In 1791 GB sent first minister to US, question of US neutrality arose in 1793

when French govt from revolution of 1789 went to war with GBii. French rep to US Edmond Genet violated Neutrality Act and tried to recruit

Americans to French cause- US ships as privateers, raids against Spanishiii. GB Royal Navy began seizing US ships trading w/ French in West

Indies1794, anti-British feelings high, Hamilton concerned b/c war meant end to English imports- main revenue for financial system dependent from duties

d. Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treatyi. Hamilton feared pro-French State Dept, had Washington send Chief Justice

and Federalist John Jay to negotiate treaty with GBii. Jay’s Treaty in 1794 failed to compensate Brit assaults on ships and

withdrawal of Brit forces from frontier, but prevented war, established American sovereignty over Northwest, satisfactory commercial relationship

iii. American backlash followed b/c not enough Brit promises, Republicans and some Federalists offered opposition but ultimately ratified by Senate

iv. Jay’s treaty allowed peace to be made with Spain b/c raised fears of Brit/American alliance in North America, Pinckney’s treaty 1795 recognized US right to Mississippi, Florida border, control of Indian raids from FL

4. The Downfall of the Federalistsa. The Election of 1796

i. Washington retired 1797, in “Farewell” worried over foreign influence on gov’t, including French efforts to frustrate Federalist diplomatic program

ii. Open expression of political rivalries after Washington- Jefferson running for Republicans, Hamilton too many enemies so VP John Adams Fed candidate

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iii. Federalists could win majority of electors 1796 pres. election for Adams but factional fighting within party caused second candidate Thomas Pinckney to receive many votes- resulted in Jefferson finishing second, became VP. 

iv. Federalists divided, strong Republicans opposition, Hamilton still lead partyb. The Quasi War with France

i. US relations w/ GB + Spain improved after treaties, deteriorated w/ France b/c of impressments of US ships and sailors

ii. President Adam’s pursued reconciliation by appointing bi-partisan commission of Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry to negotiate

iii. French foreign minister Talleyrand demanded loan and bribe, Adams turned over report of this to Congress w/ names deleted- “XYZ Affair” caused outrage at France, Federalist gained support for response

iv. Adams asked Congress to cut off trade, 1798 created Dept of Navy (very successful capturing French ships), cooperated w/ GB

v. France reconciled, new govt of Napoleon 1800 new commercial arrangements

c. Repression and Protesti. Conflict w/ France led to Federalist majority 1798, to silence Republican

opposition passed the Alien and Sedition Actsii. Alien Acts restricted places obstacles for foreigners becoming citizens,

Sedition Act allowed govt to prosecute libelous or treasonous activity- but definitions allowed govt to stifle any opposition—Repubs fought back

iii. Adams cautious in implementation but still repressive, Republican leaders hoped for reversal from state legislatures 

iv. Jefferson + Madison had VA, KY adopt resolutions arguing when govt exercised undelegated powers, its acts “void”. Used Locke’s “compact theory”: states were part of contract, fed govt had breached contract, therefore states could “nullify” the appropriate laws—only VA and KY did so

v. By late 1790s national crisis b/c nation so politically dividedd. The “Revolution” of 1800

i. 1800 pres election saw same candidates- Adams’ and Jefferson’s supporters showed no restraint or dignity in their assaults against other 

ii. Crucial contest in New York where Aaron Burr (candidate for VP) mobilized Rev War veterans, the Tammany Society, to serve as Repub political machine- Repubs eventually won the state and election

iii. In partisan atmosphere Jefferson and Burr votes tied, the previous Federalist Congress had to choose between the two in a vote (H of Reps decides when no majority), ultimately Hamilton and Federalists elected Jefferson

iv. After election only judiciary branch still Federalist, Judiciary Act of 1801 had created many new positions which Adams had filled before leaving office

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v. Republican viewed victory as savior from tyranny, believed new era would begin where true founding principles would govern

Chapter 7: The Jeffersonian Era1. The Rise of Cultural Nationalism

a. Patterns of Educationi. Republican vision included enlightened citizenry, wanted nationwide system

of free public schools to create educated electorate required by republicii. By 1815 no state had a comprehensive public school system, schooling

primary by private institutions open only to those who could pay. Most were aristocratic in outlook, trained students to become elite. Few schools for poor

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iii. Idea of “republican mother” to train new generation could not be ignorant,

late 18thcentury women began to have limited education to make them better wives and mothers- no professional training

iv. Attempts to educate “noble savages” in white culture and reform tribes, African Americans very little schooling- literacy rate very small

v. Higher education not public, private contribution + tuition necessary, students mostly from prosperous, propertied families. Little professional education

b. Medicine and Sciencei. Most doctors learned from established practitioners, struggled w/

introduction of science and combating superstition. Doctors often used dangerous and useless treatments. 

ii. Medical profession used its new “scientific” method to justify expanding control to new care- childbirths by doctor and not midwives

c. Cultural Aspirations in the New Nationi. After Eur independence ppl wanted cultural independence, literary and

artistic achievements to rival those of Europeii. Nationalism could be found in early American schoolbooks, Noah Webster

wanted patriot education- American Spelling Book and American Dictionary of the English Languageestablished national standard of words and usage, simplified and Americanized system of spelling created

iii. High literacy rate and large reading public due to wide circulation of newspapers and political pamphlets. Most printers used cheaper English material, American writers struggled to create strong native literature

1. Charles Brockden Brown used novels to voice American themes2. Washington Irving wrote American fold tales, fables- Rip Van Winkle3. Histories that glorified past- Mercy Otis Warren History of the

Revolution 1805 emphasized heroism, Mason Weems Life of Washington 1806. History used to instill sense of nationalism

d. Religious Skepticismi. Revolution detached churches from govt + elevated liberty and reason, by

1790s few members of formal churches, some embraced “deism”ii. Books and articles attacking religious “superstitions” popular, Thomas

Paine’s The Age of Reason.iii. Skepticism led to “universalism” + “unitarianism”, @ first within New

England Congregational Church, later separate- rejected predestination, salvation for all, Jesus only great religious teacher not son of God

iv. Spread of rationalism led to less commitment to organized churches + denominations considered too formal and traditional, comeback starting 1801

e. The Second Great Awakening

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i. Origin 1790s from efforts to fight spread of religious rationalism. Baptists, Presbyterian, Methodists (founded by John Wesley) successful at combating New Light dissenters (ppl who made religion more compatible w/ rationalism)

ii. By 1800 awakening that began at Yale had spread throughout country and to the west, “camp meetings” by evangelical ministers produced religious frenzy

iii. Second Great Awakening called individuals to readmit God + Christ into daily life, reject skeptical rationalism. New sects rejected predestination, combined piety w/ belief of God as active force whose grace achieved thru faith + works

iv. Accelerated growth of new sects as opposed to return to established churches, provided sense of order + social stability to ppl searching for identity

v. Women particularly drawn to revivalism b/c women more numerous in certain regions, movement of industrial work out of home led to personal and social strains that religion was used to compensate for

vi. Revival led to rise of black preachers who interpreted religious message of salvation available to all into right to freedom

vii. Native American dislocation and defeats after Revolution created sense of crisis and led to Indian religious fervor- missionaries active in south led to conversion, in North prophet Handsome Lake  encouraged Christian missionaries and restoration of traditional Iroquois culture

2. Stirrings of Industrialisma. Technology in America

i. America imported technological advances from England. Brit govt attempted to prevent spread of their tech, but immigrants introduced new machines to America. Samuel Slater built mill in RI 1790, first factory in America

ii. American inventor Oliver Evans created automated flower mill, Eli Whitney revolutionized weapons making and 

iii. Invented cotton gin in 1793. Growth of textile industry in England created great demand for cotton, cotton gin allowed for easy separation of cotton seed from cotton allowed tremendous amount of cotton to be cleaned, new business led slavery became more important than ever. 

iv. In North cotton supply led NE entrepreneurs to create American textile industry in 1820s/30s- as N became increasingly industrial S more firmly wedded to agriculture

v. His interchangeable parts for weapons invented during Quasi War w/ France adopted by other manufactures for other complicated products

b. Transportation Innovations

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i. Industrialization required transporting raw materials to factories and finished goods to create large domestic market for mass-production, US lacked system

ii. To enlarge American market US merchants looked to expand overseas trade, Congress 1789 passed tariff bills that favored American ships in American ports, stimulated growth of domestic shipping. War in Eur in 1790s led US merchants to take over most of trade btwn Eur and Western hemisphere

iii. Improvement in inter-state and interior transport led by improved river transport by new steamship

iv. Oliver Evans had invented efficient steam engine for boats and machinery, Robert Fulton + Robert Livingston perfected steamboat and brought it to national attention w/ theirClermont

v. Turnpike era began 1792 w/ corporate construction of turnpikes, but b/c needed to turn profit were generally short and only in densely populated areas

c. The Rising Citiesi. America remained largely rural and agrarian nation, only 3% lived in towns

of more than 8,000 in 1800 census—yet there were signs of changeii. Major US cities such as New York + Philadelphia large and complex

enough to rival secondary cities of Europeiii. Urban lifestyle produced affluent people who sought amenities, elegance,

dress, and diversions- music, theater, dancing, horse racing3. Jefferson the President

a. The Federal City and the “People’s President”i. French architect Pierre L’Enfant designed city on grand scale, but

Washington remained little more than provincial village w/ few public buildings

ii. Jefferson acted in spirit of democratic simplicity, made his image plain, disdain for pretension. Eliminated aura of majesty surrounding presidency

iii. Political genius, worked as leader of his party to give Republicans in Congress direction, used appointments as political weapon. Won 1804 reelection easily

b. Dollars and Shipsi. Washington and Adams had increased expenditures, debt, taxation.

Jefferson 1802 had Congress abolish all internal taxes leaving only land sales and customs duties, cut govt spending, halved debt

ii. Scaled down armed forces, cut navy due to fear of limiting civil liberty + civilian govt, promoting overseas commerce instead of agriculture 

iii. At same time established US Military Academy @ West Point 1802, built up navy after 1801 threats by pasha of Tripoli in Mediterranean following Jefferson’s end to paying ransom demanded by Barbary pirates

c. Conflict With The Courts

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i. Judiciary remained in hands of Federalist judges, congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 eliminating judgeships Adam’s filled before leaving office 

ii. Case of Marbury v. Madison 1803 btwn Justice of Peace William Marbury and Sec of State James Madison 

1. Supreme Court ruled Congress exceeded its authority in creating a statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 b/c Constitution had already defined judiciary

2. Court asserted that the act of Congress was void. Enlarged courts power

iii. Chief Justice John Marshall presided over case, battled to give fed govt unity and strength, established judiciary as branch coequal w/ exec and legislature

iv. Jefferson assaulted last Federalist stronghold, urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges. Tried to impeach justice Samuel Chase in 1805 but Republican Senate could not get 2/3 vote necessary- acquittal set precedent impeachment not purely a political weapon, above partisan disagreement

4. Doubling the National Domaina. Jefferson and Napoleon

i. After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted power in New World. Spain held areas west of Mississippi, 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso granted French this Louisiana. Also held sugar-rich West Indian islands Guadeloupe, Martinique, Santo Domingo (where slave revolt led by Toussaint L’ouverture put down)

ii. Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy- apptd pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800, disapproved of black Santo Domingo uprising 

iii. Reconsidered position when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana and seizure of New Orleans, alarmed n 1802 when Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean going vessels (which was guaranteed in Pikcney Treaty of 1795)- this closed lower Miss. to US shippers

iv. Westerners demanded govt reopen river, Jefferson ordered Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans, in meantime expanded military and river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack

v. Nap offered sale of whole Louisiana Territory. Plans for American empire awry b/c army decimated by yellow fever, reinforcements frozen

b. The Louisiana Purchase

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i. Livingston and James Monroe in Paris decided to proceed with sale of whole territory even though not authorized to do so by govt, treaty signed April 1803

ii. US paid $15 million to France, had to incorporate N.O. residents into Unioniii. Jefferson unsure US had authority to accept offer b/c power not specifically

granted in Constitution, ultimately agreed constituted as treaty power. December 1803 territory handed over from Spain to France then US

iv. Govt organized Louisiana territory like Northwest territory w/ various territories to eventually to become states- Louisiana first, admitted 1812

c. Lewis and Clark Explore the Westi. Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to

gather geographical fats and investigate trade w/ Indiansii. Lewis and Clark set out 1804 from Mississippi R. in St Louis w/ Indian

Sacajawea as guide, reached pacific fall 1805iii. Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory,

Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions btwn Mississppi and Rocky Mts

d. The Burr Conspiracyi. Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions,

but some NE Federalists known as Essex Junto felt expansion weakened power of Federalists + region . Felt only answer secession and “Northern Confederacy”

ii. Plan required support of NY, NJ, New England, but leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused support 

iii. Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr (who had no prospect in own party after 1800 election deadlock) to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804

iv. Hamilton accused Burr of treason and negative remarks about character, when Burr lost election blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence

v. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel 1804, Hamilton mortally woundedvi. Burr, now political outcast, fled NY for West and along with General James

Wilkinson, governor of Louisiana Territory, planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and possibly make his own empire. 1806 tried for treason, acquitted

vii. “Conspiracy” showed perils of central govt that remained deliberately weak w/ vast tracts of nominally controlled land, state of US as stable and united nation

5. Expansion and Wara. Conflict on the Seas

i. US shipping expanded to control trade btwn Eur and W. Indies 

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ii. Napoleon’s Continental system forbade ships that had docked at any point in British ports from landing on continent- Berlin (1806) + Milan (1807) Decrees

iii. Britain’s “orders in council” required goods to continent be in ships that had at least stopped in British ports- response to Nap’s “Continental System”

iv. American ships caught btwn countries, but England greater threat b/c greater sea power and the worse offender

b. Impressmenti. Brit Navy had terrible conditions, forced service called “impressments”

used, many deserted when possible and joined Americans- to stop loss Brit claimed right to stop and search American merchant ships + reimpress deserters

ii. 1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: Brit fired on US ship that refused search, US Minister James Monroe protested, GB refused to renounce impressments

c. “Peaceable Coercion”i. To prevent future incidents that might bring war Jefferson proposed The

Embargo 1807- prohibited US ship from leaving for any foreign portii. Created national depression, ship-owners + merchants of NE (mainly

Federalists) hardest hit-beforeiii. James Madison, Jefferson’s Sec of State, won election of 1808 but fierce

opposition- led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act- reopened trade w/ all nations except GB + France

iv. 1810 new Macon’s Bill No. 2 opened trade w/ GB + France but pres had power to prohibit commerce for belligerent behavior against neutral shipping

v. Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere, Madison issued embargo against GB 1811 until it renounced restrictions of American shipping

d. The “Indian Problem” and the Britishi. After dislodgement by Americans, Indians looked to Brits for protectionii. William Henry Harrison had been a promoter of Western expansion

(Harrison Land Law 1800), named governor of Indiana 1801 by Jefferson. Offered Indians ultimatum: become farmers and assimilate or move to West of Miss. 

iii. By 1807 tribes mainly ceding land. After Chesapeake incident, however, Brits began to renew Indian friendships to begin defense of invasion into Can

e. Tecumseh and the Propheti. The Prophet was Indian leader inspired religious revival, rejection of white

culture. Attracted thousands from many tribes at Tippecanoe Creek. Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization

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ii. Starting 1809 began to unite tribes of Miss. valley, 1811 traveled south to add tribes of the South to alliance

iii. 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy. However, thru 1812 continued to attack settlers, encouraged by Brit agents—Americans believed end only thru Can. Invasion

f. Florida and War Feveri. “Frontiersman” in N wanted Canada, those in S wanted to acquire Spanish

Florida in order to stop Indian attacks, gain access to rivers w/ port accessii. 1810 setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge, President

Madison agreed to annex territory- Spain Britain’s ally, made pretext for wariii. By 1812 “war harks” elected during 1810 elections eager for war- some

ardent nationalists seeking territorial expansion, others defense of Republican values

iv. Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Calhoun of SC led Republicans in pressing for Canadian invasion- Madison declared war June 18, 1812

6. The War of 1812a. Battles with the Tribes

i. Americans forced to surrender Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months. On seas American frigates and privateers successful, but by 1813 Brit navy (less occupied w/ Napoleon) devoted resources and imposed blockade

ii. US began to have success in Great Lakes- Oliver Perry beat Brits at Put-In-Bay 1813, burned capital at York. William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames- disheartened Natives of Northwest and diminished ability to defend claims

iii. Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians @ Battle of Horseshoe Bend 1814, continued invasion into Florida and captured Pensacola Sept 1814

b. Battles With the Britishi. After Nap surrendered 1814 England prepared to invade US, landed

armada in Chesapeake region. Aug 1814 captured and burned Washingtonii. Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled Brit attack in Sept. This

battle is what Francis Scott Key witnessed, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”

iii. Brit also repelled in NY at Battle of Plattsburgh in Sept. January 1815 Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans- after treaty signed

c. The Revolt of New Englandi. US failures 1812-1815 led to increased govt opposition. In NE opposition to

war and Repub govt, Federalists led by Daniel Webtser led Congressional opposition. Federalists in NE dreamed of separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders and backwoodsmen

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ii. Dec 1814 convention at Hartford led to nothing b/c of news of Jackson’s smashing success at New Orleans. Two days later news of peace treaty arrived

d. The Peace Settlementi. Aug 1814 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin met in Ghent,

Belgium w/ Brit diplomats. Final treaty did little but end fighting- US dropped call to end impressments, Brit dropped call for Indian buffer in NW

ii. Brit accepted b/c exhausted + indebted after Napoleonic conflict, US believed w/ end of Eur conflict less commercial interference would occur

iii. Treaty of Gent signed Dec 1814, free trade agreement 1815later Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes

iv. War disastrous to Natives, lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW

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