AP European HistorySeptember 18 - 22-2017

MONDAY (CHAPTER 16: Toward a New World View) Examine the causes and effects of the Scientific Revolution (OS-5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)Materials Strategy/FormatPpt Lecture-Discussion L.CCR.1

Student SkillsContext

Introduction We commence this new Unit and Chapter with a focus upon sweeping changes. Though we will really

spend most of our next few weeks in the 18th century, we will have to backtrack a bit. In history, the study of science and philosophy is known as intellectual history. This period of scientific revolution and the Enlightenment owes something of its beginning to the humanist spirit of the Renaissance. The philosophy of that period flowed directly into this period. If there was a meta-narrative (underlying theme or all-encompassing idea) it was humanism. For this period that narrative will involve the idea of natural laws.Probably the most important early figure was not a scientist but a philosopher, John Locke. However, during the later part of this period the giant becomes Isaac Newton. As you will see, Newton's Laws become a foundation for explaining the whole universe. We will see the same occur in the 19th century with Charles Darwin and again in the 20th century with Albert Einstein.

The Scientific Revolution is a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed starting in Ancient

Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages, and laid the foundation of modern science. According to most accounts, the scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance era and continued through the late 18th century, the latter period known as The Enlightenment

The period known as the “Scientific Revolution” is a highly-debated term among modern historians. The term itself came into existence when historian and philosopher Alexandre Koyré coined the term scientific revolution in 1939 to describe this epoch. The Konyè definition targets a time of change during the 16th and 17th centuries. This revolves around several basic questions: by definition what is a revolution and, by definition what is “science”?

Recent debate among some scholar’s questions whether or not the term is accurate. The idea of a revolution does not seem to fit the usual proto-type. It did not occur in one place. The revolution occurred in Austria, Germany, Holland, and Britain mostly. But perhaps the most important contributions were made by Italians and Poles. Unlike the Marxist concept of class revolution, it did not start with a single class of people. Monarchs sponsored scientific pursuits (Charles II of England sponsored the Royal Academy), nobles and middle class shared interest. On occasion, even churchmen (like Copernicus) delved into scientific pursuits. The change was not sudden as some revolts nor was it bloody.

But despite the controversy of the term something did indeed transpire. The Scientific revolution spawned other revolutionary events. It directly initiated the Enlightenment, Agricultural Revolution, and the First Industrial Revolution.

For the next couple of days, we will examine this period of cultural resurgence and then migrate into the agricultural revolution. Next week following the break we will move on to the most important cultural period in European History, the Enlightenment.

Procedure

I Old and New Natural Philosophy1. The Aristotelian Universe and Cosmology

a. The new theorists sought the replacement of the Aristotelian theory that matter was continuous and made up of the elements Earth, Water, Air, Fire, and Ether by rival ideas that matter was atomistic or corpuscular or that its chemical composition was even more complex. Also, the new theories questioned the Aristotelian idea that heavy bodies, by their nature, moved straight down toward their natural places; that light bodies, by their nature, moved straight up toward their natural place; and that ethereal bodies, by their nature, moved in unchanging circular motions with the idea that all bodies are heavy and move according to the same physical law

2. God-made universe = perfection in His refectionb. Earth-centered cosmology (crystalline spheres) that were perfectly round and invisible. The Catholic Church accepted the views of Aristotle in the middle ages (ironic since he was a pagan). Perhaps this was one of the reasons why comets caused such fears. As they appeared and followed no set pattern

II Astronomy: The Natural science that started the “revolution”1. The first shot in the so-called Revolution dealt with apparent motion. The problems with the motions

of the stars and planets in the night sky. It seemed that the planets obviously did not follow any set crystalline rails because a few nights of observation reveals a path that goes up, down, side to side, and backwards to the earth-bound observer.

2. The early Greek scientist Ptolemy backed up Aristotle with the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism, or the Ptolemaic system), stating that the Earth is the center of the universe, and that all other objects orbit around it. This geocentric model served as the predominant cosmological system in many ancient civilizations such as ancient Greece. As such, most Ancient Greek philosophers assumed that the Sun, Moon, stars, and naked eye planets circled the Earth.

3. Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus 1473–1543). countered this idea with his own explanation of apparent motion with De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) becoming the seminal work on the heliocentric theory.  The book, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, Germany, offered an alternative model of the universe. Copernicus explained that the

uneven pattern of planetary motion can only be explained by the fact that the earth was moving and perhaps the sun was the center. Copernicus was not really understood at the time because the mathematics did not yet exist to truly prove his theories.

4. Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

5. Isaac Newton represented the most important leap of the 17th century. Probably the most influential scientific book ever published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, contained the statement of Newton's laws of motion forming the foundation of classical mechanics as well as his law of universal gravitation. He derives Johannas Kepler's laws for the motion of the planets (which were first obtained empirically). In formulating his physical theories, Newton had developed a field of mathematics known as calculus. However, the language of calculus was largely left out of the Principia. Instead, Newton recast the majority of his proofs as geometric arguments.

6. The Italian Galileo Galilei was probably the most important figure of this period. His achievements include improving the telescope, a variety of astronomical observations, the first law of motion, and supporting Copernicanism effectively. He has been referred to as the "father of modern astronomy", as the "father of modern physics”, and as "father of science". His experimental work is widely considered complementary to the writings of Francis Bacon in establishing the modern scientific method. Galileo's career coincided with that of Johannes Kepler. The work of Galileo is considered to be a significant break from that of Aristotle. In addition, his conflict with the Roman Catholic Church is taken as a major early example of the conflict of religion and freedom of thought, particularly with science, in Western society.

III Other areas of scientific endeavor a. Mechanics (applied physics) was an important study of machines and motion. It is part of

physics and obviously will play an important step toward the Industrial Revolution. Newton and Galileo both performed important experiments. Christian Huygens and Anton van Leuwenhoek, two Dutch opticians advanced the idea of the telescope and microscope.

b. Chemistry advanced because the new theorists developed an early atomist theory of matter. Also the states of matter were explained and developed. Boyles Law on the behavior of gases was published in 1662. The explanation of pressure made by scientists will have a direct impact on steam power for the Industrial Revolution to come.

c. William Harvey first explained the true nature of the heart and blood circulation.

HomeworkLook over the notes above for a short quiz in class. Also bring your textbook tomorrow. We will analyze a few sources on the Scientific Revolution in class tomorrow

TUESDAY (Book Needed Today)

Brief quiz on the scientific revolution Analyze sources on the scientific revolution(OS-5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)

Materials StrategyQuiz and Textbook Assessment-docs analysis (W.CCR.1)

Student SkillsSynthesis Evaluation Causation Context

Instructions1. Write the quiz on your paper and submit2. Then, analyze key docs and define key terms from Chapter 16 pp: 502-515 in the text. This is due today in class.

HomeworkNone Tonight

WEDNESDAY and THURSDAY Bell work from the Thursday Night Reading Discuss the development of the Enlightenment in the early 18th Century (OS-5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) Discuss the Enlightenment views on economics and government (OS-5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)

Materials Strategyppt/bell work Lecture-discussion/assessment L.CCR.1

Text analysis R.CCR.1

Student SkillsContext Periodization Comparison Evaluation/Analysis

Overview In the late 17th and early 18th Centuries an intellectual movement commenced known as the

Enlightenment. The basic idea of what was meant by the term can be summed up to say that it was a period in politics, economics, religion, and society as a whole when many in Western and Central Europe were seeking to apply stability and reason to their world. In this, Natural Laws first espoused by Newton were applied to many fields of human endeavor. The main proponents of these ideas were called "philosophes"

The Philosophes believed that as a part of nature, Man must also be governed by rational laws. Although the term did not yet exist, this was the origin of social sciences including a general theory of history that will be seen later. The vehicle for most of the philosophes were novels but a great number contributed to Denis Diderot's ambitious Encyclopedia that was compiled over the course of about 20 years and of course the idea continues today. Another important avenue of sharing ideas was the salon . These were like intellectual dinner parties hosted by several prominent French noble women (Madame de Pompidou, the mistress of King Louis XV was well known). Our own Ben Franklin was a frequent visitor to these while in Paris. First, we will examine economics. This was viewed as a natural outgrowth of man and thus also governed by laws

The second objective is to examine the proper role and form of government that should govern. Not surprisingly, this discussion is also an outgrowth of Newtonian focus upon natural laws. Nearly all of the philosophes had views on government but we will focus on those of Montesquieu and Rousseau.

The Physiocrats

1. The French introduced a school of economists founded in 18th-century France and characterized chiefly by a belief that government policy should not interfere with the operation of natural economic laws and that land is the source of all wealth. It is generally regarded as the first scientific school of economics

2. Their view was that Mercantilism hurts trade and is not helpful to it. This is because constant intervention and regulation by governments hinders the ability of the business classes to prosper. This prosperity returns to the economy in the form of consumption.

3. The only role that government should play is the protection of property.4. The physiocrats were less interested in industry and more toward agriculture. This is not too surprising

since France did not yet have a large middle class.5. French economists Nemours and Quesnay applauded Enclosure Movement in Britain because it was

rational! The British banished an inefficient system and the government generally stayed out of the process. Unfortunately thousands of peasants were displaced from the land that they had worked for generations. Is rationality always right?

6. Quesnay's original contribution, and the basis of the doctrine, was the axiom that all wealth originated with the land and that agriculture alone could increase and multiply wealth. Industry and commerce, according to the physiocrats, were basically sterile and could not add to the wealth created by the land. They did not advocate that industry and commerce be neglected in favor of agriculture, but they tried to prove that no economy could be healthy unless agriculture was given the fullest opportunity. This could be obtained only if the "economic law," which the physiocrats envisaged as being as immutable as the law of gravity, was allowed to act untrammeled. Absolute freedom of trade was necessary to stabilize prices at a fair level, and laissez faire was to restore the economic process to its natural course, from which all further benefits would flow.

7. In essence the physiocrats were really quite conservative because they stressed the value of land and farming. Also, they called upon the monarchy to regulate (but not control) the economic law. Other philosophes like Voltaire and Rousseau disagreed.

Adam Smith

In 1759 Adam Smith was Professor of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow University in Scotland. Along with David Hume, Smith is seen as one of the leaders in the Scottish Enlightenment.   Whilst acting as tutor from 1763 Smith found some of the time spent in the French provinces hard to fill and seems to have begun his masterpiece An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, as a way of taking up otherwise idle hours in the summer of 1764. Overall however he derived much personal philosophical benefit from these months of journeying on the continent. In Paris he met amongst others, the "Physiocrat" economic theorist (and court Physician) Quesnay and the French Ministers, Turgot and Necker.

1. The Wealth of Nationsa. Called for the abolition of Navigation Acts, tariffs, and most taxesb. The best way to encourage wealth was the institutionalize free trade and allow the “invisible hand

of the market” place to regulate.c. Allow greed which he called “self interest” to operate and wealth will follow (this is the same as

supply side economics). This is laissez-faire ideology

d. The role for government to play is to make the system flow. It should guarantee currency value, law enforcement of law, strong military/navy.

Politics

MontesquieuMany of the philosophes actually would have accepted that the best form of government was the enlightened monarchy (like Hobbes) but also understood completely that a truly enlightened leader would be rare. Baron de Montesquieu was one of the most important political theorists. His satirical Persian Letters (1721) was hugely successful. It was about two fictional Persians who traveled Europe commenting on what they saw. In the voice of the characters the Baron lauded the British while criticizing absolutism. From 1726 he traveled widely to study social and political institutions. The Spirit of the Laws (1750), contained an original classification of governments by their manner of conducting policy, an argument for the separation of the legislative, judicial, and executive powers, and a celebrated but less influential theory of the political influence of climate. The work profoundly influenced European and American political thought and was relied on by the framers of the U.S. Constitution.

Separation of Powers was essential to maintain a just government. He, like most philosophes believed that parliaments best represented the will of the people. Does not mean necessarily a democracy without kings? No because Montesquieu understood that republics could be dictatorships too. Branches with checks and balances was best.

Rousseau Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is The Social Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate

political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Economie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they."

The General Will is a concept that Rousseau discussed and both capitalism and socialism see him as a founder. Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will.

This is the essence of what is sometimes called negative liberty. One cannot truly be free without the state. Rousseau is a confusing character because he is also seen by some as the first Communist because he felt that most social ills stemmed from private property believing that it should be banned. While Rousseau seems like a radical in political respects, he was still conservative is some ways. For example, in his work Emilie he asserted his ideas of" separate spheres" for men and women. Woman's place was in the home and not in politics.

Homework quia.com quiz; Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment (These will be more formative style but there will, as always, be some stimulus based questions.

FRIDAY (BOOK NEEDED) Analyze primary and secondary sources on the Enlightenment using text sources

Discuss the weekend DBQ

Materials Strategy/FormatText and documents Close-text reading (R.CCR.1-2)

Student SkillsContext Analysis /Evaluation Periodization

Introduction One of the ways that the Enlightenment impacted European society and the world today was how it viewed

religion. Not surprisingly the age of religious wars made organized faiths seem distasteful to many people who drank deeply the ideas of the Enlightenment. Perhaps surprisingly the Enlightenment did not breed many true atheist or even agnostics. When Voltaire famously wrote “Ecrasez l’infame” (Crush the infamous thing) he was more attacking organized religion than the notion of God.

More commonly educated Europeans often developed a more rational concept of God beyond the failures of human religion. Deism was the most common example. Natural religion, or Deism, was religion divorced from the supposed “superstition” of revealed religion such as Christianity. Human reason unaided by revelation, it was thought, could lead thinking men to the truth of God. Deism was a very basic, not highly elaborated theistic belief. God was a kind of highest common denominator of the revealed religions. The most often used analogy is of God as a clockmaker who set the mechanisms of the universe going though natural laws. But, this God does not get involved in our daily lives. We will see a reaction very often in religion to the rational God calling for even more emotion and passion. (See Romanticism)

There was even a growing interest in Easter philosophies and faiths due in some measure to the Age of Exploration and contact with the Far East.

Also during this period was a movement known as the Jewish Enlightenment. The Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment, was an intellectual movement in Europe that lasted from approximately the 1770s to the 1880s. The Haskalah was inspired by the European Enlightenment but had a Jewish character. Literally, Haskalah comes from the Hebrew word sekhel, meaning "reason" or intellect" and the movement was based on rationality. It encouraged Jews to study secular subjects, to learn both the European and Hebrew languages, and to enter fields such as agriculture, crafts, the arts and science. The maskilim (followers of the Haskalah) tried to assimilate into European society in dress, language, manners and loyalty to the ruling power. Moses Mendelssohn (1726-1789) is considered the father of the Haskalah. Mendelssohn was a philosopher with ideas from the general Enlightenment. Frederick the Great declared him a "Jew under extraordinary protection" and he won a prize from the Prussian Academy of Sciences on his "treatise on evidence in the metaphysical sciences." He represented Judaism as a non-dogmatic, rational faith that is open to modernity and change. He focused more on the ethical and legalistic aspects of the faith.

ExerciseAnalyze a couple of documents on the relationship of religion to the Enlightenment.

Homework for Weekend (Due Tuesday September 26)

It's DBQ time again. Write the following DBQ. Some of the sources are from periods that we have yet to cover but that's okay. Don't forget to look back at previous essays. Also, provide some synthesis remembering that a sentence is not enough. But certain to find some related outside information about the period. Also, remember that it too must have some depth. You may once again type this assignment

" Using specific examples from the documents below, analyze the purposes that ritualsand festivals served in traditional European life."

Historical Background:

For centuries, traditional European life included a cycle of ritualized events and festivals. Carnival, which began as early as January and climaxed with the celebration of Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday or Shrove Tuesday), was the most

elaborate festival. Carnival was celebrated until Lent, the 40-day period of fasting and penance before Easter. Another major festival occurred on midsummer night’s eve. Some community rituals, like charivari (also known as “riding the stang”) could occur at any time during the year.

Document 1

"Thus, as the appointed time arrived, all the sons convened in the square of the city.They represented all the leaders of the city. The sons portrayal of adult citizens wasso good that it hardly would seem believable. For they had so carved their faces andcountenances in masks that they might scarcely be distinguishable from their fathers,the leaders of the city. Their very sons had put on their clothes and the sons had learnedall of their gestures, copying each and every one of their actions and habits in an admi-rable way. It was truly lovely for citizens who had convened at the public buildings tolook on their very selves imitated with as much beauty and processional pomp as theregal magnificence of the most ample senate of the city, which their sons would proudlyact out before them."

Source: Brother Giovanni di Carlo, Dominican monk, Florence, 1468

Document 2

"The festival was marked by flames of joy over the whole country. Around these bonfirespeople danced, sang and leapt with great pleasure, and did not spare the bagpipes. Manyloads of beer were brought. What disorder, whoring, fighting, killing and dreadfulidolatry took place there!" Source: Baltasar Rusow, Lutheran pastor, commenting on a saint's feast day festival in mid-June. Estonia, sixteenth century

Document 3

Document 4

"Youths armed with cudgels, stones, hammers, trowels, and hand saws put theaters to thesack, and bawdy houses to the spoil, in the quarrel breaking a thousand windows, tum-bling from the tops of lofty chimneys, terribly untiling houses and ripping up the bowelsof featherbeds; this leads to the enriching of upholsterers, the profit of plasterers and dirtdaubers, and to the gain of glaziers, joiners, carpenters, tilers, and bricklayers. And whatis worse, to the contempt of justice. Thus by the unmannerly manners of Shrove Tuesdayconstables are baffled…"All this festival activity is allowed the Italians that they may give a little vent to theirspirits which have been stifled for a whole year and are ready to choke with gravityand melancholy.”

Source: John Taylor, English writer, early seventeenth century Italy

Document 5

"When any woman, a wife more particularly, has been scolding, beating or otherwiseabusing the other sex, and is publicly known, she is made to ride stang." A crowd ofpeople assemble toward evening after work hours, with an old shabby, broken downhorse. They hunt out the delinquent and mount her on their horse astride with her face tothe tail. So they parade her through the nearest village or town, drowning her scoldingand clamour with the noise of frying pans, just as you would scare a swarm of bees. Andthough I have seen this done many times, I never knew the woman to seek any redress,or the avengers to proceed to any more disorderly conduct after they had once made theguilty one ride stang."

Source, Elizabeth Gaskill, author, writing to her friend about the customs of Cheshire, England, 1833

Document 6

"When a royalist widower of the Couteliers neighborhood remarried, he began receivingraucous visits night after night. Most of the people who took too active a part were sentto the police court. But that sort of prosecution was not very intimidating, and did notproduce the desired effect. The disorders continued. One noticed, in fact, that the peoplewho got involved in the disturbances no longer came, as one might expect, from theinferior classes. Law students, students at the veterinary school and youngsters fromgood city families had joined in. Seditious shouts had arisen in certain groups, and welearned that the new troublemakers meant to keep the charivari going until King Louis Philippe's birthday, in hopes of producing another sort of disorder.It was especially on the evening of Sunday the 28th of April 1833 that the politicalnature of these gatherings appeared unequivocally. All of a sudden shouts of LONGLIVE THE REPUBLIC were heard. It was all the clearer what was going on becausethe majority of the agitators were people whose ordinary clothing itself announcedthat they weren't there for a simple charivari."

Source: Report from the police inspector, Toulouse, France, April 1833

Document 7

"Drosida Anisimova was apprehended for berry-picking in the village's communal berrypatch before the customary time. A village policeman brought her before the villageassembly, where they hung on her neck the basket of berries she had gathered, and theentire commune led her through the village streets with shouts, laughter, songs anddancing to the noise of washtubs, frying pans, and bells. The punishment had such astrong effect on her that she was ill for several days, but the thought of complainingagainst the offenders never entered her mind…"

Source: Russian official, report on an incident in a village in Novgorod Province,Russia, late nineteenth century