appendix - effingham county schools / overview...appendix domain kingdom phylum common name and...

R52 Life Science

Appendix

Domain Kingdom Phylum Common Name and Description

Archaea Archaea Single-celled, with no nucleus. Live in some of Earth’s most extreme environments, including salty, hot, and acid environments, and the deep ocean.

Bacteria Bacteria Single-celled, with no nucleus, but chemically different from Archaea. Live in all types of environments,including the human body; reproduce by dividing from one cell into two. Includes blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria), Streptococcus, and Bacillus.

Eukarya Cells are larger than archaea or bacteria and are eukaryotic (have a nucleus containing DNA).Single-celled or multicellular.

Protista Usually single-celled, but sometimes multicellular. DNAcontained in a nucleus. Many phyla resemble plants, fungi,or animals but are usually smaller or simpler in structure.

Animal-like Ciliophora Ciliates; have many short, hairlike extensions called protists cilia, which they use for feeding and movement.

Includes paramecium.

Zoomastigina Zooflagellates; have usually one or two long, hairlike extensions called flagella.

Sporozoa Cause diseases in animals such as birds, fish, and humans. Includes Plasmodium, which causes malaria.

Sarcodina Use footlike extensions to move and feed. Includes foraminifers and amoebas. Sometimes called Rhizopoda.

Plantlike Euglenozoa Single-celled, with one flagellum. Some have protists chloroplasts that carry out photosynthesis. Includes

euglenas and Trypanosoma, which causes African sleeping sickness.

Dinoflagellata Dinoflagellates; usually single-celled; usually have chloroplasts and flagellum. In great numbers, some species can cause red tides along coastlines.

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Classification of Living ThingsLiving things are classified into three domains. These domains are further divided into kingdoms,and then phyla. Major phyla are described in the table below, along with important featuresthat are used to distinguish each group.

Classification of Living Things

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Appendix R53


Chrysophyta Yellow algae, golden-brown algae, and diatoms;single-celled; named for the yellow pigments in their chloroplasts (chrysophyte, in Greek, means “golden plant”).

Chlorophyceae Green algae; have chloroplasts and are chemically similar to land plants. Unicellular or forms simplecolonies of cells. Includes Chlamydomonas, Ulva(sea lettuce), and Volvox.

Phaeophyta Brown seaweed; contain a special brown pigment thatgives these organisms their color. Multicellular, live mainly in salt water; includes kelp.

Rhodophyta Red algae; contain a red pigment that makes these organisms red, purple, or reddish-black. Multicellular,live in salt water.

Funguslike Acrasiomycota Cellular slime molds; live partly as free-living protists single-celled organisms, then fuse together to form

a many-celled mass. Live in damp, nutrient-rich environments; decomposers.

Myxomycota Acellular slime molds; form large, slimy masses made of many nuclei but technically a single cell.

Oomycota Water molds and downy mildews; produce thin,cottonlike extensions called hyphae. Feed off of dead or decaying material, often in water.

Fungi Usually multicellular; eukaryotic; cells have a thick cell wall. Obtain nutrients through absorption; often function as decomposers.

Chytridiomycota Oldest and simplest fungi; usually aquatic (fresh water or brackish water); single-celled or multicellular.

Basidiomycota Multicellular; reproduce with a club-shaped structure that is commonly seen on forest floors. Includes mushrooms, puffballs, rusts, and smuts.

Zygomycota Mostly disease-causing molds; often parasitic.

Ascomycota Includes single-celled yeasts and multicellular sac fungi. Includes Penicillium.

Classification of Living Things (cont.)

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R54 Life Science


Plantae Multicellular and eukaryotic; make sugars using energy from sunlight. Cells have a thick cell wall of cellulose.

Bryophyta Mosses; small, grasslike plants that live in moist, cool environments. Includes sphagnum (peat) moss. Seedless,nonvascular plants.

Hepatophyta Liverworts; named for the liver-shaped structure of one part of the plant’s life cycle. Live in moist environments.Seedless, nonvascular plants.

Anthoceratophyta Hornworts; named for the visible hornlike structures with which they reproduce. Live on forest floors and other moist, cool environments. Seedless, nonvascular plants.

Psilotophyta Simple plant, just two types. Includes whisk ferns found in tropical areas, a common greenhouse weed. Seedless,vascular plants.

Lycophyta Club mosses and quillworts; look like miniature pine trees; live in moist, wooded environments. Includes Lycopodium (ground pine). Seedless vascular plants.

Sphenophyta Plants with simple leaves, stems, and roots. Grow about a meter tall, usually in moist areas. Includes Equisetum(scouring rush). Seedless, vascular plants.

Pterophyta Ferns; fringed-leaf plants that grow in cool, wooded environments. Includes many species. Seedless,vascular plants.

Cycadophyta Cycads; slow-growing palmlike plants that grow in tropical environments. Reproduce with seeds.

Ginkgophyta Includes only one species: Ginkgo biloba, a tree that is often planted in urban environments. Reproduce with seeds in cones.

Gnetophyta Small group includes desert-dwelling and tropical species.Includes Ephedra (Mormon tea) and Welwitschia, which grows in African deserts. Reproduce with seeds.

Coniferophyta Conifers, including pines, spruces, firs, sequoias. Usually evergreen trees; tend to grow in cold, dry environments;reproduce with seeds produced in cones.


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Appendix R55


Anthophyta Flowering plants; includes grasses and flowering trees and shrubs. Reproduce with seeds produced in flowers,becoming fruit.

Animalia Multicellular and eukaryotic; obtain energy by consuming food. Usually able to move around.

Porifera Sponges; spend most of their lives fixed to the ocean floor. Feed by filtering water (containing nutrients and small organisms) through their body.

Cnidaria Aquatic animals with a radial (spokelike) body shape;named for their stinging cells (cnidocytes). Includes jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones, and corals.

Ctenophora Comb jellies; named for the comblike rows of cilia (hairlike extensions) that are used for movement.

Platyhelminthes Flatworms; thin, flattened worms with simple tissues and sensory organs. Includes planaria and tapeworms,which cause diseases in humans and other hosts.

Nematoda Roundworms; small, round worms; many species are parasites, causing diseases in humans, such as trichinosis and elephantiasis.

Annelida Segmented worms; body is made of many similar segments. Includes earthworms, leeches, and many marine worms.

Mollusca Soft-bodied, aquatic animals that usually have an outer shell. Includes snails, mussels, clams, octopus,and squid.

Arthropoda Animals with an outer skeleton (exoskeleton) and jointed appendages (for example, legs or wings). Very large group that includes insects, spiders and ticks,centipedes, millipedes, and crustaceans.

Echinodermata Marine animals with a radial (spokelike) body shape.Includes feather stars, sea stars (starfish), sea urchins,sand dollars, and sea cucumbers.

Chordata Mostly vertebrates (animals with backbones) that share important stages of early development. Includes tunicates (sea squirts), fish, sharks, amphibians, reptiles,birds, and mammals.


Period

Each row of the periodic table is called a period. As read from left to right, one proton and one electron are added from one element to the next.

Group

Each column of the table is called a group. Elements in a group share similar properties. Groups are read from top to bottom.

Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Solid Liquid GasFeFe HgHg O

2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2Beryllium

9.012

4

Sodium22.990

11

3Magnesium

24.305

12

Potassium39.098

19

4Calcium40.078

20

Scandium44.956

21

Titanium47.87

22

Vanadium50.942

23

Chromium51.996

24

Manganese54.938

25

Iron55.845

26

Cobalt58.933

27

Rubidium85.468

37

5Strontium

87.62

38

Yttrium88.906

39

Zirconium91.224

40

Niobium92.906

41

Molybdenum95.94

42

Technetium(98)

43

Ruthenium101.07

44

Rhodium102.906

45

Cesium132.905

55

6Barium137.327

56

Lanthanum138.906

57

Hafnium178.49

72

Tantalum180.95

73

Tungsten183.84

74

Rhenium186.207

75

Osmium190.23

76

Iridium192.217

77

Francium(223)

87

7Radium(226)

88

Actinium(227)

89

Rutherfordium(261)

104

Dubnium(262)

105

Seaborgium(266)

106

Bohrium(264)

107

Hassium(269)

108

Meitnerium(268)

109

Be

Na Mg

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

Cerium140.116

58

Praseodymium140.908

59

Neodymium144.24

60

Promethium(145)

61

Samarium150.36

62

Thorium232.038

90

Protactinium231.036

91

Uranium238.029

92

Neptunium(237)

93

Plutonium(244)

94

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm

Th Pa U Np Pu

Lithium6.941

3

Li

Hydrogen1.008

1

1

1 H

The Periodic Table of the Elements

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R56 Life Science

Lanthanides & Actinides

The lanthanide series (elements 58–71) and actinide series (elements 90–103) are usually set apart from the rest of the periodic table.

Metals and Nonmetals

This zigzag line separates metals from nonmetals.

Hydrogen1.008

1

HHSymbolEach element has a symbol. The symbol's color represents the element's state at room temperature.

Atomic Mass average mass of isotopes of this element

Atomic Number number of protons in the nucleus of the element

Name

10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17Helium4.003

2

18

Boron10.811

5

Carbon12.011

6

Nitrogen14.007

7

Oxygen15.999

8

Fluorine18.998

9

Neon20.180

10

Aluminum26.982

13

Silicon28.086

14

Phosphorus30.974

15

Sulfur32.066

16

Chlorine35.453

17

Argon39.948

18

Nickel58.69

28

Copper63.546

29

Zinc65.39

30

Gallium69.723

31

Germanium72.61

32

Arsenic74.922

33

Selenium78.96

34

Bromine79.904

35

Krypton83.80

36

Palladium106.42

46

Silver107.868

47

Cadmium112.4

48

Indium114.818

49

Tin118.710

50

Antimony121.760

51

Tellurium127.60

52

Iodine126.904

53

Xenon131.29

54

Platinum195.078

78

Gold196.967

79

Mercury200.59

80

Thallium204.383

81

Lead207.2

82

Bismuth208.980

83

Polonium(209)

84

Astatine(210)

85

Radon(222)

86

Darmstadtium(269)

110

Unununium(272)

111

Ununbium(277)

112

HeHe

B C N O F NeNe

Al Si P S ClCl ArAr

Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se BrBr KrKr

Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I XeXe

Pt Au HgHg Tl Pb Bi Po At RnRn

Ds Uuu Uub

Europium151.964

63

Gadolinium157.25

64

Terbium158.925

65

Dysprosium162.50

66

Holmium164.930

67

Erbium167.26

68

Thulium168.934

69

Ytterbium173.04

70

Lutetium174.967

71

Americium(243)

95

Curium(247)

96

Berkelium(247)

97

Californium(251)

98

Einsteinium(252)

99

Fermium(257)

100

Mendelevium(258)

101

Nobelium(259)

102

Lawrencium(262)

103

Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Appendix R57

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Divisions of Geologic TimeThe geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, epochs(ehp-uhks), and ages. Unlike divisions of time such as days or min-utes, the divisions of the geologic time scale have no exact fixedlengths. Instead, they are based on changes or events recorded inrocks and fossils.

Eon The largest unit of time is an eon. Earth’s 4.6-billion-year historyis divided into four eons.

The Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eons together are calledPrecambrian time and make up almost 90 percent of Earth’s history.

This geologic time scale shows the longest divisions of Earth’s history: eons, eras, and periods.

Geologic Time Scale

Paleozoic Era at 544 Million Years AgoPrecambrian Time at 3.6 Billion Years Ago

At the beginning of the Paleozoic era, all life livedin the oceans.

For nearly 4 billion years, during most ofPrecambrian time, no plants or animals existed.

*bya = billion years ago†mya = million years ago

4.6 bya* 3.5 bya 3 bya

Archean eonHadean eon

Precambrian time – 4.6 bya to 544 mya

Paleozoic era

Cambrian period Ordovician period

Silurianperiod Devonian period

490mya

443 mya

417mya

354mya

544mya

Carboniferousperiod

4 bya

Phanerozoic eon

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R58 Life Science

The fossil record for Precambrian time consists mostly of tiny organismsthat cannot be seen without a microscope. Other early forms of lifehad soft bodies that rarely formed into fossils.

The Phanerozoic eon stretches from the end of Precambrian time to the present. Because so many more changes are recorded in the fossil record of this eon, it is further divided into smaller units of timecalled eras, periods, epochs, and ages.

The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, theMesozoic, and the Cenozoic. Each era is subdivided into a number ofperiods. The periods of the Cenozoic, the most recent era, are furtherdivided into epochs, which are in turn further divided into ages. Thesmaller time divisions relate to how long certain conditions and lifeforms on Earth lasted and how quickly they changed or became extinct.

Mesozoic Era at 195 to 65 Million Years Ago Cenozoic Era at Present Day

Mesozoic era Cenozoic era

Phanerozoic eon

1.5 bya 1 bya 500 mya†

Phanerozoic eonProterozoic eon

today

Precambrian time – 4.6 bya to 544 mya

Triassic period

Permian period

Jurassic period Cretaceous period Quaternary period

248mya

206mya

144mya

65mya

2mya

Tertiary period

During the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs lived alongwith the first mammals, birds, and flowering plants.

The first humans appeared in the later part of theCenozoic era, which continues today.

Appendix R59

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R60 Life Science

Fossils in RocksIf an organism is covered by or buried in sediment, it may become afossil as the sediments become rock. Many rock fossils are actual bodyparts, such as bones or teeth, that were buried in sediment and thenreplaced by minerals and turned to stone. Fossils in rock include moldsand casts, petrified wood, carbon films, and trace fossils.

Molds and Casts Some fossils that form in sedimentary rock are moldfossils. A mold is a visible shape that was left after an animal orplant was buried in sediment and then decayed away. In some cases,a hollow mold later becomes filled with minerals, producing a castfossil. The cast fossil is a solid model in the shape of the organism. Ifyou think of the mold as a shoeprint, the cast would be what wouldresult if sand filled the print and hardened into stone.

1

Minerals fill the moldand make a cast of theorganism.

Over time, the sedimentbecomes rock and theorganism decays, leaving a mold.

Rock fossils show shapes andtraces of past life.

Fossils in Rocks

Molds and Casts1

An organism dies andfalls into soft sediment.

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Appendix R61

Petrified Wood The stone fossil of a treeis called petrified wood. In certain conditions, a fallen tree can becomecovered with sediments. Over time,water passes through the sedimentsand into the tree’s cells. Minerals thatare carried in the water take the placeof the cells, producing a stone likenessof the tree.

Carbon Films Carbon is an elementthat is found in every living thing.Sometimes when a dead plant or animal decays, its carbon is left behindas a visible layer. This image is called a carbon film. Carbon films can showdetails of soft parts of animals andplants that are rarely seen in other fossils.

Trace Fossils Do you want to know howfast a dinosaur could run? Trace fossilsmight be able to tell you. These are notparts of an animal or impressions of it,but rather evidence of an animal’s presence in a given location. Trace fossils include preserved footprints,trails, animal holes, and even feces. Bycomparing these clues with what isknown about modern animals, scientistscan learn how prehistoric animals mayhave lived, what they ate, and howthey behaved.

4

3

2

In this close-up, you can see the minerals thatreplaced the wood, forming petrified wood.

This carbon film of a moth is about 10 million yearsold. Carbon films are especially useful because theycan show details of the soft parts of organisms.

A trace fossil, such as this footprint of a dinosaur inrock, can provide important information aboutwhere an animal lived and how it walked and ran.

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R62 Life Science

Half-LifeOver time, a radioactive elementbreaks down at a constant rate intoanother form.

The rate of change of a radioactiveelement is measured in half-lives. Ahalf-life is the length of time it takesfor half of the atoms in a sample of aradioactive element to change froman unstable form into another form.Different elements have differenthalf-lives, ranging from fractions of a second to billions of years.

Half-Life

0 half-life 1 half-life 2 half-lives 4 half-lives3 half-lives

% of original unstable element

% of element that has changed

100% 50%

50%

75%

25%

87.5%

12.5%

93.75%

6.25%

magma

lava

When magma first hardens intorock, it contains some uranium 235 and no lead 207.

Radiometric DatingRadiometric dating works best with igneous rocks. Sedimentaryrocks are formed from material that came from other rocks. Forthis reason, any measurements would show when the originalrocks were formed, not when the sedimentary rock itself formed.

Elements with half-lives of millions to billions of years are used todate rocks.

0 half-life 1 half-life 2 half-lives

Igneous rocks contain radioactive elements that break down overtime. This breakdown can be used to tell the ages of the rocks.

1408 Million Years Ago1

Radioactive Breakdown and Dating Rock Layers

lava

magma

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Appendix R63

Uranium 235, an unstable element found in some igneous rocks, hasa half-life of 704 million years. Over time, uranium 235 breaks downinto lead 207.

Just as uranium 235 can be used to date igneous rocks, carbon 14 canbe used to find the ages of the remains of some things that wereonce alive. Carbon 14 is an unstable form of carbon, an elementfound in all living things. Carbon 14 has a half-life of 5730 years. It is useful for dating objects between about 100 and 70,000 yearsold, such as the wood from an ancient tool or the remains of an animal from the Ice Age.

Over time, the rock formed bythe volcano wore away and newsedimentary rock layers formed.

After 704 million years, or onehalf-life, half of the uranium 235in the igneous rock has brokendown into lead 207.

igneous rock

704 Million Years Ago2


Radiometric dating shows that this igneousrock is about 1408 million years old.

The layers that formedon top of the igneousrock must be youngerthan 1408 million years.

These layers formed before themagma cut through, so they mustbe older than 1408 million years. After 1408 million years, or

2 half-lives, only one-fourth of the uranium 235 in the igneousrock remains.


Today3

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R64 Life Science

Plant and Animal CellsPlants and animals are eukaryotes, that is, their cells contain anucleus and other membrane-bound structures called organelles.The diagrams on page R65 show the different structures that can befound in plant and animal cells. The table below lists the functionsof the structures.

Cell Structures and Their Functions Plant Cell Animal Cell

Nucleus ✔ ✔

stores genetic material that enables a cell to function and divide

Cell Membrane ✔ ✔

controls what comes into and goes out of a cell

Cell wall ✔

tough outer covering provides support

Ribosome ✔ ✔

uses genetic material to assemble materials needed to make proteins

Endoplasmic reticulum ✔ ✔

manufactures proteins and other materials a cell needs to function

Golgi apparatus ✔ ✔

finishes processing proteins and transports them

Vesicle ✔ ✔

stores and transports materials and wastes

Mitochondrion ✔ ✔

releases chemical energy stored in sugars

Chloroplast ✔

uses energy from sunlight to make sugars

Lysosome ✔

breaks down food particles and wastes

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Appendix R65

Plant Cell

nucleus

endoplasmicreticulum

ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

vesicles

mitochondrion

cell membrane

central vacuole

cell wall

chloroplast

Found in plant cells,not animal cells:

Animal Cell

lysosome

nucleus

endoplasmicreticulum

ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

vesicles

mitochondrion

cell membrane

Found in animal cells,not plant cells:

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R66 Life Science

How a Light Microscope WorksMicroscopes are used to see objects that are too small to see well with the nakedeye. An ordinary light microscope works by combining convex lenses. A lens is apiece of glass or plastic shaped in such a way as to bend light. A convex lens has a bend similar to the curve of a sphere. It is thicker at its center than around the edges.

The object being viewed is mounted on a slide and placed on the stage of themicroscope. The lens closer to the object is called the objective. This lens focusesan enlarged image of the object inside the microscope. The other microscopelens—the one you look through—is called the eyepiece. You use this lens to lookat the image formed by the objective. Like a magnifying glass, the eyepiece lensforms an enlarged image of the first image.

Very small objects do not reflect much light. Most microscopes use a lamp or amirror to shine more light on the object.

You will notice that many of the photographs of microscopic images included inthis book have a magnification factor, for example 400�. This is the power ofmagnification of the microscope.

eyepiecelens

objectivelens

lamp

objectstage

Microscope

Light from an object passes through a convexlens called an objective.The objective lens focusesthe light to form anenlarged image. The eye-piece lens enlarges theimage even more. Theone-celled algae at right,called diatoms, appear 400times their normal size.

diatoms

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