Appendix ALogarithmic System of Units

A.1 Introduction

This appendix deals with the concepts and fundamentals of the logarithmic units andtheir applications in the engineering of radiowaves propagation. Use of these units,expressing the formulas, and illustrating figures/graphs in the logarithmic systemsare common and frequently referred in the book.

A.2 Definition

According to the definition, logarithm of the ratio of two similar quantities indecimal base is called “bel,” and ten times of it is called “decibel.”

bel = log10

(ppr

)

decibel = [dB] = 10 log10

(ppr

)

As the above formula suggests, it is a logarithmic scale, and due to the persistentusage of decimal base in the logarithmic units, it is normally omitted from therelated symbol for simplicity.

Since values in the logarithmic scale are the logarithm of the ratio of two similarquantities, hence they are dimensionless and measured in the same unit. In otherwords, the unit of denominator, pr, is the base of comparison and includes therequired unit.

To indicate the unit of the base in the logarithmic system of units, one or fewcharacters are used according to the following examples:

dBw: Decibel unit compared to 1 W power

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523

524 A Logarithmic System of Units

dBm: Decibel unit compared to 1 mW powerdBkw: Decibel unit compared to 1 kW power

Example A.1. Output power of a transmitter is 2 W, state its power in dBm, dBw,and dBkw.

Solution.

Pt[dBm] = 10 log2× 103

1mw= 33 dBm

Pt[dBw] = 10 log2

1w= 3 dBw

Pt[dBkw] = 10 log2× 10−3

1kw=−27 dBkw �

A.3 Basic Formulas

Applying the decibel units necessitates the frequent usage of logarithm; thus, it isessential to review the following basic mathematical formulas:

1. loga10 = P ⇐⇒ a = 10P ⇐⇒ Antilog10P = a

2. log(a1 × a2 ×·· ·× an) = loga1 + loga2 + · · ·+ logan

3. log a(pq ) =

(pq

)

log a

4. log( ab) = log a− log b

5. log m√

a = 1m log a

A.4 Common Logarithmic Quantities

Most of quantities used in the radio communications are defined in terms oflogarithmic units. Main logarithmic units used in this book are indicated inTable A.1.

In addition to the aforementioned cases, all of the quantities mentioned in thesequel are normally defined in dB:

• Polarization loss, PL• Cross-polarization discrimination Loss, XPD• Antenna front to back ratio, F/B• C/N, S/N, E/N• Gain or loss factors such as FSL, passive reflector gain, feeder loss, and rain loss

A Logarithmic System of Units 525

Table A.1 Main logarithmic units

No. Quantity Base Sign No. Quantity Base Sign

1 Gain/loss Ratio dB 8 Noise temperature ◦K(kelvin) dB/K2 Power Watt dBw 9 Bandwidth Hertz dBHz

3 Power Milliwatt dBm 10 Bit rate b/s dBb/s

4 Power Kilowatt dBkw 11 Power flux Watt/m2 dBw/m2

5 Antenna gain Isotropic dBi 12 Noise power Watt dBKTB

6 Antenna gain Dipole dBd 13 Field intensity (strength) Microvoltper meter

dBμV/m

7 Voltage Microvolt dBμV 14 Boltzmann coefficient Kelvin/Joule dBJ/K

A.4 Principles of Logarithmic System of Units

Rule 1: The logarithmic system of units are dedicated only for scalar quantities.If this unit is used for a vector quantity, it implies the magnitude of the vectorquantity.

Rule 2: In the logarithmic system of units, mathematical operations are simplifiedcompared to the ordinary system of units (IS).

Rule 3: The logarithmic scale when compared with the ordinary system of unitspresents large quantities related to the reference unit in a compact form, while itsrole for small quantities is vice versa as follows:

10 ⇐⇒ 10 dB 0.1 ⇐⇒ − 10 dB100 ⇐⇒ 20 dB 0.01 ⇐⇒ − 20 dB1,000 ⇐⇒ 30 dB 0.001 ⇐⇒ − 30 dB

......

10n ⇐⇒ 10n dB 10−n ⇐⇒ − 10n dB

In radio communications, most of curves, graphs, and plots are normallyillustrated on the logarithmic scaled axis for better presentation and simplerinterpretation.

A.5 Advantages of Logarithmic System of Units

Applications of the logarithmic system of units have dominant advantages asspecified below:

• Simplicity of the mathematical operations• Much better presentation• Better understanding and more simple interpretation

526 A Logarithmic System of Units

As an example, the following formula indicates the free-space loss in the ordinary(metric) system of units:

FSL =(4πd)2 · f 2

C2

The same formula in the logarithmic system of units is given as below:

FSL [dB] = 92.4+ 20 log f · d

which is more popular in the technical calculations related to the radiowavepropagation. It should be noted that every quantity presented in the logarithmicsystem of units can be easily transformed into the ordinary (metric) system of unitsor vice versa.

Example A.2. Equivalent isotropic radiated power of a transmitter is 43 dBw (i.e.,EIRP = 43 dBw), find

1. Equivalent radiated power in terms of kW.2. Assuming 37 dBi antenna gain, determine antenna directivity in the metric

system of units.3. Transmitter power in watts.

Solution.

1.

Pe = Antilog

(4310

)

= 20,000 W ⇒ Pe = 20 kW

2.

Gt[dB] = 37 dBi ⇒ Gt = Antilog

(3710

)

= 5,000

3.

EIRP[dBw] = Pt[dBw]+Gt[dBi]

Pt[dBw] = 43− 37= 6 dBw ⇒ Pt = Antilog

(610

)

= 4 W �

Due to the nature of mathematical operations in the ordinary and logarithmicsystems, it is important to know the method to be used for every expression orformula.

Different methods may be employed in technical books and papers. The methodwhich is applied in this book uses brackets [ ] for the logarithmic units as seen inthe following examples:

Pr[dBw] = Pt[dBw]+Gt[dBi]+Gr[dBi]−FSL[dB]−Lm[dB]

A Logarithmic System of Units 527

or

EIRP[dBm] = Pt[dBm]+Gt[dBi]−Lt [dB]

or

Lbf[dB] = Pt[dBw]−E[dBμV/m]+ 20 log f (GHz)+ 167.2

Appendix BITU-R Recommendations P-Series

Radiowave propagation

P.310 Definitions of terms relating to propagation in non-ionized mediaP.311 Acquisition, presentation, and analysis of data in studies of tropospheric propagationP.313 Exchange of information for short-term forecasts and transmission of ionospheric

disturbance warningsP.341 The concept of transmission loss for radio linksP.368 Ground-wave propagation curves for frequencies between 10 KHz and 30 MHzP.369 Reference atmosphere for refraction Note-Suppressed on 24/10/97 (RA-97)-This

Recommendation has been replaced by Rec.ITU-R P.453-6P.370 VHF and UHF propagation curves for the frequency range from 30–1,000 MHz.

Broadcasting services Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233)P.371 Choice of indices for long-term ionospheric predictionsP.372 Radio noiseP.373 Definitions of maximum and minimum transmission frequenciesP.434 ITU-R reference ionospheric characteristics and methods of basic MUF, operational

MUF and ray-path prediction Note-Suppressed on 24/10/97 (RA-97). ThisRecommendation has been replaced by Rec.ITU-R P.1239 and ITU-R P.1240

P.435 Sky-wave field-strength prediction method for the broadcasting service in thefrequency range 150–1,600 kHz Note-Suppressed on 20/10/95 (RA-95)

P.452 Prediction procedure for the evaluation of microwave interference between stationson the surface of the Earth at frequencies above about 0.7 GHz

P.453 The radio refractive index: its formula and refractivity data Note-ThisRecommendation replaces Rec. ITU-R P.369-6

P.525 Calculation of free-space attenuationP.526 Propagation by diffraction draft revision P.526-9(08/05)P.527 Electrical characteristics of the surface of the EarthP.528 Propagation curves for aeronautical mobile and radionavigation services using the

VHF, UHF, and SHF bandsP.529 Prediction methods for the terrestrial land mobile service in the VHF and UHF bands

Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233)(continued)

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529

530 B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series

(continued)

Radiowave propagation

P.530 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of terrestrialline-of-sight systems

P.531 Ionospheric propagation data and prediction methods required for the design ofsatellite services and systems

P.532 Ionospheric effects and operational considerations associated with artificialmodification of the ionosphere and the radiowave channel

P.533 HF propagation prediction methodP.534 Method for calculating sporadic-E field strengthP.581 The concept of “worst month”P.616 Propagation data for terrestrial maritime mobile services operating at frequencies

above 30 MHz Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233)P.617 Propagation prediction techniques and data required for the design of

trans-horizon radio-relay systemsP.618 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of Earth-space

telecommunication systemsP.619 Propagation data required for the evaluation of interference between stations in

space and those on the surface of the EarthP.620 Propagation data required for the evaluation of coordination distances in the

frequency range 100 MHz to 105 GHzP.676 Attenuation by atmospheric gasesP.678 Characterization of the natural variability of propagation phenomenaP.679 Propagation data required for the design of broadcasting-satellite systemsP.680 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space maritime mobile

telecommunication systemsP.681 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space-land mobile

telecommunication systemsP.682 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space aeronautical mobile

telecommunication systemsP.683 Sky-wave field-strength prediction method for propagation to aircraft at about

500KHz.Note-Suppressed on 20/10/95 (RA-95)

P.684 Prediction of field strength at frequencies below about 150 KHzP.832 World Atlas of Ground ConductivitiesP.833 Attenuation in vegetation. Draft revision P.833-5(08/05)P.834 Effects of tropospheric refraction on radiowave propagationP.835 Reference Standard AtmospheresP.836 Water vapor: surface density and total columnar contentP.837 Characteristics of precipitation for propagation modelingP.838 Specific attenuation model for rain for use in prediction methodsP.839 Rain height model for prediction methodsP.840 Attenuation due to clouds and fogP.841 Conversion of annual statistics to worst-month statisticsP.842 Computation of reliability and compatibility of HF radio systemsP.843 Communication by meteor-burst propagationP.844 Ionospheric factors affecting frequency sharing in the VHF and UHF bands

(30 MHz–3 GHz)(continued)

B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series 531

(continued)

Radiowave propagation

P.845 HF field-strength measurementP.846 Measurements of ionospheric and related characteristicsP.1057 Probability distributions relevant to radiowave propagation modelingP.1058 Digital topographic databases for propagation studiesP.1059 Method for predicting sky-wave field strengths in the frequency range

1,605–1,705 KHz.Note-Suppressed on 20/10/95 (RA-95)

P.1060 Propagation factors affecting frequency sharing in HF terrestrial systemsP.1144 Guide to the application of the propagation methods of Radiocommunication

Study Group3P.1145 Propagation data for the terrestrial land mobile service in the VHF and UHF bands

Note-SuppressedP.1146 The prediction of field strength for land mobile and terrestrial broadcasting

services in the frequency range from 1 to 3 GHz.Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233)

P.1147 Prediction of sky-wave field strength at frequencies between about 150 and1,700 KHz

P.1148 Standardized procedure for comparing predicted and observed HF sky-wavesignal intensities and the presentation of such comparisons

P.1238 Propagation data and prediction methods for the planning of indoorradiocommunication systems and radio local area networks in the frequencyrange 900 MHz to 100 GHz

P.1239 ITU-R reference ionospheric characteristicsP.1240 ITU-R methods of basic MUF, operational MUF and ray-path predictionP.1321 Propagation factors affecting systems using digital modulation techniques at LF

and MFP.1322 Radiometric estimation of atmospheric attenuationP.1406 Propagation effects relating to terrestrial land mobile and broadcasting services in

the VHF and UHF bandsP.1407 Draft revision of recommendation ITU-R P.1407-1.

Multipath propagation and parameterization of its characteristicsP.1409 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of systems using

high altitude platform stations at about 47 GHzP.1410 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial

broadband millimetric radio access systems operating in a frequency range ofabout 20–50 GHz

P.1411 Propagation data and prediction methods for the planning of short-range outdoorradiocommunication systems and radio local area networks in the frequencyrange 300 MHz to 100 GHz

P.1412 Propagation data for the evaluation of coordination between Earth stationsworking in the bidirectionally allocated frequency bands

P.1510 Annual mean surface temperatureP.1511 Topography for Earth-to-space propagation modelingP.1546 Method for point-to-area predictions for terrestrial services in the frequency range

30–3,000 MHz.Draft revision P.1546-2(08/05)

(continued)

532 B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series

(continued)

Radiowave propagation

P.1621 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space systems operatingbetween 20 and 375 THz

P.1622 Prediction methods required for the design of Earth-space systems operatingbetween 20 and 375 THz

P.1623 Prediction method of fade dynamics on Earth-space pathsP.1791 Propagation prediction methods for assessment of the impact of ultra-wideband

devicesP.1812 A path-specific propagation prediction method for point-to-area terrestrial

services in the VHF and UHF bandsP.1814 Prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial free-space optical linksP.1815 Differential rain attenuationP.1816 The prediction of the time and the spatial profile for broadband land mobile

services using UHF and SHF bandsP.1817 Propagation data required for the design of terrestrial free-space optical linksP.1853 Tropospheric attenuation time series synthesisP.2001 A general purpose wide-range terrestrial propagation model in the frequency

range 30 MHz–50 GHz

Appendix CAcronyms

A SeriesAD: Angle diversityAGL: Above ground levelAM: Amplitude modulationAMSL: Above mean sea levelAOR: Atlantic ocean regionAPD: Amplitude probability distributionATPC: Automatic transmitter power controlATSC: Advanced Television System Committee

B SeriesBB: Base bandBBS: Base band signalBER: Bit error rate/block error rateBSS: Broadcasting-satellite serviceBTS: Base transceiver station

C SeriesCATV: Community antenna TVCBD: Cross band diversityCCW: CounterclockwiseCDMA: Code division multiple accessCNR: Carrier-to-noise ratioCP: Circular polarizationCT: Cordless telephoneCW: Clockwise/continuous waves

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533

534 C Acronyms

D SeriesDAB: Digital Audio BroadcastingDBS: Direct broadcasting-satellite systemDCT: Digital cordless telephoneDECT: Digital enhanced cordless telephoneDTH: Direct to homeDTT: Digital terrestrial televisionDWDM: Dense wavelength-division multiplexing

E SeriesEHF: Extremely high frequencyEIRP: Equivalent isotropic radiated powerEM: ElectromagneticERP: Equivalent radiated power

F SeriesF/B: Front to back (ratio)FD: Fading depth/frequency diversityFDMA: Frequency division multiple accessFEC: Forward error correctionFF: Far fieldFFM: Flat fade marginFM: Fade margin /frequency modulationFNBW: First null beam widthFSL: Free-space loss

G SeriesGEO: GEO-stationary Earth orbit/GEO-synchronous Earth orbitGHz: GigahertzGO: Geometric opticsGPS: Global positioning systemGSO: Geostationary orbit

H SeriesHBW: Half-power beamwidthHD: Hybrid diversityHDTV: High-definition televisionHEO: Highly inclined Earth orbitHF: High frequencyHP: High performanceHPA: High-power amplifierHS: Hot standby

I SeriesIBO: Input back-offIDU: Indoor unitIF: Improvement factor/intermediate frequencyIFRB: International Frequency Registration BoardIG: Improvement gain

C Acronyms 535

INMARSAT: International maritime satelliteINTELSAT: International telecommunications satelliteIOR: Indian Ocean regionIR: InfraredISL: Intersatellite linkISO: International Standard OrganizationITU: International Telecommunications UnionITU-R: International telecommunications Union-Radio section

K SeriesKHz: Kilohertz

L SeriesLAT: LatitudeLEO: Low Earth orbitLF: Low frequencyLHC: Left-hand circularLHCP: Left-hand circular polarizationLHEP: Left-hand elliptical polarizationLNA: Low-noise amplifierLNB: Low-noise blockLON: LongitudeLOS: Line of sightLP: Linear polarization

M SeriesMEO: Medium Earth orbitMF: Medium frequencyMHz: MegahertzMPE: Maximum permissible exposureMSL: Mean sea levelMSS: Mobile satellite system

N SeriesNAD: Noise amplitude distributionNDB: Nondirectional beaconNF: Near fieldNF: Noise figure/noise factorNFM: Net fade marginNLOS: Non-line of sightNRCS: Normalized radar cross section

O SeriesOBO: Output back-offODU: Outdoor unit

536 C Acronyms

P SeriesPD: Polarization diversityPLF: Polarization loss factorPOR: Pacific Ocean regionPSDN: Public switched data networkPSTN: Public switched telephone network

R SeriesRADAR: Radio detection and rangingRCS: Radar cross sectionRD: Research and developmentRF: Radio frequencyRFI: Radio-frequency interferenceRHC: Right-hand circularRHCP: Right-hand circular polarizationRHEP: Right-hand elliptical polarizationRLAN: Radio local area networkRPE: Radiation pattern envelope/radiation peak envelopeRSL: Received signal levelRX: Receiver

S SeriesS: StandardSAR: Search and rescueSCADA: Supervisory control and data acquisitionSCDMA: Synchronous code division multiple accessSD: Space diversitySDH: Synchronous digital hierarchySDTV: Standard-definition televisionSFD: Satellite flux densitySHF: Super high frequencySHP: Super high performanceSNR: Signal-to-noise ratioSWR: Standing wave ratio

T SeriesTBW: Tenth power beamwidthTDMA: Time division multiple accessTEC: Total electron contentTV: TelevisionTVRO: TV receive onlyTX: Transmitter

C Acronyms 537

U SeriesUHF: Ultrahigh frequencyUHP: Ultrahigh performanceUTD: Uniform theory of diffractionUV: Ultraviolet

V SeriesVHF: Very high frequencyVLF: Very low frequencyVSB: Vestigial side band

W SeriesWARC: World Administrative Radio ConferenceWDM: Wavelength-division multiplexingWLAN: Wireless local area networkWLL: Wireless local loopWMO: World Meteorological OrganizationWPBX: Wireless private branch exchange

X SeriesXPD: Cross-polarization discrimination

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Wiley, New York9. Balanis CA (2005) Antenna theory, 3rd edn.

10. Cheng DK, Field and wave electromagnetics (1989) Addison-Wesley, Reading11. Christensen G (2001) Wireless intelligent networking. Artech House, Boston12. Collin RE (1985) Antenna and radio wave propagation. McGraw-Hill, New York13. Collin RE (1992) Foundations for microwave engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York14. Digital Microwave Systems Performance Calculations and Network Planning Siemens

Telecommunicazioni, s.p.a. (1998)15. Doble J (1996) Introduction to radio propagation for fixed and mobile communications. Artech

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Englewood Cliffs17. Ghassemi A, Ghassemi F (2004) Special topics in telecommunications, Persian version. Tarhe

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Publication Co., Iran19. Harrington RF (1958) Introduction to electromagnetic engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York20. International Telecommunications Union (2005) ITU Radio Regulations21. International Telecommunications Union (2005) Radio Communication, ITU-R Recommen-

dations22. Irane RK (2003) Propagation handbook for wireless communication system design. CRC Press23. Jerry W (2005) Standard handbook of broadcast engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York24. Johnk CTA (1988) Engineering electromagnetic fields and waves. Wiley, New York25. Lavegant J (2000) Radiowave propagation principles and techniques. Wiley, New York26. Lee WCY (1982) Mobile communications engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York27. Lee WCY (1986) Mobile communications design fundamentals. H.W. Sams, Indianapolis

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28. Lehpomer H (2004) Microwave transmission network. McGraw-Hill, New York29. Leonov SA, Handbook of computer simulation in radio engineering, Communication and

Radar. Artech-house30. Levanon N (1998) Radar principles. Wiley, New York31. Levanon N, Mozeson E (2004) Radar signals. Wiley, New York32. Maral G (2003) VSAT Networks, J/W, 2nd edn.33. Meeks ML (1982) Radar propagation at low altitudes. Artech-house34. Microflect Co. Inc. (1989) Passive repeater engineering35. Milion R (2006) RF propagation for wireless communications. McGraw-Hill, New York36. Miya K (ed) (1981) Satellite communications technology. KDD Engineering and Consulting

Inc., Tokyo37. O’leary S (2000) Understanding digital terrestrial broadcasting. Artech-house38. Parsons JD (2000) The mobile radio propagation channel, 2nd edn.39. Parsons JD (John David) (2000) The mobile radio propagation channel. Wiley, New York40. Peebles PZ (1998) Radar principles. Wiley, New York41. Peyton ZP (1998) Radar principles. Wiley, New York42. Plonsey R (1961) Principles and applications of electromagnetic fields. McGraw-Hill, New

York43. Product Specifications (1997) Andrew Catalog 37, System Planning44. Riely MJ, Richardson IEG (1997) Digital video communications. Artech-house45. Rihaczek AW, Hershkowitz SJ (2000) Theorian practice of radar target identification. Artech-

house46. Roddy D (2003) Satellite communications. McGraw-Hill, New York47. Salema C (2005) Microwave radio links. Wiley, New York48. Satellite Communication (2006) Rody49. Seybold JS (2005) Introduction to RF propagation. Wiley, New York50. Siwiak K, Radiowave propagation and antennas for personal communications. Artech House,

London51. Vaughand R (2003) Channels, propagation and antennas for mobile communications. IEE52. Wiley (2002) Handbook on satellite communications. New York

Softwares

1. GIMS-Graphical Interference Management2. SpaceCap-Space Data Capture on PC3. SpaceCom-Space Comment Capture on PC4. SpacePub-Space Publication5. SpaceQry-Space Query and Extract System6. SpaceVal-Space Filings Validation Software7. SNS-Space Network Systems8. Electronic Submission of Graphical Data9. SRS-Database Conversion Utility

10. SRS -Fix Electronic Notification Database Utility11. SRS-Space Radio Communications Stations on CD-ROM12. SNL-Space Network List13. Global Administration Data (GLAD)14. Maritime Mobile Access and Retrieval System (MARS)15. HFBC Planning Software16. FXM Data Capture17. TstTrs Attention to the File Size18. Interference Calculations GE84 Attention to the File Size

References 541

19. Interference Calculations GE89 Attention to the File Size20. SG 1-Programs on Spectrum Management21. SG 3-Databanks and Computer Programs on Radiowave Propagation22. SG 4-Databanks (Currently in Development)23. ITU Patent Statement and Licensing Declaration Information24. Ground-wave Propagation (GRWAVE)25. UTD Formulation for Diffraction Loss due to Finitely Conducting Wedge26. Point-to-area Prediction, 30–3000 MHz27. Point-to-point (Interference) Propagation28. Rain Scatter (SCAT)29. Radio Refractivity30. Atmospheric Gaseous Absorption31. Atmospheric Profile Data32. Water Vapour Data33. Rainfall Rate Model34. Specific Attenuation Model for Rain35. Rain Height Model36. Cloud Liquid Water Data37. Annual Mean Surface Temperature38. Topography (0.50 Resolution)39. K9SE: VHF and UHF Propagation www.dxzone.40. W6EL Prop: Predict Ionospheric (Sky-wave) Propagation

(3–30 MHz) www.qsl.net/w6elprop41. TAP: Terrain Analysis Package www.softwright.com42. PA 3CQR Gray Line www.iri.tudelft.nl43. HF Software www.elbert.its.bldrdoc.gov44. Wincap Wizard 3 www.taborsoft.com45. Win BASMS www.winpath.com46. Win BASMS www.itu.int

Web Sites

1. INMARSAT www.inmarsat.com and www.Inmarsat.org2. EUTELSAT www.eutelsat.org3. INTELSAT www.intelsat.com4. METEOSAT www.meteosat.com5. IEC www.iec.chandwww.iec.org6. ISO www.iso.ch7. EIA www.eia.org8. BTS www.bt.com9. ITU www.itu.int

10. ETSI www.etsi.org11. ASTM www.astm.org12. WMO www.wmo.ch13. IEEE www.ieee.org, www.ieeexplore.ieee.org14. IEE www.iee.org15. IMO www.imo.org16. ICAO www.icao.int

Index

AAngle diversity (AD), 477, 494, 504–505, 508,

515, 518, 519Angular parameters, 281–284, 297, 298Antenna

azimuth, 148basic, 51–69, 81beamwidth, 52, 411, 412, 515bearing, 148–149, 210boresight, 111, 171, 188, 441classification, 43coupling loss, 34, 111, 154, 471directivity, 52, 53, 111, 412, 413, 526effective area, 316, 334efficiency, 55, 88, 111, 297elevation, 66, 67, 139, 148, 154, 158,

161, 164, 350–352, 364, 459, 460, 514gain, 27, 31, 33, 49, 56, 57, 68, 73, 111,

112, 114, 115, 117, 120, 142, 151, 164,182, 183, 185, 186, 188, 190, 206,237–239, 264, 267, 293, 297, 298, 301,305, 315, 316, 334, 345, 349, 355, 356,362, 418, 419, 428, 455, 473, 525, 526

height, 230, 231, 236, 244, 249–253,256–260, 326, 356, 361, 379, 382, 386,387, 392, 393, 397, 399–401, 413, 415,494

MF/HF, 69, 70, 72noise temperature, 65–68, 423, 429, 431,

434, 455, 458, 459, 471parabolic, 48, 50–52, 54, 57, 73, 76, 87–89,

94, 100, 103, 115, 183, 222, 275, 285,297, 401, 455, 505

polarization, 413, 494radiation pattern, 210, 356, 411–413, 439

SHF/EHF, 69, 76, 78VHF/UHF, 69, 73, 75

Apogee, 132Ascending node, 135Atmosphere

layers, 2–3, 22, 37, 125, 130, 152, 189,300, 322–323, 474

noise, 435, 436, 450–451, 456, 465, 466standard, 14, 17, 20, 21, 38, 319, 439, 441,

530Atmospheric

attenuation, 130, 151, 152, 158, 159, 164,223, 318, 321, 339, 341, 385, 457

gases, 2, 16, 156–159, 223, 277, 320, 385,432, 439–441, 458, 530

layers, 2–3, 22, 37, 125, 130, 152, 189,300, 322–323, 474

vapor, 13

BBackscattering, 318, 332, 335, 337, 339Band width, 1, 4, 8, 9, 36, 38, 58, 68, 128, 130,

184, 187, 194, 196, 198, 201, 202, 214,215, 220–222, 234–236, 239, 263, 267,272, 274, 275, 287, 298, 317, 341, 345,369, 401, 424, 429, 430, 433, 434, 437,450, 453, 461–463, 466, 467, 471, 472,475, 476, 499, 506, 525

Basic antenna, 51–69, 81Basic radar equation, 312–316, 333, 334, 341,

343, 345Basic transmission loss, 29–31, 33–35, 39,

251, 295, 296, 323, 381, 382, 384, 392,393, 418

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543

544 Index

Beam spreading, 152, 154–155, 207, 493Beamwidth, 43, 51–53, 58, 88, 90, 92, 120,

138–140, 204, 206, 274, 276, 278–280,285–287, 297, 328, 332, 333, 339, 364,401, 411, 412, 455, 459, 505, 515

Bistatic radar, 302, 303Boresight, 45, 88, 111, 148, 171, 188, 330,

364, 441, 505Brightness, 66, 67, 439–444, 447–450, 472Broadcasting

bands, 13, 37, 211, 213–218, 222, 223,225–244, 263, 273

satellite, 11, 12, 76, 129, 214, 216,218–225, 431

services, 11, 12, 130, 177, 211–218, 223,224, 227, 228, 233, 236, 238, 243, 244,263, 266, 269

wireless, 211–269Bulge, 13, 18, 20–21, 37, 38, 251, 318

CCarrier to noise ratio (CNR), 156, 182–185,

194, 196–200, 203, 209, 223, 458,464

CBD. See Cross band diversity (CBD)Circular polarization (CP), 29, 59, 61, 172,

174, 180, 222, 329, 412, 441, 491,518

Climaticclassification, 288–290continental, 289, 290, 298desert, 289equatorial, 288maritime, 290polar, 290temperate, 181tropical, 157

Clutterland, 318, 335–338, 349sea, 323, 335–336, 349surface, 332–335, 338, 346, 363, 365types, 332–333volume, 320, 332, 339–340, 346, 347, 361

CNR. See Carrier to noise ratio (CNR)Combined diversity, 502–504Continental climate, 289, 290, 298Cosmic noise, 437–439, 447, 448, 455, 459,

470Coupling loss, 34, 35, 111, 154, 293, 417, 418,

471Coverage

geographic, 135–138, 210

global, 127, 135, 136, 138–140, 144, 203,205

local, 135, 214, 215region, 128, 240spot, 144time, 140–141, 265, 268, 269, 472

CP. See Circular polarization (CP)Cross band diversity (CBD), 477, 494,

501–502, 509, 519

DDelay spread

impulse response, 409–410multipath, 409r.m.s, 410–411

Depolarization loss, 33Depression angle, 333Descending node,Desert climate, 289Diffraction, 34, 227, 273, 277, 318, 370,

377, 385–387, 391, 392, 395, 404,409, 417

Directivity, 43, 47, 52–55, 57, 58, 111, 112,115–117, 412, 413, 505, 526

Diversityangle, 477, 494, 504–505, 508, 515, 518,

519antenna, 485, 496–498, 515combined, 502–504cross band, 477, 494, 501–502, 509, 519frequency, 369, 413, 477, 483, 489–490,

494, 498–503, 508, 515–518, 520hot standby, 494hybrid, 477, 494, 504polarization, 477, 483, 491reception, 476, 477, 479, 480, 482, 483,

493–496, 505, 517–519route, 476, 506site, 477, 484, 509–514, 518, 519space, 508system, 476, 493, 494, 507time, 477, 483, 492, 518

Dopplereffect, 165, 227, 232–234, 266, 318,

323–325, 331, 361, 371frequency, 232, 233, 235, 236, 267, 324,

325, 363Double passive, 85, 86, 95–98, 105, 113, 121,

122Downlink, 8, 12, 119, 128, 157, 161, 184–187,

189, 194–198, 200, 207, 209, 210, 456,464

Index 545

EEarth

bulge, 20–21, 37, 38, 251radius, 17, 18, 20, 38

Effective area, 43, 64–65, 89, 94–100, 119,127, 316, 334

Effective earth radius, 17, 18, 474EIRP. See Equivalent isotropic radiated power

(EIRP)Electric field intensity, 32, 49–50, 311, 312,

356, 357Elevation angle, 25, 66, 67, 98, 135, 137–139,

141, 148, 149, 154, 155, 157, 158,160–162, 164, 165, 169–171, 178,180–181, 204–207, 210, 217, 223, 224,258, 277–279, 282, 283, 292, 304,348–352, 364, 439, 443, 457, 459, 460,462, 463, 505, 511–515, 518

Elliptical polarization, 59, 174, 329, 330Equatorial climate, 288Equatorial orbit, 127, 131, 147, 189, 205, 206,

210, 214Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP),

28, 29, 31, 32, 37, 49–51, 57, 58, 114,135, 141, 182–185, 188–196, 199, 200,204, 208, 209, 241, 244, 253, 268, 306,355, 360, 472, 526, 527

Equivalent radiated power (ERP), 1, 31–32, 39,49, 112, 221, 244, 251, 356, 360, 526

Extreme high frequency band, 5, 13, 56, 87,111, 112, 130, 214, 216, 223, 369

FFade

depth, 415margin, 57, 93, 105, 122, 123, 181, 234,

235, 265, 267, 464, 475, 476, 497–499,501, 506, 508, 519–521

Fadingdepth, 401, 402, 477, 479multipath, 234, 263, 320, 417, 475, 493,

496, 506, 508scintillation, 224

Faraday rotation, 25, 165, 166, 172, 174, 175,208, 223, 224, 323

Far field, 48, 84, 86–88, 100, 105, 112, 113,120, 122, 367, 378

Foot print, 135, 141–143, 185–186, 188Free space loss (FSL), 26–27, 33–35, 39, 57,

152–154, 186–189, 203, 207, 228, 230,267, 288, 291, 295, 298, 315, 319, 320,323, 361, 372, 385, 396, 404, 408, 417,418, 460, 524, 526

Frequencyallocation, 6–9, 12, 37assignment, 7–10, 36, 212bands, 1, 3–7, 37, 41, 43, 67, 76, 100,

129–130, 142, 152, 153, 158, 178, 180,184, 203, 211, 212, 214–216, 219, 220,222–225, 228, 229, 236, 243, 263–266,272, 300, 301, 304, 320, 337, 361, 362,364, 369, 384, 385, 398, 403, 407, 408,418, 420, 421, 423, 439, 446, 454, 455,465, 467, 498–501, 509, 517, 520

classification, 304diversity, 369, 413, 477, 483, 489–490,

494, 498–504, 508, 515–518, 520planning, 37, 129, 499, 501, 520registration, 6

FSL. See Free space loss (FSL)

GGain

antenna, 27, 31, 33, 49, 56, 57, 68, 73, 111,112, 114, 115, 117, 120, 142, 151, 164,182–184, 186, 188, 190, 206, 237, 239,241, 263, 267, 293, 295, 298, 301, 305,306, 315, 316, 334, 345, 349, 355, 356,362, 418, 419, 428, 455, 473, 525, 526

improvement, 479, 482, 519reflector, 96, 99, 121, 205, 308, 309, 524

Galactic noise, 436–438, 444, 446, 447, 450,454–456, 465–467

Geographic coverage, 135–138, 210Global coverage, 127, 135, 136, 138–140, 144,

203, 205, 206Grazing angle, 333–338, 346, 364Ground noise, 457

HHD. See Hybrid diversity (HD)High frequency band, 501Hot standby (HS), 494Hybrid diversity (HD), 477, 494, 504

IImprovement

factor, 477, 479, 482, 483, 486, 489, 490,493, 496–505, 508, 510–512, 515,518–521

gain, 479, 482, 519parameter, 479–480techniques, 473–521

546 Index

Improvement techniquesLOS links, 492–508mobile radiowaves, 480–492satellite, 509–514troposcatter, 515–518

Impulse response, 407–408Inclined orbit, 131, 140, 210Indoor radiowaves propagation, 374–377, 403,

406Interference region, 240–243, 268Inter link, 124–125International telecom union (ITU), 1, 9–10,

151, 211, 376recommendation, 1, 10, 13, 18, 29, 37, 111,

129, 132, 156, 160, 163, 169, 177, 178,203, 223–225, 243–244, 249, 257, 266,291, 394, 422, 450, 499, 501, 511

regulations, 4, 10Ionosphere, 1–3, 12, 21–25, 37, 39, 59, 125,

138, 150, 152, 164–172, 174–175, 189,203, 204, 207, 217, 224, 272, 276, 299,318, 320, 322, 329, 361, 435, 447, 456,473

Ionosphericeffects, 165, 166, 202, 223–225layers, 1, 3, 22, 24–25, 37, 39, 125, 138,

150, 152, 164–168, 170–172, 174, 189,204, 207, 217, 272, 318, 320, 322, 329,361, 447

phenomena, 22, 25–26, 37, 165, 166, 320polarization, 59, 174–176scattering, 272sub-layers, 22–23

ITU. See International telecom union (ITU)

JJamming, 212, 300, 341, 345–346, 349

KK-factor, 17–21, 37, 38, 251, 278, 292, 318,325–327, 349, 361, 398, 474, 506

LLand clutter, 336–338Layer

atmosphere, 2–3, 22, 37, 125, 130, 152,189, 300, 322–323, 474

ionosphere, 1, 3, 22, 24–25, 37, 39, 125,138, 150, 152, 164–168, 170–172, 174,189, 204, 207, 217, 272, 318, 320, 322,329, 361, 447

magnetosphere, 2, 3, 25stratosphere, 2, 3, 155, 164troposphere, 2, 12–14, 37, 150, 152,

155–164, 169–172, 204, 271, 273, 297,322, 518

Leaky cable, 416–418Length parameters, 284–285Lightning noise, 36, 318, 428, 436, 450–451Line of sight links, 12, 17, 475Link equation, 182–186Local coverage, 135, 214, 215Location

diversity, 483–485variability, 257, 262–264, 392, 394

Lossbasic, 39, 419free space, 26–27, 33–35, 39, 57, 152–154,

186–189, 203, 207, 228, 230, 267, 288,291, 295, 298, 315, 319, 320, 323, 361,372, 385, 396, 404, 408, 417, 418, 460,524, 526

polarization, 35, 55, 63, 175, 329–331, 524total, 34, 35, 156, 187, 194, 198, 204, 210,

325, 330, 407

MMagnetosphere, 2, 3, 25Man-made noise, 36, 318, 422, 428, 432,

441–447, 454, 458–459, 465–472Maritime climate, 290Medium

effects, 34, 173, 174frequency, 5, 7, 12, 13, 21, 23, 43, 56, 58,

64, 69, 70, 72, 112, 211, 212, 214–215,217–218, 266, 271, 274, 367

propagation, 42, 43, 125, 172, 227–228,266, 319–320, 330, 349, 374, 376–377,403–404, 419

MF/HF antenna, 69, 72Micro-cell, 370, 379, 380, 397, 398, 400Micro strip antenna, 43, 69, 80Millimetric waves propagation, 385Mobile

radar, 301–302, 361radio, 7, 11, 13, 73, 227–229, 232, 243,

264, 274, 367, 370, 374, 382, 418, 421,465–468, 471–473, 477, 480, 483, 488,490, 492, 518, 520

satellite, 12, 37, 76, 111, 129, 152, 165, 480Monostatic radar, 302, 315, 361, 431Multipath

effects, 151, 165, 263, 343, 371, 404, 413,475, 496

Index 547

fading, 234, 263, 320, 417, 475, 493, 496,506, 508

Multistatic radar, 302, 303

NNatural noise, 36, 67, 422, 466–467Near field (NF), 81, 85, 86, 100–102, 105, 112,

113, 120–123, 396, 505Noise

antenna, 65–68, 423, 428, 429, 431, 434,455, 458, 459, 462–463, 470, 471

atmosphere, 465brightness, 439, 472cosmic, 437–439, 447, 448, 455, 459, 470factor, 423–427, 432–434, 437, 464,

470–472figure, 239, 316, 341–342, 361, 363,

423–428, 430, 431, 433, 435, 437, 446,447, 456, 458, 461, 470–472

galactic, 436–438, 444, 446, 447, 450,454–456, 465–467

ground, 458intensity, 433–435level, 65, 434–439, 450, 461, 466–469lightning, 36, 428, 450–451man-made, 36, 318, 422, 428, 432,

441–447, 454, 458–459, 465, 467–472natural, 36, 67, 422, 466–467sky, 66, 67, 120, 156, 223, 438, 454,

456–459, 463, 464, 470solar, 455–456, 459, 465, 466, 470source, 345, 424, 426, 432, 439, 447, 448,

450, 454, 470temperature, 36, 43, 65–68, 120, 156, 183,

208, 209, 223, 239, 277, 287, 298, 318,341, 423, 427–432, 434, 437, 439, 447,454–467, 470–472, 525

thermal, 209, 300, 316, 320, 341, 344, 346,361, 364, 422–424, 428, 456–466, 470

traffic, 468–471

OOrbit

equatorial, 127, 131, 147, 189, 205, 206,210, 214

inclined, 131, 140, 210polar, 127, 131satellite, 131–149, 222, 511

Orbital parameters, 134–135Orbital plane, 131, 132, 134, 135, 141

PParabolic antenna, 46, 50–52, 54, 57, 73, 76,

86–88, 93, 100, 103, 115, 183, 222,275, 285, 297, 401, 455, 505

Passivedouble, 84, 85, 95–98, 105, 113, 121, 122reflector, 41–123, 126, 127, 205, 308, 312,

362, 524repeater, 41, 77–86, 89, 93–95, 112,

121–123, 203, 204single, 85, 96, 102, 105, 121, 122

Pathclearance criteria, 18, 497, 504gain factor, 327, 329, 343, 361, 475length, 18, 31, 38, 169–171, 189, 230, 231,

250, 251, 257, 259, 276, 280–282, 284,386, 396, 401, 409, 420, 456, 475, 476,497–499, 501, 506–508, 520

profile, 277–280Performance, 13, 43, 55, 58, 65, 111, 182, 183,

185, 186, 195, 197, 200, 224, 271, 297,318, 335, 341, 409, 421, 423, 434, 450,473–476, 480, 493, 496, 504, 506, 515

Perigee, 132Periscope, 84, 102–104, 121Pico-cell, 370, 380, 397, 401Plasma, 23–25, 166–168, 174, 204Point to area links, 13, 28–29Point to multipoint link, 13, 87Point to point link, 13, 29Polar climate, 290Polarization

antenna, 413, 494diversity, 477, 483, 491, 518loss, 35, 55, 63, 175, 329–331, 524radiowaves, 59, 62, 67, 477

Polar orbit, 127, 131Power

flux density, 26–28, 30–32, 49, 55, 56, 114,313

level, 117, 126, 127, 287, 314, 340, 343,346, 347, 414, 419, 471

received signal, 27, 126, 127, 183,286–288, 298, 314, 485

TX, 142, 183, 185, 190, 193–194, 202, 209,210, 267, 286, 297, 298, 314, 355, 356,362, 370, 374, 473

Propagationcurves, 244–248, 252impairments, 370–372, 377, 404–405, 505ionospheric, 21–26, 37, 212, 217, 322mechanism, 33, 318, 389, 395, 396

548 Index

Propagation (cont.)medium, 42, 43, 125, 172, 227–228, 266,

319–320, 330, 349, 374, 376–377,403–404, 419

phenomena, 3, 13, 18, 125, 150–152, 217,225, 228–236, 266, 299, 349

tropospheric, 13–21, 273–274, 276Protection ratio, 241, 242, 268

RRadarAGL diagram, 351

angle diagram, 349, 351–352clutter, 318, 331–340coverage, 347–360, 362, 364coverage diagram, 347, 349–353, 362cross section, 304, 306–309, 316–317,

319, 323, 330–335, 337, 339, 342, 349,361–364

horizon, 284, 300, 318, 322, 325–327, 361jamming, 341, 345–346, 349links, 30, 126, 321–323, 327–329, 341,

361, 430MSL diagram, 352, 354, 362, 364range diagram, 349–351reflectivity, 339target, 30, 306, 330, 332, 339, 347waves, 299–365

Radiated peak envelope (RPE), 50–51, 111,114, 115

Radiation pattern, 43, 45–47, 50, 52, 54, 56,58, 71, 74, 77, 85–93, 112–117, 120,141, 142, 156, 185, 210, 231, 240,309–313, 355, 356, 361, 411–413, 439,491

Radiohorizon, 271, 273, 274, 278, 281, 283, 285,

318links,noise, 2, 36, 65, 67, 172, 222, 228,

316–318, 341, 346, 421–423, 428,432–454, 461, 472

path, 31, 38, 41, 81, 168, 224, 228–230,251–252, 256, 257, 264, 277, 283, 284,320, 381–396, 405, 497, 504, 505, 515

path clearance, 251–252, 497, 504regulations, 6, 7, 10, 37, 55, 129, 130, 211,

215, 216, 266, 369relay networks, 83, 112, 117, 308services, 1, 6, 7, 12, 70, 73, 125, 214, 243,

368, 468

Radio wavespolarization, 59–60, 62, 67, 151, 172–178,

419, 477, 483propagation, 1–39, 41, 44, 45, 125, 130,

150–152, 163, 165, 172, 187, 189, 211,217, 218, 225, 227–236, 243, 266, 267,271–298, 320, 367, 370, 372, 374–376,379, 403, 404, 406, 416, 418, 419, 422,439, 441, 473, 506, 523

types, 10–12, 59–60, 213Radome, 43–44, 111Received signal level (RSL), 35, 57, 127, 154,

179–181, 186, 189–190, 204, 206, 207,217, 218, 230, 231, 262–264, 266, 286,294, 298, 304, 313, 315, 341, 343, 371,373, 401, 403, 415, 417, 460, 461, 464,473–477, 479, 487

Reception criterion, 236–238Reflected waves, 59, 86, 89, 95, 99, 180, 181,

230–232, 299, 303, 304, 309, 311, 312,328, 329, 362, 377, 387, 389, 390

Reflection, 2, 12, 14, 25, 34, 59, 67, 89,180–181, 225, 227, 230–232, 249, 263,272, 273, 277, 300, 312, 318, 323,327–329, 370, 377, 385, 391, 404, 409,411–414, 441, 458, 474, 475, 494

Reflectivity index, 299, 332, 339, 340Reflector gain, 96, 99, 121, 205, 308, 309,

524Refraction, 14, 16–17, 19, 25, 153, 157, 159,

160, 166, 224, 225, 272, 283, 318, 322,323, 473–475

Refractive index, 16–17, 20, 34, 224, 273, 286Route diversity, 476, 506RPE. See Radiated peak envelope (RPE)RSL. See Received signal level (RSL)

SSatellite

broadcasting, 11, 12, 76, 129, 214,216–225, 431

flux density, 209frequency band, 130, 211, 216, 266transponder, 135, 141, 142, 182, 185, 188,

192, 203Scattering, 2, 14, 34, 227, 272–275, 277,

309–312, 318, 323, 331, 361, 370, 373,385, 395, 409, 413, 464, 465, 517

Scintillation, 25, 151, 164–166, 223–225, 475Sea clutter, 323, 335–338, 349Short range radio communications, 367–420

Index 549

Signal to noise ratio (SNR), 36, 117, 181, 217,218, 239, 267, 268, 287, 298, 304, 313,316–318, 341–344, 361, 363, 424, 425,429, 430, 434, 461, 471, 475–477, 506,513

Single passive repeater, 85Site diversity, 477, 484, 509–514, 518, 519Sky noise, 66, 67, 120, 156, 223, 438, 454,

456–459, 463–465, 470SNR. See Signal to noise ratio (SNR)Solar noise, 455–456, 459, 465, 466, 470Space diversity

gain,horizontal, 485, 518vertical, 485, 496–498

Space waves,Spot coverage, 144Standard atmosphere, 14, 17, 20, 21, 38, 319,

439, 441Stratosphere, 2, 3, 155, 164Sub-layers, 3, 15, 22–25, 39, 160Sub-refraction, 19, 318Sub-satellite point, 145, 146, 148, 188, 204,

206Super high frequency band, 56, 111, 223, 224,

320, 384, 418Super refraction, 19, 318, 474Surface clutter, 332–335, 338, 346, 363, 365System diversity, 476, 494, 507

TTemperate climate, 181Terrain

clearance angle, 257, 260–262mixed, 256

Thermal noise, 209, 300, 316, 320, 341, 344,346, 361, 364, 422–424, 428, 456,458–466, 470

Timecoverage, 140–141, 265, 268, 269, 472diversity, 477, 483, 492, 518variability, 264–265

Total loss, 34, 35, 156, 187, 194, 198, 204,210, 325, 330, 407

Traffic noise, 468–469, 471Trans-horizon, 271–298, 477, 515, 519Transponder, 8, 38, 127, 130, 135, 141, 142,

182, 184, 185, 188, 192, 196, 201–203,209, 218, 220–222

Tropical climate, 157Troposcatter

angular parameters, 281–284, 297length parameters, 284–285worst month loss, 295–296

Troposcattering, 272, 274, 275, 277–285, 291,295, 297, 473, 477, 515–518

Troposphere, 1, 2, 12–14, 16–17, 21, 37, 125,138, 150, 152, 155–164, 169–172, 189,203, 204, 223, 227, 228, 271, 273–274,276–277, 279, 292, 297, 299, 318, 320,322, 329, 361, 456, 462, 473, 518

Troposphericeffects, 14, 150, 152, 155–164, 189, 223,

318, 322, 361layer, 2, 12–14, 37, 150, 152, 155–164,

169–172, 204, 271, 273, 297, 322, 518phenomena, 21, 125propagation, 13–21, 273–274, 276

UUltra high frequency band, 13, 57, 73, 112,

130, 178, 211, 213, 215, 218, 224–243,251, 260, 263–267, 273, 382, 393, 420,466, 467, 480

Up fading, 475Uplinks, 8, 12, 128, 154, 161, 186, 187,

189–195, 197, 198, 200, 209, 210, 456,464

VVery high frequency band, 7, 111, 172, 232,

244, 260, 265, 466, 467Very low frequency band, 111Volume clutter, 320, 332, 339–340, 346, 347,

361

WWaves

radar, 299–365radio, 1–39, 41, 125–211, 271–299, 367,

421–521Wireless

broadcasting, 211–269local area network, 368, 376, 405

Worst month, 155, 159–163, 223, 295–298