appendix a conversion factors - springer978-0-387-95861-3/1.pdf · appendix a conversion factors...

Appendix A

Conversion Factors

Table A.1 Conversion factors for commonly used quantities

Quantity SI to English English to SI

Area 1 m2 ¼ 10.764 ft2 ¼ 1,550.0 in.2 1 ft2 ¼ 0.00929 m2

1 in2 ¼ 6.452 � 10�4 m2

Density 1 kg/m3 ¼ 0.06243 lbm/ft3 1 lbm/ft

3 ¼ 16.018 kg/m3

1 slug/ft3 ¼ 515.379 kg/m3

Energy 1 J ¼ 9.4787 � 10�4 Btu 1 Btu ¼ 1,055.056 J

1 cal ¼ 4.1868 J

1 lbf ft ¼ 1.3558 J

1 hp h ¼ 2.685 � 106 J

Energy per unit mass 1 J/kg ¼ 4.2995 � 10�4 Btu/lbm 1 Btu/lbm ¼ 2,326 J/kg

Force 1 N ¼ 0.22481 lbf 1 lbf ¼ 4.448 N

1 pdl ¼ 0.1382 N

Gravitation g ¼ 9.80665 m/s2 g ¼ 32.17405 ft/s2

Heat flux 1 W/m2 ¼ 0.3171 Btu/h ft2 1 Btu/h ft2 ¼ 3.1525 W/m2

1 kcal/h m2 ¼ 1.163 W/m2

1 cal/s cm2 ¼ 41,870.0 W/m2

Heat generation

(volume)

1 W/m3 ¼ 0.09665 Btu/h ft3 1 Btu/h ft3 ¼ 10.343 W/m3

Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/m2 K ¼ 0.1761 Btu/h ft2�F 1 Btu/h ft2�F ¼ 5.678 W/m2 K

1 kcal/h m2�C ¼ 1.163 W/m2 K

1 cal/s m2�C ¼ 41,870.0 W/m2 K

Heat transfer rate 1 W ¼ 3.4123 Btu/h 1 Btu/h ¼ 0.2931 W

Length 1 m ¼ 3.2808 ft ¼ 39.370 in. 1 ft ¼ 0.3048 m

1 in. ¼ 2.54 cm ¼ 0.0254 m

1 km ¼ 0.621371 miles 1 miles ¼ 1.609344 km

1 yd ¼ 0.9144 m

Mass 1 kg ¼ 2.2046 lbm 1 lbm ¼ 0.4536 kg

1 ton (metric) ¼ 1,000 kg 1 slug ¼ 14.594 kg

1 grain ¼ 6.47989 � 10�5 kg

Mass flow rate 1 kg/s ¼ 7,936.6 lbm/h

¼ 2.2046 lbm/s

1 lbm/h ¼ 0.000126 kg/s

1 lbm/s ¼ 0.4536 kg/s

(continued)

I. Dincer and C. Zamfirescu, Sustainable Energy Systems and Applications,DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-95861-3, # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

783

Table A.1 (continued)

Quantity SI to English English to SI

Power 1 W ¼ 1 J/s ¼ 3.4123 Btu/h

¼0.737562 Ibf ft/s

1 Btu/h ¼ 0.2931 W

1 Btu/s ¼ 1,055.1 W

1 hp (metric) ¼ 0.735499 kW 1 lbf ft/s ¼ 1.3558 W

1 ton of refrig. ¼ 3.516 85 kW 1 hpUK ¼ 745.7 W

Pressure and stress

(Pa ¼ N/m2)

1 Pa ¼ 0.020886 lbf/ft2

¼ 1.4504 � 10�4 lbf/in.2

¼ 4.015 � 10�3 in water

¼ 2.953 � 10�4 in Hg

1 lbf/ft2 ¼ 47.88 Pa

1 lbf/in.2 ¼ 1 psi ¼ 6,894.8 Pa

1 standard

atm. ¼ 1.0133 � 105 Pa

1 bar ¼ 1 � 105 Pa

Specific heat 1 J/kg K ¼ 2.3886 � 10�4

Btu/lbm�F

1 Btu/lbm�F ¼ 4,187 J/kg K

Surface tension 1 N/m ¼ 0.06852 lbf/ft 1 lbf/ft ¼ 14.594 N/m

1 dyn/cm ¼ 1 � 10�3 N/m

Temperature T(K) ¼ T(�C) + 273.15

¼ T(�R)/1.8 ¼ [T(�F) + 459.67]/1.8

T(�R) ¼ 1.8T(K)¼ T(�F) + 459.67

¼ 1.8T(�C) + 32

T(�C) ¼ [T(�F) � 32]/1.8 T(�R) ¼ 1.8[T(K) � 273.15] + 32

Temperature difference 1 K ¼ 1�C ¼ 1.8�R ¼ 1.8�F 1�R ¼ 1�F ¼ 1 K/1.8 ¼ 1�C/1.8Thermal conductivity 1 W/m K ¼ 0.57782 Btu/h ft�F 1 Btu/h ft�F ¼ 1.731 W/m K

1 kcal/h m�C ¼ 1.163 W/m K

1 cal/s cm�C ¼ 418.7 W/m K

Thermal diffusivity 1 m2/s ¼ 10.7639 ft2/s 1 ft2/s ¼ 0.0929 m2/s

1 ft2/h ¼ 2.581 � 10�5 m2/s

Thermal resistance 1 K/W ¼ 0.52750�F h/Btu 1�F h/Btu ¼ 1.8958 K/W

Velocity 1 m/s ¼ 3.2808 ft/s 1 ft/s ¼ 0.3048 m/s

1 km/s ¼ 0.62137 miles/h 1 ft/min ¼ 5.08 � 10�3 m/s

Viscosity (dynamic)

(kg/m s ¼ N s/m2)

1 kg/m s ¼ 0.672 lbm/ft s

¼ 2,419.1 lbm/fh h

1 lbm/ft s ¼ 1.4881 kg/m s

1 lbm/ft h ¼ 4.133 � 10�4 kg/m s

1 cP ¼ 10�2 P ¼ 1 � 10�3 kg/m s

Viscosity (kinematic) 1 m2/s ¼ 10.7639 ft2/s

¼ 1 � 104 stokes

1 ft2/s ¼ 0.0929 m2/s

1 ft2/h ¼ 2.581 � 10�5 m2/s

1 stoke ¼ 1 cm2/s

Volume 1 m3 ¼ 35.3134 ft3 1 ft3 ¼ 0.02832 m3

1 L ¼ 1 dm3 ¼ 0.001 m3 1 in.3 ¼ 1.6387 � 10�5 m3

1 galUS ¼ 0.003785 m3

1 galUK ¼ 0.004546 m3

Volumetric flow rate 1 m3/s ¼ 35.3134 ft3/s

¼ 1.2713 � 105 ft3/h

1 ft3/s ¼ 2.8317 � 10�2 m3/s

1 ft3/min ¼ 4.72 � 10�4 m3/s

1 ft3/h ¼ 7.8658 � 10�6 m3/s

1 galUS/min ¼ 6.309 � 10�5 m3/s

784 Appendix A

Appendix B

Thermophysical Properties

Table B.1 Thermophysical properties of pure water at atmospheric pressure

T (�C) r (kg/m3) m (Pa s) cp (J/kg K) k (W/mK) Pr b (K�1) c (m/s) s (N/m)

5 1,000 0.001519 4,200 0.5576 11.44 0.00001135 1,426 0.07494

10 999.7 0.001307 4,188 0.5674 9.642 0.00008743 1,448 0.07422

15 999.1 0.001138 4,184 0.5769 8.253 0.0001523 1,467 0.07348

20 998.2 0.001002 4,183 0.5861 7.152 0.000209 1,483 0.07273

25 997.1 0.0008905 4,183 0.5948 6.263 0.0002594 1,497 0.07197

30 995.7 0.0007977 4,183 0.603 5.534 0.0003051 1,509 0.07119

35 994 0.0007196 4,183 0.6107 4.929 0.000347 1,520 0.0704

40 992.2 0.0006533 4,182 0.6178 4.422 0.0003859 1,528 0.06959

45 990.2 0.0005963 4,182 0.6244 3.994 0.0004225 1,534 0.06877

50 988 0.0005471 4,181 0.6305 3.628 0.0004572 1,537 0.06794

55 985.7 0.0005042 4,182 0.636 3.315 0.0004903 1,538 0.0671

60 983.2 0.0004666 4,183 0.641 3.045 0.0005221 1,537 0.06624

65 980.6 0.0004334 4,184 0.6455 2.81 0.0005528 1,534 0.06536

70 977.8 0.000404 4,187 0.6495 2.605 0.0005827 1,529 0.06448

75 974.9 0.0003779 4,190 0.653 2.425 0.0006118 1,523 0.06358

80 971.8 0.0003545 4,194 0.6562 2.266 0.0006402 1,514 0.06267

85 968.6 0.0003335 4,199 0.6589 2.125 0.0006682 1,504 0.06175

90 965.3 0.0003145 4,204 0.6613 2 0.0006958 1,491 0.06081

95 961.9 0.0002974 4,210 0.6634 1.888 0.000723 1,475 0.05987

100 0.5896 0.00001227 2,042 0.02506 0.9996 0.002881 472.8 0.05891

T temperature; r density; m dynamic viscosity; cp specific heat; k thermal conductivity; Pr Prandtlnumber; b volume expansion coefficient; c sound speed; s superficial tension; o ¼ 0.3443 ¼accentric factor

Critical parameters: Tc ¼ 373.984�C, Pc ¼ 220.64 bar, vc ¼ 3.106 dm3/kg

Triple point parameters: Tt ¼ 0.01�C, Pt ¼ 611.732 Pa

785

Table B.2 Properties of air at atmospheric pressure

T (�C) r (g/dm3) m (mPa s) cp (J/kg K) k (mW/m K) Pr b (K�1) c (m/s) g

�200 47.61 5.201 1,002 6.667 0.7821 0.01367 171.6 1.401

�170 33.77 7.311 1,002 9.668 0.7581 0.009695 203.7 1.401

�140 26.16 9.296 1,002 12.53 0.7435 0.00751 231.4 1.401

�110 21.35 11.16 1,003 15.26 0.7332 0.006129 256.2 1.401

�80 18.03 12.93 1,003 17.87 0.7251 0.005177 278.8 1.401

�50 15.61 14.6 1,003 20.37 0.7186 0.004481 299.6 1.401

�20 13.76 16.19 1,003 22.77 0.7131 0.00395 319.1 1.401

10 12.3 17.7 1,004 25.09 0.7086 0.003532 337.4 1.4

40 11.12 19.15 1,006 27.32 0.7049 0.003193 354.7 1.4

70 10.15 20.54 1,008 29.49 0.702 0.002914 371.2 1.398

100 9.334 21.88 1,011 31.6 0.6999 0.00268 386.8 1.397

130 8.639 23.18 1,014 33.64 0.6985 0.00248 401.8 1.395

160 8.041 24.43 1,018 35.64 0.6978 0.002309 416.2 1.393

190 7.52 25.64 1,023 37.59 0.6977 0.002159 429.9 1.39

220 7.063 26.82 1,028 39.5 0.6982 0.002028 443.2 1.387

250 6.658 27.96 1,034 41.37 0.6991 0.001912 456 1.384

280 6.296 29.07 1,041 43.2 0.7004 0.001808 468.3 1.381

310 5.973 30.16 1,047 45.0 0.7019 0.001715 480.3 1.378

340 5.68 31.22 1,054 46.77 0.7038 0.001631 491.9 1.374

370 5.415 32.26 1,061 48.51 0.7058 0.001555 503.1 1.371

400 5.174 33.28 1,069 50.23 0.7079 0.001486 514.1 1.367

430 4.953 34.27 1,076 51.92 0.7101 0.001422 524.7 1.364

760 3.371 44.21 1,147 69.34 0.7314 0.0009679 629 1.334

790 3.276 45.04 1,153 70.84 0.7328 0.0009406 637.5 1.332

820 3.186 45.86 1,158 72.33 0.7341 0.0009148 646 1.33

850 3.101 46.67 1,163 73.82 0.7353 0.0008904 654.3 1.328

880 3.02 47.48 1,168 75.29 0.7364 0.0008672 662.6 1.326

910 2.944 48.28 1,172 76.75 0.7374 0.0008452 670.7 1.324

940 2.871 49.07 1,177 78.21 0.7383 0.0008243 678.8 1.323

970 2.802 49.85 1,181 79.65 0.7391 0.0008044 686.7 1.321

1,000 2.736 50.63 1,185 81.09 0.7398 0.0007855 694.5 1.32

T temperature; r density; m dynamic viscosity; cp specific heat; k thermal conductivity; Pr Prandtlnumber; b volume expansion coefficient; c sound speed; g adiabatic expansion coefficient;

o ¼ � 0.009278 ¼ accentric factor

Critical parameters: Tc ¼ 132.531 K, Pc ¼ 37.86 bar, vc ¼ 2.917 dm3/kg

Table B.3 Standard chemical exergy of some elements

Element B C Ca Cl2 Cu F2 Fe H2 I2 K Mg Mo

exch, kJ/

mol

628.1 410.27 729.1 123.7 132.6 505.8 374.3 236.12 175.7 336.7 626.9 731.3

Element N2 Na Ni O2 P Pb Pt Pu S Si Ti U

exch, kJ/

mol

0.67 336.7 242.6 3.92 861.3 249.2 141.2 1,100 609.3 855.0 907.2 1,196.6

Source: Rivero R., Garfias M., Standard chemical exergy of elements updated. Energy31:3310–3326

786 Appendix B

Table B.4 Formation enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs energy, and chemical exergy of some substances

Substance name

Chemical

formula M DfH0 DfS

0 DfG0 exch

Acetone C3H6O 59 �217.14 295.6 �152.69 1,788

Acetylene C2H2 26 228.19 200.9 210.67 1,267

Ammonia NH3 17 �46.14 99.5 �16.5 337.9

n-Butane C4H10 58 �125.78 309.90 �16.529 2,805

Calcium

carbonate

CaCO3 100.1 �1,207 91.7 �1,128 17.52

Carbon

monoxide

CO 28 �110.53 197.6 �137.17 275.06

Carbon dioxide CO2 44 �393.49 213.8 �394.35 198.38

Copper

oxychloride

Cu2OCl2 214 �384.65 154.35 �369.7 21.08

Cupric oxide CuO 79 �156.06 42.59 �128.29 6.27

Copper(II)

chloride

CuCl2 134 �218.0 108.07 �173.83 82.47

Cuprous

chloride

CuCl 100 �136.82 87.45 �119.44 75.00

Ethanol C2H5OH 47 �234.94 280.60 �167.71 1,363

Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 159.7 �824.20 205.1 �742.22 12.26

Lithium

bromide

LiBr 86.85 �351.14 74.01 �341.83 101.37

Magnetite Fe3O4 231.5 �1,118 146.1 �1,015 115.61

Methane CH4 16 �74.60 186.40 �50.53 831.98

Nitrogen

dioxide

NO2 46 34.19 240.20 52.31 56.56

Nitrous oxide N2O 44 81.59 220.00 103.71 106.34

n-Octane C8H18 131 �208.74 5.734 16.25 7,549

Propane C3H2 44 �104.67 130.7 �24.29 2,151

Sodium

chloride

NaCl 58.44 �411.24 223.1 �384.20 14.353

Sulfur dioxide SO2 64 �296.79 248.2 �300.0 313.10

Uranium

hexafluoride

UF6 352 �2,198 227.8 �2,069 644.96

Water H2O 18 �285.81 69.94 �237.12 0.750

M molecular mass (kg/kmol)

DfH0 formation enthalpy (kJ/mol)

Formation entropy: DfS0 ¼ s0 � P

elements

ns0f;element (J/mol K), where n is the number of moles of the

element in chemical equation of formation of the substance

Gibbs free energy of formation: DfG0 ¼ DfH

0 � T0DfS0 (kJ/mol)

Chemical exergy: exch ¼ DfG0 þ P

elements

n� exchelement (kJ/mol)

Reference temperature: T0 ¼ 298.15 K

Reference pressure: P0 ¼ 1 bar; superscript 0 in above notations refers to standard pressure

Appendix B 787

Table

B.5

Somegeneral

thermodynam

icproperties

ofselected

substances

Substance

Rg

TPT

TPP

DHfus

NBP

DHboil

Pc

Tc

v cZc

oa

b

Hydrogen

4,124

13.96

73.59

454.5

20.37

448.7

12.96

33.15

0.0336

3.135

�0.2187

26,785

0.0165

Parahydrogen

4,124

13.8

70.41

432.5

20.27

446.6

12.86

32.94

0.0327

3.228

�0.2186

26,670

0.0165

Oxygen

259.8

54.36

1.463

243

90.19

213.2

50.43

154.6

0.00217

3.661

0.0222

149,769

0.0198

Nitrogen

296.8

63.15

125.2

215.5

77.36

199.2

33.96

126.2

0.00280

3.936

0.0372

148,225

0.0240

Helium

2,077

11

14.222

20.7

2.275

5.195

0.01196

3.967

�0.385

3,751

0.0147

Neon

412

24.56

432

88.16

27.11

85.77

26.8

44.49

0.00188

3.62

�0.037

23,345

0.0107

Argon

208.1

83.81

688.9

172.2

87.3

169.4

48.63

150.7

0.00161

4.002

�0.002

147,587

0.0200

xenon

63.32

161.4

827.6

96.72

164.9

95.87

58.4

289.7

0.001

3.142

0.0036

454,364

0.0320

Fluorine

218.8

53.48

2.413

196.3

85.03

175.2

52.4

144.4

0.00163

3.691

0.0504

125,813

0.0178

Ammonia

488.2

195.5

61.02

1,486

239.8

1,369

113.3

405.4

0.00516

3.381

0.2558

458,377

0.0231

Hydrogen

sulfide

244

187.7

231.9

574.7

212.9

546.6

89.63

373.4

0.00298

3.401

0.0961

491,620

0.0269

Krypton

99.21

115.8

732

108.8

119.8

107.5

55.1

209.4

0.00121

3.101

�0.002

251,616

0.0245

Methane

518.3

90.69

117

544.2

111.7

510.8

45.99

190.6

0.00734

2.923

0.0114

249,574

0.0268

Methanol

259.5

175.6

0.0018

1,314

338.2

1,103

81.04

513.4

0.00581

2.828

0.5646

1.028E+06

0.0409

Ethane

276.5

90.37

0.0114

595.7

184.6

489.4

48.72

305.3

0.00451

3.838

0.0995

604,771

0.0405

Ethanol

180.5

159.1

0.00002

1,017

351.4

848.8

61.48

513.9

0.00611

2.466

0.6442

1.358E+06

0.0540

n-O

ctane

72.79

216.4

0.01399

411.5

398.6

302.4

24.97

569.3

0.00390

4.249

0.3928

4.103E+06

0.1475

Isobutane

143

113.6

0.00021

482.9

261.5

365.5

36.4

407.8

0.0049

3.271

0.1853

1.444E+06

0.0724

Propane

188.6

85.48

N/A

1231.1

425.3

42.47

369.8

0.00505

3.245

0.1524

1.017E+06

0.0563

Isopentane

115.2

112.7

N/A

N/A

301

342.5

33.7

460.4

0.00446

3.524

0.2266

1.988E+06

0.0883

n-Butane

143

134.9

0.00693

494

272.6

384.7

37.96

425.1

0.00373

4.29

0.2

1.505E+06

0.0724

n-D

ecane

58.44

243.5

0.01452

392.6

447.4

276.3

21.03

617.7

0.00379

4.519

0.4903

5.735E+06

0.19

n-D

odecane

48.81

263.6

0.00631

381.5

489.5

256.3

18.17

658.1

0.00514

3.436

0.574

7.534E+06

0.2343

Isobutane

143

113.6

0.00021

482.9

261.5

365.5

36.4

407.8

0.0049

3.271

0.185

1.444E+06

0.0724

Isopropanol

138.4

0N/A

N/A

355.6

663.1

47.62

508.3

0.00363

4.062

0.668

1.715E+06

0.0690

Ethylene

296.4

104

1.226

568.2

169.3

482.2

50.4

282.3

0.00484

3.43

0.086

499,944

0.0362

Cyclohexane

98.79

279.5

52.49

402.4

353.9

356

40.75

553.6

0.00375

3.571

0.2091

2.378E+06

0.0878

n-H

eptane

82.98

182.6

0.00176

441.1

371.5

316.9

27.27

540.1

0.00556

2.956

0.3479

3.382E+06

0.1281

788 Appendix B

Table

B.5

(continued)

Substance

Rg

TPT

TPP

DHfus

NBP

DHboil

Pc

Tc

v cZc

oa

b

n-H

exane

96.49

177.8

0.0035

618.8

342.4

329.9

30.58

507.9

0.00400

3.998

0.3117

2.666E+06

0.1074

n-N

onane

64.83

219.7

0.0046

410.3

424.2

288.4

22.81

594.6

0.00482

3.5

0.4468

4.898E+06

0.1686

n-Pentane

115.2

143.5

0.00012

466.1

309

358

33.64

469.7

0.00540

2.977

0.2499

2.073E+06

0.0903

Propylene

197.6

87.95

N/A

N/A

225.4

439.2

46.65

365.6

0.00458

3.38

0.1407

905,579

0.0506

R22

96.15

115.7

0.004715

301.9

232.3

232.5

49.89

369.3

0.00203

3.503

0.2208

864,055

0.0478

R134a

81.49

168.9

3.545

263.7

247.1

217

40.59

374.2

0.00170

4.408

0.3269

1.09E+06

0.0596

R290

188.6

85.48

11

231.1

425.3

42.47

369.8

0.00505

3.245

0.1524

1.0E+06

0.0563

R404a

85.19

�555

11

226.6

199.7

37.35

345.3

0.00193

4.065

0.275

1.0E+06

0.0598

R218

44.22

125.5

0.02119

141.1

236.5

105.1

26.4

345

0.00169

3.417

0.3201

1.4E+06

0.0845

R245fa

62.03

171.1

0.1303

258.5

288.3

196

36.51

427.2

0.00203

3.561

0.379

1.5E+06

0.0756

R507a

84.1

�555

11

226.1

196.3

37.14

343.9

0.00199

3.903

0.2793

1.0E+06

0.0599

R508b

87.16

�555

11

184.9

163

39.25

287.1

0.0017

3.735

0.2272

664,053

0.047

Rgrealgas

constant(J/kgK);TPTtriplepointtemperature

(K);TPPtriplepointpressure

(bar);DHfusfusionheatattriplepoint(kJ/kg);NBPnorm

alboiling

point(K

);DHboilboilingenthalpyatnorm

alboilingpoint;Ppressure

(bar);Ttemperature

(K);vspecificvolume(m

3/kg);Zcompressibilityfactor;subscript

“c”

critical

point;o

accentric

factor;a,bconstantsin

Peng–Robinsonequationofstate

Appendix B 789

Table

B.6

Thermophysicalproperties

ofam

monia

atsaturation

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Lv V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

�77.6

0.061

44.78

733.6

3.95

821.2

564.1

2.713

1.514

15.68

2.062

19.64

6.84

0.7182

5.23

1.325

�65

0.1563

41.51

719.3

4.162

774.8

430.6

2.312

1.586

6.478

2.102

19.82

7.162

0.7597

4.99

1.328

�55

0.3013

38.95

707.8

4.332

739.3

357.5

2.095

1.63

3.498

2.147

20.07

7.433

0.7951

4.86

1.331

�45

0.5447

36.42

696

4.387

704.6

303

1.887

1.717

2.008

2.205

20.43

7.715

0.8328

4.77

1.336

�35

0.9307

33.93

683.9

4.439

670.8

261.2

1.728

1.804

1.215

2.277

20.88

8.004

0.8729

4.72

1.343

�25

1.515

31.46

671.4

4.489

638

228.3

1.606

1.896

0.7695

2.365

21.44

8.3

0.9154

4.716

1.352

�15

2.362

29.04

658.6

4.538

605.9

201.7

1.511

1.995

0.5068

2.47

22.12

8.599

0.9603

4.757

1.364

�53.549

26.65

645.4

4.589

574.7

179.8

1.436

2.079

0.3452

2.595

22.92

8.902

1.008

4.846

1.379

55.16

24.29

631.8

4.643

544.3

161.4

1.377

2.199

0.2421

2.74

23.85

9.209

1.058

4.989

1.399

15

7.288

21.98

617.6

4.705

514.7

145.6

1.331

2.338

0.1741

2.908

24.92

9.519

1.111

5.193

1.424

25

10.03

19.71

602.9

4.781

485.7

131.8

1.297

2.499

0.1279

3.104

26.16

9.834

1.167

5.466

1.456

35

13.51

17.49

587.5

4.873

457.4

119.6

1.275

2.688

0.0956

3.333

27.58

10.16

1.228

5.826

1.497

45

17.82

15.32

571.3

4.993

429.6

108.8

1.264

3.006

0.0726

3.604

29.21

10.5

1.295

6.295

1.549

55

23.1

13.2

554.1

5.143

402.3

98.99

1.265

3.335

0.0557

3.93

31.11

10.86

1.372

6.912

1.615

65

29.48

11.14

535.8

5.34

375.4

90.06

1.281

3.768

0.0432

4.334

33.33

11.25

1.463

7.738

1.702

75

37.09

9.154

516.1

5.608

348.6

81.83

1.316

4.359

0.0336

4.851

35.97

11.7

1.578

8.876

1.819

85

46.09

7.24

494.5

5.987

322

74.18

1.379

5.21

0.0262

5.55

39.21

12.23

1.732

10.52

1.983

95

56.65

5.414

470.2

6.56

294.6

66.84

1.489

6.525

0.0203

6.56

43.31

12.9

1.954

13.05

2.227

105

68.95

3.695

442.1

7.52

266.1

59.7

1.687

8.801

0.0156

8.168

48.83

13.82

2.312

17.35

2.622

115

83.22

2.113

407.4

9.492

235

52.35

2.114

13.67

0.0116

11.14

56.96

15.22

2.977

26.03

3.358

125

99.7

0.7327

357.8

16.29

196.6

43.8

3.629

31.43

0.0082

18.25

71.25

17.84

4.57

50.81

5.121

127.5

104.2

0.437

338.7

21.71

183.4

40.94

4.848

46.11

0.0074

21.75

76.35

18.82

5.363

65.59

6.022

130

108.9

0.1754

310.5

34.41

165.1

37.05

7.72

81.46

0.0065

26.74

84.63

20.44

6.457

90.37

7.258

132.2

113.1

0.0017

248.5

64.71

129.5

29.55

14.77

168.7

0.0055

32.93

97.33

22.96

7.77

127.8

8.808

Ttemperature

(�C);Ppressure

(bar);ssurfacetension(m

N/m

);rdensity

(kg/m

3);c p

specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermalconductivity(m

W/m

K);mdynam

ic

viscosity

(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m

K�1);vspecificvolume(m

3/kg);gisentropic

expansioncoefficientofsaturated

vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor

790 Appendix B

Table

B.7


ofwater

atsaturation

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Lv V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

0.01

0.00612

75.64

1,000

4.23

547.5

1,792

13.84

N/A

206.0

1.87

17.07

9.216

1.008

3.672

1.33

10

0.0123

74.22

999.7

4.19

567.4

1,307

9.645

0.0872

106.3

1.87

17.62

9.461

1.006

3.548

1.33

20

0.0234

72.73

998.2

4.18

586

1,002

7.154

0.209

57.78

1.88

18.22

9.727

1.004

3.435

1.33

30

0.0425

71.19

995.6

4.18

602.9

797.7

5.535

0.305

32.9

1.89

18.88

10.01

1.003

3.332

1.33

40

0.0738

69.59

992.2

4.18

617.8

653.3

4.423

0.386

19.53

1.90

19.59

10.31

1.002

3.239

1.33

50

0.1234

67.94

988

4.18

630.4

547.1

3.629

0.457

12.04

1.92

20.36

10.62

1.001

3.156

1.33

60

0.1993

66.24

983.2

4.18

640.9

466.6

3.045

0.522

7.674

1.94

21.18

10.93

13.082

1.33

70

0.3118

64.48

977.7

4.19

649.5

404

2.605

0.583

5.045

1.96

22.06

11.26

0.9995

3.017

1.33

80

0.4737

62.67

971.8

4.19

656.2

354.5

2.266

0.64

3.409

1.98

23

11.59

0.9993

2.962

1.33

90

0.7012

60.81

965.3

4.20

661.3

314.5

20.696

2.362

2.01

24

11.93

0.9994

2.917

1.34

100

1.013

58.91

958.4

4.22

665.1

281.9

1.787

0.75

1.674

2.04

25.08

12.27

12.882

1.34

110

1.432

56.96

951

4.23

667.6

254.8

1.615

0.804

1.211

2.08

26.22

12.61

1.001

2.857

1.34

120

1.985

54.96

943.2

4.25

669.1

232.1

1.474

0.858

0.892

2.12

27.44

12.96

1.004

2.843

1.35

130

2.7

52.93

934.9

4.27

669.7

213

1.357

0.912

0.669

2.17

28.73

13.3

1.007

2.84

1.36

140

3.612

50.85

926.2

4.29

669.4

196.6

1.259

0.968

0.509

2.23

30.09

13.65

1.012

2.849

1.36

150

4.757

48.74

917.1

4.31

668.3

182.5

1.178

1.026

0.393

2.30

31.54

13.99

1.02

2.872

1.37

160

6.177

46.59

907.5

4.34

666.4

170.3

1.109

1.087

0.3071

2.37

33.06

14.34

1.029

2.908

1.39

170

7.915

44.4

897.5

4.37

663.7

159.6

1.051

1.152

0.243

2.46

34.66

14.68

1.042

2.959

1.40

180

10.02

42.19

887.1

4.40

660.2

150.2

1.002

1.221

0.194

2.56

36.34

15.03

1.057

3.027

1.42

190

12.54

39.94

876.1

4.44

655.9

141.8

0.9607

1.296

0.156

2.67

38.09

15.37

1.077

3.114

1.44

200

15.54

37.67

864.7

4.49

650.7

134.4

0.9269

1.377

0.127

2.80

39.93

15.71

1.1

3.221

1.46

210

19.06

35.38

852.8

4.54

644.7

127.7

0.8994

1.467

0.104

2.94

41.85

16.06

1.129

3.351

1.48

220

23.18

33.06

840.3

4.60

637.6

121.6

0.8777

1.567

0.086

3.11

43.86

16.41

1.162

3.508

1.52

230

27.95

30.73

827.3

4.67

629.5

116

0.8615

1.679

0.071

3.30

45.96

16.76

1.203

3.697

1.55

240

33.45

28.39

813.5

4.76

620.3

110.9

0.8508

1.807

0.06

3.51

48.15

17.12

1.25

3.923

1.59

250

39.74

26.04

799.1

4.86

609.8

106.2

0.8455

1.954

0.050

3.77

50.46

17.49

1.306

4.195

1.64

260

46.89

23.68

783.8

4.97

598

101.7

0.846

2.126

0.042

4.06

52.9

17.88

1.373

4.523

1.70

(continued)

Appendix B 791

Table

B.7

(continued)

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Lv V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

270

55

21.33

767.7

5.11

584.5

97.55

0.853

2.33

0.036

4.41

55.49

18.28

1.453

4.923

1.77

280

64.13

18.99

750.5

5.28

569.4

93.56

0.8673

2.576

0.031

4.83

58.28

18.7

1.549

5.415

1.86

290

74.38

16.66

732.2

5.48

552.3

89.71

0.8908

2.88

0.026

5.33

61.31

19.15

1.666

6.032

1.97

300

85.84

14.35

712.4

5.74

533.1

85.95

0.9262

3.266

0.022

5.97

64.67

19.65

1.813

6.822

2.11

310

98.61

12.08

691

6.08

511.3

82.22

0.9782

3.773

0.018

6.78

68.45

20.21

2.001

7.861

2.29

320

112.8

9.858

667.4

6.54

486.8

78.46

1.054

4.47

0.015

7.87

72.84

20.84

2.251

9.278

2.54

330

128.5

7.697

641

7.2

458.8

74.57

1.17

5.489

0.013

9.41

78.1

21.6

2.603

11.31

2.91

340

145.9

5.62

610.8

8.24

426.9

70.45

1.359

7.116

0.011

11.8

84.68

22.55

3.137

14.43

3.47

350

165.2

3.66

574.7

10.1

389.7

65.88

1.711

10.1

0.0088

15.9

93.48

23.81

4.058

19.77

4.47

360

186.6

1.872

528.1

14.7

344.4

60.39

2.574

17.11

0.007

25.2

106.6

25.71

6.085

30.79

6.74

370

210.3

0.3846

453.1

41.7

280.7

52.25

7.765

45.88

0.0050

70.4

132.6

29.57

15.7

64.53

18.0

373.9

220.4

0.0004

349.4

N/A

210.8

41.95

277.1

87.51

0.0034

340.1

180

37

69.91

104.5

84.5

Ttemperature

(�C);Ppressure


N/m

);rdensity

(kg/m

3);c p


W/m

K);mdynam

ic

viscosity



3/kg);gisentropic



792 Appendix B

Table

B.8


ofcarbondioxideat

saturation

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Lv V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

�56.6

5.18

15.7767

1,178.5

1.953

180.4

256.7

2.78

N/A

0.0727

0.90

10.97

10.95

0.90

6.11

1.44

�50

6.82

14.3248

1,154.6

14.29

171.8

229.3

19.07

3.27

0.0558

0.95

11.51

11.31

0.93

6.30

1.46

�45

8.32

13.2367

1,135.9

1.989

165.3

210.7

2.54

3.36

0.0460

0.98

11.94

11.58

0.95

6.50

1.48

�40

10.05

12.1654

1,116.5

2.011

158.9

193.8

2.45

N/A

0.0383

1.03

12.41

11.87

0.98

6.74

1.51

�35

12.02

11.1118

1,096.4

4.99

152.5

178.3

5.83

N/A

0.0320

1.07

12.90

12.16

1.01

7.04

1.54

�30

14.28

10.0769

1,075.7

2.377

146.3

164.2

2.67

3.93

0.0270

1.13

13.42

12.46

1.05

7.41

1.57

�25

16.83

9.0619

1,054.2

2.114

140

151.3

2.28

4.38

0.0228

1.19

13.99

12.78

1.09

7.87

1.62

�20

19.70

8.0682

1,031.7

2.165

133.8

139.3

2.25

4.74

0.0193

1.27

14.60

13.12

1.14

8.44

1.67

�15

22.91

7.0974

1,008.0

2.227

127.6

128.3

2.24

5.18

0.0165

1.36

15.27

13.47

1.20

9.15

1.73

�10

26.49

6.1514

982.9

2.306

121.4

118

2.24

5.73

0.0140

1.47

16.01

13.86

1.27

10.06

1.81

�530.46

5.2326

956.2

2.406

115.1

108.4

2.27

6.44

0.0120

1.61

16.84

14.30

1.37

11.23

1.92

034.85

4.3440

927.4

2.539

108.7

99.39

2.32

7.37

0.0102

1.79

17.77

14.79

1.49

12.79

2.05

539.69

3.4893

896.0

2.72

102.2

90.81

2.42

8.67

0.0087

2.03

18.86

15.36

1.65

14.95

2.23

10

45.02

2.6737

861.1

2.985

95.46

82.55

2.58

10.59

0.0074

2.37

20.14

16.06

1.89

18.12

2.49

15

50.87

1.9043

821.2

3.405

88.32

74.43

2.87

13.71

0.0062

2.89

21.74

16.95

2.25

23.17

2.88

20

57.29

1.1924

773.4

4.159

80.48

66.15

3.42

19.52

0.0051

3.77

23.83

18.19

2.87

32.32

3.51

25

64.34

0.5584

711.8

5.903

71.43

57.23

4.73

33.72

0.0041

5.54

26.94

20.16

4.14

53.05

4.69

30

72.14

0.0582

602.4

13.83

57.69

44.68

10.71

102.99

0.0029

10.16

33.86

25.03

7.51

128.22

6.80

30.9

73.64

0.0025

521.3

18.05

49.07

37.25

13.71

141.42

0.0024

11.77

39.21

29.16

8.75

163.45

5.80

Ttemperature

(�C);Ppressure


N/m

);rdensity

(kg/m

3);c p


W/m

K);mdynam

ic

viscosity



3/kg);gisentropic



Appendix B 793

Table

B.9


ofhydrogen

atsaturation

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Lv V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

14

0.08

2.977

77.0

6.992

74.36

24.30

2.29

10.58

7.6332

10.56

14.51

1.24

0.90

74.32

1.69

15

0.13

2.819

76.1

7.335

81.62

21.68

1.95

11.26

4.7044

10.69

15.21

1.27

0.89

70.67

1.70

16

0.21

2.656

75.3

7.717

87.55

19.39

1.71

12.01

3.0742

10.85

15.94

1.31

0.89

67.82

1.72

17

0.32

2.490

74.3

8.132

92.26

17.40

1.53

12.87

2.1066

11.03

16.69

1.34

0.89

65.69

1.74

18

0.47

2.321

73.4

8.574

95.85

15.69

1.40

13.85

1.4996

11.25

17.49

1.37

0.88

64.23

1.77

15

0.13

2.819

76.1

7.335

81.62

21.68

1.95

11.26

4.7044

10.69

15.21

1.27

0.89

70.67

1.70

20

0.91

1.977

71.3

9.563

100.1

12.97

1.24

16.18

0.8288

11.85

19.21

1.44

0.89

63.20

1.84

21

1.22

1.804

70.1

10.13

101

11.92

1.20

17.60

0.6370

12.25

20.15

1.48

0.90

63.63

1.89

22

1.59

1.630

68.9

10.76

101.1

11.02

1.17

19.26

0.4981

12.75

21.16

1.51

0.91

64.74

1.95

23

2.04

1.458

67.6

11.48

100.7

10.26

1.17

21.23

0.3951

13.36

22.25

1.54

0.93

66.61

2.03

24

2.58

1.286

66.2

12.31

99.8

9.61

1.18

23.60

0.3171

14.12

23.43

1.68

1.01

69.39

2.12

25

3.21

1.117

64.7

13.28

98.51

9.03

1.22

26.55

0.2569

15.07

24.72

1.73

1.05

73.32

2.23

26

3.94

0.952

63.1

14.46

96.94

8.51

1.27

30.30

0.2098

16.29

26.14

1.78

1.11

78.77

2.37

27

4.78

0.790

61.3

15.95

95.2

8.00

1.34

35.28

0.1722

17.90

27.73

1.85

1.19

86.38

2.56

28

5.74

0.634

59.3

17.91

93.4

7.49

1.44

42.19

0.1418

20.09

29.53

1.92

1.31

97.27

2.82

29

6.82

0.484

57.1

20.69

91.64

6.95

1.57

52.50

0.1168

23.24

31.62

2.01

1.47

113.61

3.19

30

8.04

0.343

54.5

25.02

90.02

6.35

1.76

69.50

0.0957

28.15

34.11

2.11

1.74

140.12

3.76

31

9.42

0.213

51.4

32.99

88.65

5.65

2.10

102.69

0.0775

36.81

37.28

2.26

2.23

189.42

4.75

32

10.96

0.097

47.1

53.14

87.64

4.84

2.93

193.05

0.0606

55.68

42.11

2.50

3.31

308.86

6.89

33.1

12.88

0.0017

35.3

200

1,000

N/A

N/A

981.45

0.0367

131.74

59.93

3.41

7.50

1,036.71

15.44

Ttemperature

(K);Ppressure


N/m

);rdensity

(kg/m

3);c p

specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermal

conductivity(m

W/m

K);mdynam

ic

viscosity



3/kg);gisentropic



794 Appendix B

Table

B.10


ofoxygen

atsaturation

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Ln V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

55

N/A

22.30

1,303.5

1.455

201

747.53

5.41

N/A

80.029

0.93

4.48

4.15

0.86

18.28

1.39

60

0.01

20.98

1,283.1

126.4

194.3

582.46

379.02

3.49

21.463

0.95

4.98

4.55

0.86

16.87

1.39

65

0.02

19.66

1,260.7

1.65

187.2

460.77

4.06

3.58

7.2177

0.96

5.49

4.96

0.87

15.70

1.38

70

0.06

18.348

1,237.9

1.657

180.1

373.97

3.44

3.70

2.8933

0.97

5.99

5.36

0.87

14.70

1.38

75

0.15

17.039

1,214.9

9.855

172.9

310.37

17.69

3.83

1.3306

0.98

6.50

5.75

0.86

13.84

1.39

80

0.30

15.739

1,191.4

1.66

165.8

262.53

2.63

N/A

0.6819

0.97

7.03

6.15

0.85

13.13

1.40

85

0.57

14.450

1,167.5

1.669

158.6

225.61

2.37

4.15

0.3809

0.97

7.56

6.54

0.84

12.58

1.41

90

0.99

13.176

1,142.9

1.683

151.3

196.38

2.18

4.36

0.2281

0.97

8.12

6.94

0.83

12.22

1.43

95

1.63

11.919

1,117.7

1.704

144

172.66

2.04

4.59

0.1445

0.98

8.70

7.33

0.83

12.03

1.46

100

2.54

10.6829

1,091.5

1.731

136.7

152.96

1.94

4.88

0.0959

1.00

9.31

7.73

0.83

12.04

1.49

105

3.79

9.4707

1,064.4

1.765

129.3

136.23

1.86

5.21

0.0661

1.04

9.96

8.13

0.85

12.26

1.52

110

5.43

8.2861

1,035.9

1.808

121.9

121.74

1.81

5.62

0.0470

1.09

10.66

8.55

0.88

12.71

1.57

115

7.56

7.1328

1,006.0

1.861

114.4

108.97

1.77

6.13

0.0342

1.16

11.42

8.98

0.92

13.42

1.62

120

10.22

6.0154

974.2

1.927

106.9

97.53

1.76

6.76

0.0254

1.26

12.26

9.43

0.97

14.49

1.70

125

13.51

4.9387

939.7

2.013

99.43

87.09

1.76

N/A

0.0192

1.38

13.19

9.91

1.04

16.05

1.80

130

17.49

3.9088

902.6

2.152

92.02

77.59

1.81

9.52

0.0146

1.56

14.26

10.44

1.14

18.36

1.95

135

22.25

2.9333

861.0

2.35

84.54

68.69

1.91

11.69

0.0112

1.81

15.50

11.06

1.29

21.96

2.17

140

27.88

2.0224

813.1

2.682

76.97

60.20

2.10

15.40

0.0086

2.22

17.04

11.82

1.54

28.07

2.52

145

34.48

1.192

755.0

3.337

69.11

51.85

2.50

23.04

0.0065

3.00

19.09

12.88

2.02

40.28

3.17

150

42.19

0.472

675.5

5.225

60.16

42.90

3.73

46.63

0.0047

4.95

22.39

14.71

3.26

74.61

4.73

154

49.31

0.036

547.4

15.42

48.04

32.13

10.31

N/A

0.0031

10.63

29.63

19.14

6.86

218.2

8.44

Ttemperature

(K);Ppressure


N/m

);rdensity

(kg/m

3);c p


conductivity(m

W/m

K);mdynam

ic

viscosity



3/kg);gisentropic



Appendix B 795

Table

B.11


ofnitrogen

atsaturation

TP

sr L

c pL

k Lm L

Pr L

b Ln V

c pV

k Vm V

Pr V

b Vg

64

0.15

11.9581

863.7

2.002

171.5

297.50

3.47

4.78

1.2869

1.06

5.71

4.44

0.82

16.13

1.41

65

0.17

11.7169

859.6

1.994

169.5

282.08

3.32

4.82

1.0950

1.06

5.82

4.51

0.82

15.95

1.41

70

0.39

10.5262

838.5

2.005

159.5

220.26

2.77

5.11

0.5274

1.08

6.35

4.88

0.83

15.24

1.43

75

0.76

9.3624

816.7

27.05

149.5

176.75

31.99

N/A

0.2825

1.11

6.91

5.26

0.84

14.82

1.44

80

1.37

8.2276

793.9

2.054

139.5

145.11

2.14

N/A

0.1642

1.14

7.49

5.65

0.86

14.69

1.47

85

2.29

7.1240

770.1

2.094

129.6

121.31

1.96

N/A

0.1018

1.19

8.11

6.06

0.89

14.89

1.51

90

3.60

6.0544

745.0

2.147

119.6

102.83

1.85

6.94

0.0663

1.26

8.79

6.48

0.93

15.46

1.56

95

5.41

5.0222

718.3

7.073

109.7

88.02

5.68

N/A

0.0449

1.35

9.55

6.94

0.98

16.54

1.64

100

7.78

4.0318

689.4

2.301

99.71

75.77

1.75

9.15

0.0313

1.55

10.44

7.43

1.10

18.14

1.67

105

10.83

3.0892

659.0

2.432

90.15

65.72

1.77

10.21

0.0222

1.44

11.49

7.98

1.00

18.19

1.80

110

14.66

2.2025

625.6

2.736

80.72

56.96

1.93

12.90

0.0160

1.16

12.80

8.63

0.78

20.83

3.96

115

19.37

1.3844

583.8

3.211

70.45

48.23

2.20

18.78

0.0115

2.02

14.51

9.44

1.32

31.69

3.57

120

25.11

0.6578

527.5

4.351

59.19

39.02

2.87

33.00

0.0080

3.74

16.98

10.62

2.34

56.88

4.00

125

32.07

0.0829

430.2

11.79

44.96

27.35

7.17

136.45

0.0049

9.65

22.52

13.33

5.71

187.71

N/A

126

33.65

0.0083

378.6

20.16

38.93

22.77

11.79

266.83

0.0039

13.27

26.63

15.37

7.66

308.90

8.52

Ttemperature

(K);Ppressure


N/m

);rdensity

(kg/m

3);c p


conductivity(m

W/m

K);mdynam

ic

viscosity



3/kg);gisentropic



796 Appendix B

−150000 −100000 −50000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 25000010−1

100

101

102

103

Specific enthalpy, J/kg

Pre

ssur

e, b

ar

−160°C

−170°C

−180°C

−190°C

48205020

5220

5420

5620 J/kg-K

Air

Diagram B.1 Pressure–specific enthalpy diagram of air

−3000 −2500 −2000 −1500 −1000 −500 0−200

−175

−150

−125

−100

−75

−50

−25

0

25

50

Specific entropy, J/kgK

T, °C

35 bar

16.6 bar

6.49 bar

1.81 bar 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.00

18

0.00

89

0.01

9

0.04

4

0.09

8

0.21

m3/

kgArgon

Diagram B.2 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of argon

Appendix B 797

25 50 75 100 125 1500

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Solution temperature, °C

Ref

rige

rant

tem

pera

ture

(w

ater

vap

or), °

C

X=65%X=60%X=55%X=50%X=45%X=40%

Crystallizatio

n line

X=0%

X=70%

X=75%

Duhring Chart

0.0024 0.0028 0.0032 0.0036

103

102

101

100

10–1

10–2

1/Tsolution,1/K

Vap

or p

ress

ure,

kPa

X=45%X=50%X=55%X=60%

X=70%X=65%

X=75%

Van't Hoff chart

Diagram B.3 Durhing chart for lithium bromide/water solution

40 45 50 55 60 65 700

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Concentration, %

Spec

ific

ent

halp

y, k

J/kg

10°C

30°C

50°C

70°C

90°C

110°C

130°C

150°C

170°C

Diagram B.4 Specific enthalpy–concentration diagram for LiBr–water

798 Appendix B

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

−500

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Ammonia mass concentration, kg/kg

Spec

ific

ent

halp

y, k

J/kg

0.1 bar1 bar

10 bar

25 bar 50 bar

−40°C10°C

100°C

200°C

Ammonia-water

Vapour enthalpy lines (isobars)

Vapour-liquid equilibrium lines

0.1 bar

1 bar

50 bar

Diagram B.5 Specific enthalpy–concentration diagram of ammonia–water

–2500 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 125000

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Specific entropy, J/kgK

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

110 bar

55 bar

25 bar

6.22 bar

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

076

0.2

3

1.2

5

6.8

8

40

205

m3/

kg

Water

Diagram B.6 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of water

Appendix B 799

100 135 170 205 240 275 310 345 380 415 450

600

900

1200

1500

1800

2100

2400

2700

s, kJ/molK

T, K

Melting Line, 703K

Boiling Line

1750.15K

10P

a

100P

a

1000

Pa

1000

0Pa

1000

00P

a

Uncertaintyregion

Chase (1989)

McBride et al.(2002)

Diagram B.7 Temperature–specific molar entropy diagram of CuCl

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0–100

–50

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Specific entropy, kJ/kgK

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

75 bar

30 bar

7.62 bar

1.19 bar 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

051

0.0

43

0.1

2

0.3

6

1.0

7

3.14

m3 /

kg

Ammonia

Diagram B.8 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of ammonia

800 Appendix B

–2.25 –2.00 –1.75 –1.50 –1.25 –1.00 –0.75 –0.50 –0.25 0.00–75

–50

–25

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

5700 kPa

3400 kPa

1800 kPa

910 kPa 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

017

0.0

057

0.0

1

0.0

19

0.0

34

0.0

63 m

3/kg

Carbon Dioxide


Tem

pera

ture

, °C

Diagram B.9 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of carbon dioxide

2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0–225

–200

–175

–150

–125

–100

–75

–50

–25

2400 kPa

1100 kPa

420 kPa

100 kPa 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

033

0.0

17

0.0

4

0.0

93

0.2

1

0.4

9 m

3/kg

Carbon Monoxide


Tem

pera

ture

, °C

Diagram B.10 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of carbon monoxide

Appendix B 801

–8.0 –7.0 –6.0 –5.0 –4.0 –3.0 –2.0 –1.0 0.0 1.0–200

–175

–150

–125

–100

–75

–50

–25

0

25

50

3200 kPa

1300 kPa

460 kPa

100 kPa 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

067

0.0

4

0.0

99

0.2

4

0.6

1.4

8 m

3/kg

Methane


Tem

pera

ture

, °C

Diagram B.11 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of methane

–0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0–50

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1400 kPa

340 kPa

45 kPa

1.13 kPa

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

1 0

.31

1.7

3 9

.53

55

290

m3/

kg

n-Octane


Tem

pera

ture

, °C

Diagram B.12 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of n-octane

802 Appendix B

–1.0 –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5–50

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Tem

pera

ture

, °C

2300 kPa

620 kPa

90 kPa

2.84 kPa

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

076

0.1

9 0

.98

4.9

7 2

5 1

30 m

3/kg

Toluene

Diagram B.13 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of toluene

Appendix B 803

Index

A

Abiotic depletion potential (ADP), 206, 584,

666, 667

Absorption, 26, 30, 96–98, 100, 102, 209,

240, 287–288, 303, 316, 317,

359, 390, 391, 393, 395, 397,

399, 410, 411, 415, 417–422,

428, 443–444, 446, 493, 496,

497, 505, 506, 508–514, 532,

537, 590, 649, 651–653, 657, 726

Acceleration, 3, 126, 246, 247, 335, 382,

402, 525, 529, 589, 668, 703, 753

Acidification, 81, 82, 665, 667, 668, 695, 696

Acid precipitations, 52, 53, 77, 78, 81–83, 400

ADP. See Abiotic depletion potential

Alkaline fuel cell, 218, 599, 609, 610

Alpha decay, 242, 243, 245

Alpha particle, 234, 243, 262, 264

Alternative fuels, viii, 169–198, 266, 598

Ammonia

borane, 209, 550, 592

decomposition, 187–189, 210, 216–221,

225, 323, 591, 600, 608, 678, 679

storage, 207–209, 226, 592, 608

synthesis, 185, 204–207, 212, 214, 216,

228, 325, 379, 445, 446, 706

water cycle, 358, 390, 512

Ammonium carbonate, 654, 655

AMU. See Atomic mass unit

Anaerobic digestion, 183, 366, 524, 583–585

Aperture, 288, 290, 309–313, 331, 502

Ash, 78, 84–85, 171–174, 179, 367–369

Assessment tools, 147, 148, 154

Atmospheric lifetime, 99, 100, 104, 177

Atom, 2–6, 9, 11, 15, 63, 170, 174, 176, 204,

216, 233–238, 240–242, 247, 248,

250, 251, 367, 439, 554, 578–581,

599, 633, 646

Atomic cross-section, 248, 250–251

Atomic mass, 236–238, 240–243

Atomic mass unit (AMU), 237, 238, 240,

241, 246

Auction, 754

Autoignition temperature, 177

Availability, 8, 9, 14, 32, 36–38, 40, 51–53,

59, 69, 84, 87, 105, 108, 109, 111,

113, 121–122, 125, 131, 139, 154,

175, 181, 209, 223, 230, 244–247,

253, 254, 257, 272, 274, 276, 283,

284, 301, 302, 324, 348, 350, 353,

357, 362, 364, 371, 395, 396, 399,

402, 405, 408, 417, 431, 432, 442,

455, 457, 461–462, 464, 499, 500,

503, 511, 519, 521, 525, 533–535,

568, 573, 596, 608, 614, 623, 624,

626, 634–635, 643, 653, 665

B

Barometric pressure, 7, 8

Beam radiation, 56–58, 95, 96, 243, 251, 284,

290, 291, 299–300, 313

Beta decay, 244, 245, 258

Beta particle, 234

Binding energy, 238–239, 241–242, 246, 247

Biodegradable wastes, 179

Biofuel, 109, 147, 169, 170, 178–184, 186,

198, 370–372, 400, 524, 533, 550,

765, 766

Biomass, 53, 57–58, 60, 73, 74, 84, 104, 122, 147,

169–171, 177–186, 253, 254, 283,

286, 365–377, 390, 395–396, 399,

404, 495, 505–506, 519–524, 533,

538–540, 544–547, 555, 567–571,

583–584, 592, 622, 664, 728, 745

energy, 53, 57, 59–60, 178, 180, 283,

365–377, 382, 519, 567, 571, 742

805

Bio-photolysis, 182, 183, 524, 576,

582–585, 625

Biorefinery, 376

Boiling water reactor (BWR), 256, 263

Boltzmann constant, 246, 288, 298

Brayton cycle, 321, 322, 375, 444, 481,

508, 574

Breeder reactor, 258, 261

BWR. See Boiling water reactor

C

CANadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU)

reactor, 235, 253, 255, 260,

265–267, 270, 272, 447, 503–504,

553, 575–576

Capacity factor, 339–341, 534

Capital grant, 754

Capital investment efficiency factor, 83, 671,

672, 684, 690, 691

Carbon, 2, 52, 93, 120, 152, 169, 209, 237,

286, 439, 479, 524, 633, 668,

702, 727, 753

capture, 53, 115, 535, 549, 633, 646–653

cycle, 100, 169, 633, 704

dioxide absorption, 651, 652, 657

dioxide mitigation, 81, 178, 228, 229,

270, 272, 324, 332, 550, 551

dioxide sequestration, 53, 115, 198,

392, 397, 549, 554, 641, 648,

653–657, 660

dioxide technology, 72, 81,

633–660, 773

tax, 332, 333, 753, 759, 764, 765, 767,

773–774

Carbonic ice, 634, 647

Carnot factor, 249, 253, 254, 294, 330, 349,

377, 479, 480, 487, 491, 492, 504,

732, 745–747

Catalyst, 119, 181–184, 188, 204–205,

210, 216–218, 221, 484, 524,

529, 542, 545, 549, 576, 578–580,

589, 591, 597, 598, 600, 604,

675, 706, 710, 715

Catalytic bed reactor, 188, 217, 218

Catalytic membrane reactor, 217, 229

Celsius (ºC) temperature, 11–12, 733

Cetane number (CN), 214, 215, 226,

227, 593

Chemical

element, 170, 203, 236–238, 241, 247, 267,

268, 369, 520, 590, 708, 710

energy, 5, 35, 169, 206, 283–284, 286, 314,

325, 436, 445–446, 534, 777

equilibrium, 19, 217, 483, 543, 563, 604,

610–612

exergy, 45, 158, 173, 176, 180, 198, 368,

487, 502, 529, 545, 606, 616, 670,

689, 715, 718, 725, 726, 786, 787

potential, 6, 19, 294, 295

reaction, 1, 6, 138, 171, 210, 211, 213, 235,

266, 267, 436, 447, 482, 483, 504,

505, 524, 537, 538, 554, 556, 557,

576, 584, 596, 643, 654, 657

CHP plant. See Combined heat and power plant

Climate change, vii, 52, 53, 77, 79, 81, 93–115,

119, 128, 134, 403, 665–667

Climate sensitivity factor, 103, 104

Closed system, 8, 18, 19, 24, 31, 34, 35, 39,

270, 583, 702

CN. See Cetane number

CNG. See Compressed natural gas

Coal, 41, 52, 53, 58, 60–67, 69, 70, 72, 74, 76,

83, 84, 87–89, 107, 120, 122, 147,

169–175, 177, 178, 180, 185, 198,

206, 213–215, 253, 254, 283, 322,

366, 390, 393, 399, 400, 411, 415,

416, 428, 480, 521, 523, 535, 540,

549–550, 554, 585, 587, 593, 622,

623, 625, 633, 639, 653, 656, 657,

693, 706, 726, 730, 734, 739,

743–746, 773

rank, 170, 172, 175

Coefficient of performance (COP), 30, 31, 141,

142, 208, 223, 224, 268–270, 316,

317, 405, 415, 419–421, 428, 463,

504, 564, 574, 641, 732

Co-fuelling, 185–198, 592

Cogeneration, viii, 57, 83, 86–89, 109, 127, 158,

254, 300–302, 325, 327, 330–333,

389, 390, 392–396, 399, 401–403,

405, 416–422, 428, 457, 479–481,

483, 485, 487–492, 500–502, 512,

536, 599, 600, 607, 608

Combined heat and power (CHP) plant, 375,

390, 392, 394, 397, 404–407, 415,

416, 479, 500, 501

Combustion, 14, 20, 52, 60, 77, 82, 93, 138,

147, 153, 158, 160, 164, 171, 173,

177–180, 182, 187, 190, 193, 198,

210, 221, 227–228, 253, 254, 322,

332, 365–366, 368, 369, 372, 375,

376, 399–401, 444, 445, 479, 480,

483, 487, 491, 495, 501–502, 508,

510, 512, 519–522, 533–535, 538,

539, 551, 552, 554, 555, 567, 568,

571, 573, 591, 592, 594, 596, 598,

603–604, 606, 607, 609, 646–647,

658–660, 670, 673, 678, 682–683,

686, 690, 704, 706, 708, 715–718,

726, 738, 757

806 Index

Commercialization, 60, 85, 86, 112, 124,

127–129, 135, 136, 142, 149, 151,

230, 257, 260, 277, 324, 350, 365,

376, 389, 391–395, 399, 403,

434–435, 499, 538, 548–549, 553,

554, 573, 583, 588, 596, 626, 639,

723, 724, 726–733, 747, 755, 759

Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA),

663–696

Compressed natural gas (CNG), 226, 603,

606, 739

Compressibility factor, 22, 28, 789

Compression, 22, 23, 29, 184, 207, 214,

218–220, 267, 274, 348, 360, 390,

443–445, 482, 504, 508, 527, 557,

560, 563, 574, 588, 589, 607, 609,

640, 641, 645–649, 675, 685, 686,

715–717

Concentration ratio, 289, 291, 309–314,

319, 325

Constructal design, 53, 454, 468, 475

Constructal theory, 453, 468

Conversion, viii, 1, 4, 6, 28, 34–38, 42, 54,

138, 140, 153, 155, 180, 204, 209,

216–220, 227, 228, 260, 262, 269,

284, 286–302, 304–306, 314, 317,

318, 324–325, 333–344, 349–352,

362, 364–372, 375–380, 404, 424,

447, 455, 459, 481, 484, 485, 495,

503, 522, 540, 553–555, 560, 567,

575, 582, 599, 625, 626, 678, 693,

715–718, 723, 725, 732, 744, 765,

777, 778

COP. See Coefficient of performance

Copper-chlorine cycle, 274, 351, 557, 564

Cost of saved energy, 140, 776–778

Coulomb forces, 239, 246

Criticality, 16, 108, 112, 248, 255, 263,

633–636, 678, 683, 755, 785,

786, 789

Critical point, 16, 22, 27–28, 181,

633–636, 789

Critical reaction, 248

Cryogenic separation, 643, 647, 648, 657

Cryogenic technology, 643

D

DAF. See Dry coal ash free

Decay time, 242, 262

Density, 10, 170, 203, 298, 391, 436, 484, 520,

635, 692, 783

Depletion number, 157, 714, 715, 718, 719

Depletion of abiotic resources, 665–667, 696

Depreciation, 413, 416, 564, 565, 755, 763,

774, 776

DES. See District energy system

Desalination, viii, 235, 264, 265, 272–279, 379,

479, 486, 487, 494, 495, 741, 742

Deuterium, 235, 238, 246, 247, 253

Diffuse radiation, 284, 299

Digestion, 183, 366, 371, 524, 583–585

Dimethyl ether (DME), 185, 316, 651

Direct ammonia fuel cell, 225, 597, 600

Direct methanol fuel cell, 597, 600

Distributed energy systems, 393–400, 404,

410, 413

Distributed users, 389, 390, 399, 415, 418, 534

Distribution network, 214, 230, 361, 390, 391,

393, 399, 400, 406–409, 411, 415,

416, 423–425, 467, 603, 673

District energy system (DES), viii, 389–426,

755

DME. See Dimethyl ether

Dry coal ash free (DAF), 173, 174

Dry ice, 633, 634, 638–642, 648, 655–660

Drying process, 285, 315, 367

E

Ecological footprint (EF), 154

Ecology, viii, 32, 41, 85, 94, 123, 154, 183,

194, 216, 389, 403, 486, 664, 682,

701–719

Economic analysis, viii, 137, 410–416, 557,

753–778

Economic effectiveness (Ee), 486, 500, 682

Economic sector, 744

Economic sustainability, 123, 149–150

Ee. See Economic effectiveness

Effectiveness, vii, 93, 109, 115, 125, 137, 148,

223–225, 402, 461, 480, 486, 500,

501, 505, 514, 621, 669, 682–684,

690, 691, 696, 697, 719

Efficiency

sectoral processes, 726

standards, 149

EIA. See Environmental impact assessment

Electrical desorption, 651, 652

Electric charge, 237, 239, 243, 284, 293, 295,

318, 437, 612

Electrolysis, 178, 186, 211, 213, 214, 265,

270–272, 285, 286, 319, 334, 348,

378, 379, 495, 502, 503, 520,

523–530, 532–536, 555, 557,

565–569, 572, 585, 586, 592, 593,

607, 608, 622, 625, 626, 671, 683,

685, 686, 691

Index 807

Electron, 6, 183, 206, 207, 236–238, 243, 244,

247, 293–295, 318, 439, 483, 520,

526, 532, 576–582, 595, 596, 612,

613, 715

Emission, 42, 51, 93, 119, 147, 174, 331,

389, 457, 480, 521, 633, 665,

702, 727, 753

Energy

applications, vii, viii, 164, 165,

264–267, 359–360, 403,

460–474, 673, 690

conservation, vii, 19–21, 31, 35, 51, 77,

83, 112, 115, 119–143, 335, 362,

454, 468, 749

demand, 51, 52, 65, 71, 72, 89, 119,

122, 129, 150, 152, 165, 318,

431, 434–435, 451–453, 475,

499, 723, 744, 745, 773

grid system, 431, 433, 435

management, 119, 120, 123, 125,

128, 129, 131, 132, 136–138,

391, 755

policy, viii, 38, 53, 75, 79, 120, 121, 129,

131, 134, 135, 147–165, 754

recovery, 119, 120, 125, 205, 207, 273,

274, 364, 446, 459, 464, 521,

523, 529, 533, 537, 571–572

security, vii, 94, 109, 115, 126, 148,

152, 165, 392, 521

storage, viii, 11, 34, 42, 57, 60, 83,

135, 138, 169, 227, 228, 283,

295, 304, 319–321, 323, 334,

347, 379, 380, 390, 391, 399,

415, 431–475, 520, 600

storage method, 334, 434, 436–448, 474

strategy, 109, 123, 148–154,

158–165

sustainability, 113, 123, 131, 148, 158

Engine, 2, 53, 120, 178, 209, 262, 286, 395,

440, 479, 529, 673, 726, 767

Enrichment process, 260

Enthalpy, 20–22, 24, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34,

99, 170, 171, 189, 192, 205,

208, 216, 218, 220, 223, 224,

239, 301, 343, 350, 356, 358,

369, 398, 399, 409, 436, 455,

459, 460, 483, 487, 489, 490,

492, 525, 545, 560, 563, 568,

570, 600, 606–609, 612, 616,

617, 641, 643, 648, 651, 654,

657, 658, 787, 789, 797–799

Environment, 5, 51, 148, 287, 389, 442, 479,

520, 633, 663, 701, 754

Environmental impact, 51, 52, 67, 76–85, 89,

93, 105, 112, 119–124, 143, 148,

150, 151, 154, 157, 158, 169,

372–374, 400–404, 426, 465, 520,

521, 587, 622–625, 663, 664,

666–669, 673, 678, 681–684, 686,

691, 692, 695–697, 713, 723

Environmental impact assessment (EIA), 65,

70, 71, 73–76, 107, 111, 154

Environmental sustainability, 123, 147, 149,

157, 392, 425, 521, 673, 683

Enzyme, 206, 228, 367, 583, 584, 586, 706

Equation of state, 21–28, 634, 636, 638, 789

Eutrophication, 665, 667, 696

Exergetic life cycle analysis, 664, 669–672

Exergy

efficiency, 40, 120, 147, 253, 289, 392, 442,

483, 529, 670, 714, 724

fuels, 670, 689, 714, 726

Expansion, 30, 81, 84, 147, 219, 222–224, 265,

323, 341, 351, 353, 355, 375, 392,

397, 423, 443, 490, 506, 508, 509,

511, 576, 589, 590, 598, 603, 634,

642, 655, 785, 786, 790, 792–796

Extraction, 38, 76, 85, 122, 185, 186, 198, 216,

233, 235, 260, 264, 335, 336, 352,

446, 458, 459, 488, 510, 521,

546–549, 568–570, 591, 633, 637,

638, 643, 645, 646, 656, 657, 663,

664, 670, 673–675, 684, 696, 710,

712, 713, 742

F

Fahrenheit (ºF) temperature, 11, 12

Faraday constant, 295, 483, 526, 613

Fast breeding reactors (FBR), 258, 265

Fermentation, 177, 182–184, 366, 371, 377,

524, 582, 584

File-in tariff, 754

Financial capital, 755, 769

Financing, 149, 565, 755–775

Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, 178, 182, 184, 185,

285, 286, 376, 377, 445

Fission reaction, 62, 63, 238–242, 247

Fixed carbon, 170, 171, 175

Flash power plant, 354, 355, 357

Force, 3–6, 9, 10, 18, 20, 22, 27, 33, 34, 37,

41, 51, 53, 58, 101, 126, 188, 239,

240, 242, 246, 247, 327, 336, 345,

380, 383, 401, 439, 442, 599, 649,

664, 783

Formation enthalpy, 20, 170, 171, 189, 205,

239, 369, 525, 787

808 Index

Fossil fuel, vii, viii, 40, 41, 52, 53, 58, 60–62,

64–66, 69, 71, 73–76, 79, 81–83, 85,

89, 93, 106, 120, 122, 135, 147–149,

153, 156–162, 164, 165, 169–198,

203, 214, 228, 254, 283, 286, 322,

324, 332, 360, 366, 390, 395–396,

401–403, 415, 433, 434, 445, 457,

519–524, 535, 540, 541, 543, 549,

550, 552, 554–555, 572–573, 585,

587, 626, 666–668, 670, 677, 682,

684, 689, 691, 702, 704–706,

708–710, 713, 741, 742, 753, 755,

763, 771, 776, 777

Fossil fuel utilization ratio (Rffu), 156, 159,

160, 164

Fuel, 40, 52, 93, 119, 147, 169, 203, 233, 283,

390, 433, 479, 519, 702, 723, 753

blend, 169, 170, 176, 178, 185–186,

191–193, 198

cell

application, 601–606

model, 610–612, 615

stack, 481, 482, 484, 485, 601–604,

606, 610, 617–619, 679, 680

system, 210–212, 218, 221, 225, 226,

318–320, 375, 379, 519–626, 673

oil, 77, 85, 176, 183, 184, 371, 725, 730,

739, 741, 745, 767

reforming, 549, 550, 552, 554, 598,

600, 603–605

Fundamental energy source, 53–59, 283, 284

Fusion reaction, 238–242, 245–247, 789

G

Gamma rays, 234, 243, 245

Gasification, 178, 180–182, 213, 214, 366,

370–372, 375, 376, 480, 524, 533,

535, 537, 540–546, 549–550, 554,

593, 625, 734

Gas turbine (GT), 375, 443, 445, 479–482, 485,

492, 508, 510, 535, 546, 598, 603,

605, 606, 608, 609, 684, 686, 715,

717–719

GCV. See Gross calorific valueGeneration IV reactors, 257, 258, 267

Geopolitical region, 713, 723, 725, 727, 748

Geothermal energy, 53, 58, 59, 253, 283,

349–362, 390, 403, 408, 422, 496,

498, 519, 533, 566, 590, 768

Geothermal power plant, 349, 352–359, 411

GHGs. See Greenhouse gasesGlobal radiation, 264, 299, 321, 322, 327, 328

Global warming effect, 78–81, 702–703

Global warming potential (GWP), 104–107,

667–669, 681, 682, 695

Gravitational acceleration, 3

Green energy, 66, 67, 69–70, 73–75, 109,

148–165, 402

Green energy-based sustainability ratio (Rges),

156, 162–165

Green energy impact ratio (Rgei), 155, 156,

160, 162, 165

Greenhouse effect, 78–80, 94–99, 104, 177,

302, 706

Greenhouse gases (GHGs), 53, 56, 67, 71,

78–81, 93, 97–100, 104–106, 112,

119, 120, 126, 203, 205–206, 220,

228, 254, 270, 348, 349, 373–375,

392, 403, 457, 480, 486, 501,

505–506, 552, 590, 594, 623, 626,

633, 653, 665, 668, 669, 674–683,

686–689, 691, 710, 713

Gross calorific value (GCV), 171–173, 180,

368, 370

GT. See Gas turbineGWP. See Global warming potential

H

Haber-Bosch synthesis, 379, 446, 706

HAWT. See Horizontal axis wind turbine

Heat, 1, 51, 104, 120, 158, 169, 204, 233,

283, 389, 431, 479, 520, 633,

665, 706, 723, 754

engine, 28–31, 36, 38, 46, 53–57, 128,

178, 209, 262, 268–271, 286–294,

300, 306, 314, 318, 321–324,

330–333, 335, 348, 360, 366,

367, 399, 447, 479, 487–491,

493, 495, 503, 529, 531–532,

534, 536–537, 560, 561, 564,

566, 572, 767

pump, 26, 29, 31, 38, 120, 127, 134,

141–142, 267–270, 279, 348–349,

359, 360, 391, 410, 411, 413,

446–447, 458, 479, 487, 503, 504,

557, 560–564, 566, 567, 572,

574–576, 633, 639, 642–643, 732

recovery, 42, 188, 190, 194, 195, 197,

205, 214, 216, 219, 220, 222–223,

269, 304, 322, 325, 358, 362,

372–373, 376, 379, 399, 458,

461, 482–484, 489, 490, 493,

508, 513, 520, 533–535, 552,

555, 557, 560, 561, 566, 568,

571–574, 591, 602, 606–609,

621, 654, 679, 743

Index 809

Heat (cont.)transfer, 1, 14, 18, 19, 31, 33–36, 43, 45,

46, 54, 248, 251, 253–255, 287,

290–293, 303, 304, 308, 310, 313,

315, 320, 321, 326, 341, 343, 350,

470, 472, 473, 487, 491, 502, 527,

531, 533, 541, 561, 567, 610, 612,

633, 639, 642, 660, 783

transfer fluid, 235, 252–254, 301, 308,

321, 325, 326, 328, 331, 359, 397,

459–460, 463, 464, 467, 487, 491,

633, 639, 660

upgrading, 560, 566, 573, 574

Heavy water, 253, 254, 258, 691–694

Higher heating value (HHV), 171, 176, 177,

182–184, 191, 193, 198, 207, 209,

212, 216–218, 220, 227, 269, 348,

379, 484, 486, 529, 545, 550, 588,

659, 725

High level waste, 262

Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT),

344, 345

Hybridization, 322, 495–499, 502

Hybrid thermochemical cycle, 538,

555–564, 566

Hydrogen, 5, 54, 109, 147, 170, 203, 233,

286, 390, 436, 479, 519, 657,

664, 706, 739, 773

economy, 72, 74, 83, 114, 211, 212,

360, 519–522, 594, 773

production method, 360, 519–520,

522–587, 625, 626

storage, 213, 214, 318, 522, 530,

588–593, 616, 619, 678

Hydrogenase, 583, 584

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 82, 371, 520, 522,

546–549, 708, 788

Hydrolysis, 183, 186, 188–190, 192, 206,

377, 544, 557, 558, 560, 590

Hydropower, 58, 69–70, 84, 362, 365, 382,

411, 533, 534, 623, 745

I

Ideal gas, 9–11, 21–26, 246, 341, 525–526,

588, 612, 685, 717

constant, 343

Impact analysis, 676, 677, 723, 724

Improvement assessment, 665, 676–678,

692–697

Improvement factor, 125

Incomplete combustion, 77, 180, 683, 686

Industrial cycles, 702–711

Industrial ecology, viii, 701–719

Industrial metal life cycle, 710, 712

Inflation rate, 415, 759–764

Insolation, 134, 274, 287, 289, 300–301,

309, 314, 316

Insulated system, 18

Insulation, 18, 126–128, 133, 137, 138, 207,

218, 222, 305, 328, 330, 331, 391,

406–408, 410–412, 449, 451, 453,

456, 460, 491, 542, 545, 589, 601,

608, 616, 655, 728, 734

Integrated fuel cell system, 607–610

Integrated system, 481, 485, 494, 495, 607, 714

Intercept factor, 310, 312, 313

Internal energy, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 19–24, 26,

33, 34, 638

Internal rate of return, 776, 777

Inventory analysis, 665, 666, 669, 673–676,

679, 684–686, 692, 693, 695–697

Irradiation, 297, 298, 303, 327, 331, 498, 580

Isotope, 237–242, 244–245, 247, 260, 693

K

Kelvin temperature, 12, 269

Kinetic energy, 5, 6, 10, 11, 15, 18, 31, 33, 34,

249–250, 336, 343, 364, 380, 436,

440–442, 448, 534, 725, 726

Kinetic theory, 9–17, 246

L

Latent heat, 104, 208, 352, 397, 398, 455,

459, 468, 589

LCA. See Life cycle assessment

LCC. See Life cycle costLCS. See Life cycle savingsLevelizing, 322, 323, 330, 391, 452, 534, 535,

753–755, 767–772, 777

LHV. See Lower heating value

Life cycle assessment (LCA), viii, 154, 229,

663–697

Life cycle cost (LCC), 119, 120, 129, 130,

139, 140, 389, 392–393, 410–411,

414–416, 671, 679, 753–755, 772,

776–778

Life cycle efficiency, 228, 669, 671, 689,

691, 696, 697

Life cycle savings (LCS), 119, 141, 142,

392–393, 753, 776, 777

Line focus concentrator, 310, 331

Liquefaction, 185, 214, 366, 371, 379, 445,

588–590, 593

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 176, 185,

226, 227, 727, 728, 730

Liquid nitrogen, 445, 588, 589

810 Index

Loan, 410, 412, 415, 416, 755, 759, 762,

767, 769, 775, 776

Lower heating value (LHV), 171, 176, 177,

185, 216, 221, 223, 224, 276, 445,

484, 520, 608, 613, 674, 686, 723,

725, 726, 743

Low-level waste, 262

LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas

M

Macroscopic, 4–5, 15, 33

Mass, 2, 54, 99, 149, 169, 209, 236, 315,

398, 436, 483, 522, 640, 664, 702,

723, 783, 787

Material flow analysis (MFA), 711–713, 719

Material flux analysis (MFA), 154, 155

MCFCs. See Molten carbonate fuel cells

MEA. See Mono ethanol amine

Mechanical energy, 4, 5, 19, 36, 141, 284, 286,

288, 314, 317–318, 333–335, 339,

379–380, 436, 529, 689, 725, 743

Melting point (MP), 174, 188, 192, 251

Membrane separation, 218, 649, 651

Metal amines, 209, 227, 591

Metal hydrides (MH), 214, 226, 227, 504,

531, 590

MFA. See Material flow analysis; Material

flux analysis

MH. See Metal hydrides

Microscopic, 4, 5

Moisture content, 170–171, 173, 174, 179, 315,

356, 368–370, 374, 544, 570

Molecular mass, 3, 11, 22, 177, 179, 187,

193, 249, 367, 555

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs),

599–600, 603, 606

Mono ethanol amine (MEA), 652–653

MP. See Melting point

Multigeneration, viii, 325–333, 376,

479–514, 601

N

NAFION membrane, 525, 597, 602

Natural cycles, 99, 701, 702, 705, 707, 708

Natural gas, 52, 107, 120, 147, 169, 206, 283,

390, 432, 481, 521, 639, 667, 706,

723, 767

Natural gas liquids (NGLs), 87, 742, 743,

745, 746

NCV. See Net calorific valueNet calorific value (NCV), 171–175, 180,

367–370, 742, 743

Net zero energy building, 134–136

Neutrino, 243

Neutron radiation, 235, 243, 244, 257, 264

NGLs. See Natural gas liquidsNitrogenase, 206, 207, 584, 706

Nitrogen cycle, 705–707

Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 77–79, 81, 82, 85, 88,

158, 186, 188, 203, 209–210, 229,

366, 375, 400, 401, 592, 596, 598,

647, 652–653, 667–669, 683, 686,

687, 706

Non-concentrating solar collector, 303

Normal boiling point, 174, 177, 207, 588

Normalized indicator, 672, 681, 682,

696, 697

NOx. See Nitrogen oxides

Nuclear

energy, viii, 6, 62–63, 88, 115, 156,

233–279, 502–505, 521, 523, 529,

552, 553, 585, 681, 725, 742

fuel cycle, 85, 233, 260–262, 692, 695

heat, 233, 247–255, 257, 265,

267–279, 504, 538, 539, 557,

573–575, 694

hydrogen production, 266–267

reaction, 58, 169, 234, 235, 238–246, 249,

250, 504, 691, 708, 709

reactor, 63, 87, 233, 235, 247, 248, 251,

253–254, 256, 260, 263–265, 267,

273–276, 278, 279, 502–504, 535,

536, 552–555, 573–575, 633, 691,

692, 694

Number of Avogadro (NA), 2–3, 11, 245,

295, 526

Number of mols, 295, 545, 570–571, 604,

608, 613

O

Ocean currents energy, 55, 381

Ocean energy, 382

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 57,

377–379

Octane number, 85, 177, 505, 787, 788, 802

Oil

peak, 76

sands, 62, 185, 198, 235, 264, 594, 656

shale, 185, 198

Open system, 19–20, 35, 702

Optical efficiency, 309–312

Optical error, 310, 312–314

OTEC. See Ocean thermal energy

conversion

Index 811

Oxygen, 5, 59, 77, 81, 170, 173, 176, 177,

179–183, 187, 203, 265–267,

269, 270, 272, 273, 319, 325,

367–369, 379, 479, 482–484, 493,

494, 500, 502–505, 512, 524–529,

536–540, 542, 543, 549, 554,

556–558, 560, 561, 563, 564, 567,

576–583, 586, 587, 594–599, 601,

602, 605–608, 613, 615–617, 633,

647, 648, 650, 651, 691, 715–717,

788, 795

Ozone depletion, 52, 77, 78, 119, 128, 400,

665, 667

P

Passive solar heating, 126, 302–304

Payback period, 125, 128, 133, 142, 333, 776,

778

PEM. See Proton exchange membrane

PEM fuel cell (PEMFC), 212, 218, 226,

597–599, 601–602, 607, 675, 676,

680, 689

Perfect gas, 22, 27, 568

Petroleum, 58, 60–63, 65, 66, 76, 78, 85, 87,

147, 169, 170, 174–177, 183–186,

198, 226, 235, 264, 390, 404,

521–523, 535, 540, 548, 554, 592,

594, 625, 639, 667, 680, 723, 724,

727, 734, 742, 747

PGM. See Platinum group material

Phosphoric acid fuel cell, 595, 599

Phosphorus, 366, 667, 702–704, 707–708

cycle, 707

Photo-biochemical processes, 286

Photo-bioreactor, 183, 582

Photo-catalysis, 524, 577

Photo-catalytic water splitting, 186,

576–582, 592

Photo-chemical ozone creation potential

(POCP), 667, 668, 698

Photoelectric effect, 286–287

Photoheterotrophic, 183

Photon, 243, 244, 251, 284, 286–288,

293–295, 302, 318, 325, 523, 524,

532, 597, 626

Photonic energy, 284, 286, 295, 302, 523, 524,

532, 576–583

Photo-oxidant formation, 665, 667, 668

indicator, 696, 698

Photosynthesis, 45, 57, 59, 60, 179, 183,

284, 286, 294–296, 325,

334–335, 365, 366, 524, 582,

586–587, 626

Photovoltaic cell (PV), 11, 20, 26, 40, 135,

140, 294, 295, 297, 318–321,

324–330, 384, 529–532, 587,

624–626, 689

Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T), 301, 325–330

Plank constant, 37, 38

Platinum group material (PGM), 709–710

flow, 4, 374, 489, 600

Plutonium, 63, 244–245, 247, 258, 260, 264

POCP. See Photo-chemical ozone creation

potential

Point focus concentrator, 310, 312, 314

Policy, vii–viii, 38, 51–53, 66, 67, 71, 75,

77, 79, 94, 109, 111, 113, 114,

119–121, 124, 125, 129, 131–136,

139, 142, 143, 147–166, 392, 394,

395, 500, 501, 663, 664, 696, 697,

737, 754, 773

Pollutant, 76–78, 80–81, 85, 126, 143, 366,

375, 401, 403, 457, 486, 633, 666,

668, 669, 678, 682, 686–688,

691, 727

Pollution control, 84–85, 392, 400

Polytropic process, 24, 25

Positron, 243, 244

Potential energy, 4–6, 19, 20, 31, 33, 35, 47, 57,

137, 283–284, 295, 341, 362, 364,

436, 442–443, 533

Power density, 253, 298, 381, 382, 438, 599,

600, 614, 615, 617–622

Power generation, 57, 60, 71, 84, 106, 107,

120, 147, 158, 167, 181, 192, 198,

209–211, 218, 219, 228, 235, 253,

255, 265, 266, 298, 299, 309, 316,

320–324, 326, 329, 340, 346, 348,

350, 352, 353, 355, 356, 358, 365,

372–376, 380, 401, 405, 407, 446,

447, 479, 480, 484, 490, 504, 508,

519, 520, 529, 530, 532–535, 552,

553, 566–567, 572, 586, 595–599,

601, 602, 605, 607, 615, 619, 620,

633, 668, 669, 673, 684, 685, 689,

691, 715–718, 735, 741, 743, 753

Practical application impact ratio, 155–157,

159, 160, 514

Pressure, 4, 111, 120, 170, 204, 247, 295,

395, 443, 482, 525, 633, 678, 702,

734, 784

Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 255,

256, 262

Price escalation, 414, 415, 428, 755,

763–767, 769, 771, 776, 778,

779, 781

812 Index

Process heating, 57, 138, 204, 235, 254, 264,

279, 286, 306, 348, 359, 360, 370,

376, 389–391, 393, 479, 501, 506,

508, 510, 513, 515, 550, 553, 574,

606, 726, 733–735

Proton, 206, 207, 212, 236, 237, 239–240,

243, 244, 247, 525, 527, 577–582,

584, 590, 595–600, 603, 615, 676

Proton exchange membrane (PEM), 212, 527,

577, 578, 596, 597, 673, 676

Public procurement policy, 149

PV. See Photovoltaic cellPV/T. See Photovoltaic-thermal

PWR. See Pressurized water reactor

Pyrolysis, 171, 181–182, 186–190, 192,

366, 370, 543

Q

Quantum efficiency, 580

Quantum mechanics, 233

R

Radiation, 4, 37, 41, 44–45, 53–59, 65, 78,

79, 85, 88, 93–99, 101–103, 140,

234, 235, 238, 240, 243–246,

248–251, 253, 254, 257, 262–264,

283, 284, 286–311, 313–316,

318–322, 325, 327–330, 582, 668,

689, 696, 725, 726

dose, 263, 264

Radiative forcing, 101–104

Radioactive decay, 234, 235, 238, 243

Radionuclide, 85, 242, 262–264

Rankine cycle, 178, 204, 321, 322, 353,

356–359, 372, 377–379, 389, 397,

480, 504–508, 511–512, 533, 537,

550, 567–569, 575–576, 609, 610,

643, 660

Rankine temperature, 321, 322, 353,

357–359

Rate of discounting the future, 755–775

Rayleigh distribution, 338

Reaction heat, 1, 188, 192, 210, 447, 503, 554,

557, 568, 598, 611, 657

Reaction kinetics, 210, 540, 558, 598, 610–612

Real rate, 412, 761–763, 765, 769–771, 777

Recycling, 83, 114, 119, 120, 128, 136,

139, 204, 206–207, 260, 353,

520, 537, 540, 551, 555–556,

580, 582, 589, 590, 601–602,

604–606, 608, 609, 643, 644,

646, 652, 655, 658, 663, 673, 675,

701, 707, 710, 713

Reflection, 9, 55, 56, 58, 93, 304–305, 313

Refraction, 302, 309, 459

Refrigerant, viii, 26, 27, 29, 30, 188, 203,

209–210, 216, 220–224, 229,

321–322, 353, 401, 459, 496, 508,

633, 638–643, 660

Refrigerator, 30–32, 38, 83, 204, 207–209,

222, 223, 225, 230, 286, 314,

316–317, 321–322, 325, 356,

389–391, 394, 397, 399, 420,

459, 487, 493, 494, 505, 506,

508, 510–514, 588, 589, 608,

633, 639, 641–643, 655, 661,

726–727, 731, 732, 755

Renewable energy, viii, 52, 53, 57, 59, 81, 83,

84, 109, 112, 114, 120, 122, 124,

133, 135, 140, 147, 149, 152, 158,

169, 178, 186, 191, 283–384, 392,

402, 403, 445, 519–521, 523,

529, 533–535, 548, 585, 590, 592,

622–624, 626, 667, 681, 682, 684,

702, 726, 753–755, 769, 772,

776–778

Renewable obligations, 149, 754

Restructuring, 132, 149

Rffu. See Fossil fuel utilization ratio

Rgei. See Green energy impact ratio

Rges. See Green energy-based sustainability

ratio

Rim angle, 311, 312

Risk assessment, 154, 263

S

Sectoral

efficiency, 723–749

energy

analysis, 42, 137, 422, 462, 724, 748

utilization, viii, 76–85, 723–749

exergy utilization, viii, 723–749

impact ratio, 155–157, 159, 160,

162, 165

Separation, 27, 45, 86, 99, 182, 188, 189,

204–205, 214, 216–220, 222, 223,

260, 267, 376, 379, 397, 400, 422,

458, 460, 479, 522–523, 532, 535,

537–540, 544, 546, 549, 573, 585,

606, 607, 633–640, 643–652,

656–658, 660, 679, 706, 714, 715,

719, 720, 753

Shading factor, 310–313, 383

Sievert, 263, 264, 649

Social impact, vii, 76, 623, 624, 663

SOFC. See Solid oxide fuel cell

Index 813

Solar

collector, 254, 274, 287, 288, 291, 299,

306, 308–312, 315, 316, 322, 390,

489, 495, 498, 502, 754

concentrator, 287–290, 299, 302,

310–312, 314, 321, 331, 488–489,

531, 549, 754

dish, 309, 311, 313, 321, 323

driven heat engine, 57, 286, 300, 318,

321–323, 493

energy, 41, 45, 53–60, 65, 81, 94, 136, 158,

178, 183, 213–215, 274, 275,

283–306, 314, 317–318, 321–325,

327, 328, 330, 331, 335, 362, 379,

380, 389, 390, 431, 454, 458, 488,

492, 494, 496, 498, 514, 519, 530,

532, 534, 538, 549–551, 564, 565,

591, 593, 626, 672, 682, 683, 685,

688, 689, 691, 702

exergy, 44–46, 301, 320, 498

exergy maps, 298–302, 342–344

pond, 57, 302, 304–306, 458

through, 286, 519

tower, 308–309, 322, 323

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 210, 372–375,

479–485, 505–508, 567, 596–600,

602–609, 615, 657, 658, 715–718

Specific heat, 21, 22, 189, 343, 455, 458, 463,

468, 491

Specific thermal load, 391

Specific volume, 10, 19–20, 22, 398, 638, 643

Spectral range, 99

SPI. See Sustainable process indexStoichiometric ratio, 180, 191, 206, 213, 216,

368, 370, 543, 551, 600, 613, 615,

618–622, 713

Subcritical reaction, 248, 553, 636

Sulfur, 77, 78, 81, 85, 105, 170, 171, 173, 174,

176, 177, 179, 180, 184, 206,

266–267, 323, 366–368, 538, 539,

548, 549, 708, 709

cycle, 702, 708, 709

Sulfur-iodine (S-I) cycle, 266–267, 538,

549, 553

Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2), 633–634,

638, 641–646

extraction and separation, 638, 643,

645, 646

technology, 637, 639, 643, 644, 646

Supercritical fluid, 636, 645, 655

Supercritical reaction, 248

Surface tension, 5, 39, 636, 784, 790,

792–796

Sustainability, 67, 109, 113, 115, 121–123,

131, 148–149, 154, 156–160,

162–165, 392, 393, 402–404, 425,

479, 480, 500, 514, 520–525,

623–626, 663, 673, 678, 683

assessment, 147, 154, 158, 165, 520,

622–625

Sustainable development, viii, 42, 51, 52, 72,

86, 89, 94, 115, 120–124, 142,

147–165, 203, 233, 314, 402–404,

521, 586, 624, 660, 663, 701,

724, 773

Sustainable process index (SPI), 154

Synthetic fuel, 54, 60, 169, 178, 185–186, 198,

286, 304, 318, 321, 325, 382,

433–436, 445–446, 454, 485–487,

633, 670, 723, 739

System integration, 392, 479–485, 493

T

Tar, 174, 181, 182, 185, 542, 544, 545

Taxation, 129, 133, 142, 564, 755, 759,

772–774

Tax exemption, 136, 754

Tax on salvage, 774, 776

TCWS. See Thermo-chemical water splitting

Temperature, 7, 52, 93, 120, 169, 204, 246,

286, 395, 440, 479, 524, 633, 685,

702, 725, 784,

TES. See Thermal energy storage

Textile dyeing, 643, 644

Thermal conductivity, 251, 253, 468, 520, 542,

636, 637, 784–786, 790, 792–796

Thermal energy, 11, 19, 42, 44–45, 53, 83, 158,

178, 180, 182, 188, 190, 191, 205,

219, 220, 235, 253, 254, 270–274,

283–284, 286, 300–318, 321, 323,

327, 328, 330, 331, 348, 377–379,

390–392, 394–397, 399–401, 404,

407, 408, 432, 435, 436, 444, 447,

448, 454–460, 464, 479, 480, 491,

492, 494, 498, 500, 508–510,

512–514, 523–525, 527, 528, 537,

539, 556, 557, 561, 566, 574, 590,

591, 608, 642, 691, 743

Thermal energy storage (TES), 42, 83, 304,

379–380, 391, 399, 435, 443–444,

447, 454–465

Thermal radiation, 41, 44–45, 93, 94, 288, 294,

310, 325, 335, 491, 529, 725

Thermal reactors, 250, 265

Thermo-catalytic reaction, 204, 216–218, 229,

678, 679

814 Index

Thermo-chemical water splitting (TCWS),

213, 266–268, 447, 494, 495,

502, 524, 537–540, 549, 553,

555–564, 568–571, 573–576,

691–696

Thermodynamics, vii, 1–46, 53, 54, 128,

154, 165, 187, 191, 198, 267,

268, 286–302, 332, 335–344,

349–352, 359, 360, 362–364,

366–370, 375, 377, 382, 401,

403–410, 414, 415, 417, 420,

422, 425, 426, 434, 448, 453,

461, 462, 464, 470, 475, 479,

480, 482, 484, 489, 508, 510,

512, 527, 528, 560, 561, 563,

568, 574, 600, 610, 634, 639–640,

654, 663, 664, 678–679, 701–702,

714, 723–727, 734, 748–749, 788

equilibrium, 17–19, 32, 37, 39, 289, 291,

295, 639–640

law, vii, 18–21, 24, 31–39, 42, 128, 401,

403–404, 461, 462, 510, 568, 663,

734, 748–749

limit of conversion, 349–352

model, 25, 28–29, 191, 268, 287, 294, 335,

367, 405, 409, 482, 508, 512, 634,

678, 724–727

property, 6, 14, 15, 34

system, vii, 1, 2, 4, 18–20, 22, 24,

31–34, 37, 39, 42, 46, 53, 363,

401, 403, 404, 426, 434, 461,

462, 663

Thermolysis, 524, 537, 625

Thorium, 63, 245, 258, 260, 265, 283

Tidal energy, 58–59, 380, 534

Toxicity

indicator, 324, 668, 669

Transmission, 58, 98, 121, 138, 253, 284–285,

295, 302–305, 308, 310–313, 315,

321, 328, 334–335, 346, 353, 381,

390, 431, 433, 435, 436, 449, 450,

452, 483, 527, 575, 613–614,

685, 686

Transuranic waste, 262

Tri-generation, 479, 492, 493, 501, 502,

505–514, 583

Trilateral flash Rankine cycle, 358, 359

Triple point, 17, 634–636, 648, 785, 789

Tritium, 238, 241–242, 246, 247

Tungsten cycle, 710, 712

U

Uranium, 63, 85, 87–89, 122, 169, 233–235,

237, 238, 244–249, 253, 255,

257–262, 264, 283, 402, 521, 553,

667, 691–693, 787

fuel cycle, 233, 234, 244–245, 248–249,

258, 260, 262, 691–693

pellet, 233, 234, 260

Uranium dioxide (UO2), 248, 257, 258, 260

Urea, 185–198, 591, 592, 639, 655–656, 706

V

Vacuum, 3, 7, 8, 219, 240, 308, 310, 353, 496,

498, 543, 563, 589, 590, 726–727,

731, 732

Vapor quality, 17, 256, 562

VAWT. See Vertical axis wind turbine

Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT), 344–346

Very high temperature gas cooled reactor

(VHTR), 256, 257, 267

VHTR. See Very high temperature gas cooled

reactor

Viscosity, 380–381, 520, 636, 644, 650,

784–786, 790, 792–796

VOCs. See Volatile organic compounds

Volatile matter, 170, 171, 181

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 77, 78,

81, 85, 88, 297, 301, 320, 327, 613,

614, 668, 669, 683, 686, 687

Voltage-current density curve, 611, 614, 615

Volumetric heat generation rate, 250–253

Volumetric power density, 617

W

Waste disposal, 85, 154, 260–263

Waste incineration, 85, 254, 390, 399, 523,

557, 571–572

Water

electrolysis, 186, 213, 271–272,

285–286, 319, 348, 378, 379,

502, 523–530, 532, 533, 535,

536, 566, 572, 592, 593, 626,

671, 686

splitting, 186, 213, 266–268, 270–278,

447, 494, 495, 502–504, 524,

525, 532, 537–540, 544, 553,

555–571, 573–582, 592, 607,

691–696

thermolysis, 537

Wave energy, 284, 379–382, 534

Index 815

Wind

chill temperature, 341–343

exergy, 344, 689

exergy map, 342–344

power plant, 84, 346–348, 689, 691

speed, 93, 315, 337–341, 343,

345, 534

turbine, 57, 333–334, 336–347, 380–381,

534, 684–685

Work, 2, 55, 109, 123, 149, 169, 203, 235, 286,

399, 432, 479, 535, 633, 670, 714,

723, 755,

recovery, 209, 220, 222, 223, 225, 228, 480,

557, 574, 602, 645

Working fluid, viii, 26, 188, 203, 209–210,

218–220, 229, 267, 288, 308,

321–322, 353, 356–357, 360, 377,

399, 446–447, 487, 496, 505, 508,

561, 564, 568, 574, 633, 638–643, 660

X

X-rays, 234, 251, 262, 264

Y

Yukawa force, 239, 240

Z

Zircaloy, 248, 251–253, 255

816 Index

appendix a conversion factors - springer978-0-387-95861-3/1.pdf · appendix a conversion factors...

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