appendices - archaeology data service...recording england’s rock art a handbook for project...

RECORDING ENGLAND’S ROCK ART

A HANDBOOK FOR PROJECT OFFICERS

Version 1.0 August 2008

APPENDICES

Written by Kate Sharpe and Tertia Barnett Northumberland and Durham Rock Art Pilot Project

APPENDICES

A - Volunteer Management VM1: Volunteer policy VM2: Volunteer agreement VM3: Volunteer drivers B - Health and Safety Forms HS1: Risk assessment HS2: Emergency Info HS3: Field visit health and safety checklist C - Kit Lists D - Guidance Sheets GS1: Instructions for a ‘dry run’

GS2: Fieldwork procedure GS3: Recognising rock art GS4: Preparing the panel GS5: Using the full recording form GS5a: Using the minimum recording form GS6: Geology for rock art recorders GS7: Recording condition and threat GS8: Recognising lichens, algae and mosses GS9: Photographing rock art GS10: Photogrammetry field work GS11: Scanning drawings and forms GS12: Data management

E - Bibliography

F - Recording Form Templates RF1: Full recording form

RF1a: Panel plan continuation page RF1b: Diary page RF2: Minimum recording form RF3: Photography recording form

RF4: Photogrammetry recording form RF5: Cover sheet

APPENDIX A

VOLUNTEER

MANAGEMENT

VM1

Page 1 of 2

VM1: Volunteer Policy

INTRODUCTION

This policy has been prepared for the benefit of members of the public who may volunteer their time for [ organisation/project ]. It is appreciated that volunteers contribute valuable assistance and experience that would otherwise not be available and in turn can themselves gain valuable working experience that can enhance their skills and enable self-fulfilment. It is therefore important that [ organisation/project ] encourage the participation of volunteers under supervision, whilst ensuring the safety and security of all parties. DEFINITION OF VOLUNTEER

A volunteer is a person who freely undertakes to perform a service task or function that is not normally or traditionally performed as a full job and who does so without financial reward. A clear distinction exists between volunteers and those who are given a financial reward, e.g. wage or allowances at special rates in return for casual services. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

Whatever tasks are identified for voluntary work, it is important to match the volunteer to the work. In order to achieve this, prospective volunteers should be subject to references and an appraisal of skills in all cases. Where the volunteer is going to be in contact with vulnerable groups or individuals, it will be necessary to obtain a Criminal Records Bureau disclosure. Care should be taken to consider all equality issues when recruiting volunteers. AGREEMENT

All volunteers should be issued with a role description and a written agreement which clarifies the intentions and expectations of both parties in order to avoid subsequent disputes and which uses terminology like “hopes and expectations” instead of “requirements.” Without a clear understanding of what is expected of the volunteer confusion and misunderstanding is likely to arise. TRAINING

Volunteers should receive training directly related to the tasks they undertake. An induction process, including health and safety, should be followed in every case to ensure volunteers understand the environment they are to work in. Training will help clarify how the volunteer is expected to carry out his or her tasks.

VM1

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EXPENSES

[ organisation/project ] does not require employing directorates to pay expenses. However, should a directorate wish to, they are free to reimburse necessary additional expenses that would not otherwise have been incurred by the volunteer. The amount should be proportionate to the activities carried out. Any necessary protective clothing should be provided for the volunteer. LIABILITY

For any project activity undertaken by a volunteer, [ organisation/project ]’s public liability insurance will apply. Volunteers should be aware that this insurance does not cover them for loss of earnings should they sustain an injury. Any queries should be addressed to [ insert details ]. EQUALITY

[ organisation/project ]’s commitment to diversity and equality applies equally to volunteers. [ organisation/project ] values the contribution made by everyone and especially that made by unpaid volunteers. SUPERVISION

Every volunteer should have a supervisor who they can go to with queries or problems. This is also important for feedback so volunteers know how they are performing. Should volunteers’ performance fall below the required level steps should be taken to remedy this. Standards need to be established and maintained regardless of the status of the individual. Situations of misconduct need to be similarly managed. Being a volunteer does not excuse poor behaviour. However, it must be remembered that volunteers are not bound by contractual obligations.

VM2

Page 1 of 1

VM2: Volunteer Agreement

Thank you for volunteering with [ organisation/project ]. For your information and safety we ask you to read and sign this agreement before commencing duties. Volunteering is undertaken freely and not in return for wages. We hope that your voluntary work will give you a sense of achievement, work experience, a chance to build on your skills and learn new ones as well as a chance to strengthen your confidence. It cannot offer you a job or money, only out of pocket expenses. As a volunteer you will not do the work of paid staff, but complement the services offered by [ organisation/project ]. You will be supervised by [ Project Manager ] who will issue you with a role description which specifies what your contribution is expected to be, place of work, hours volunteered etc. You will be expected to fulfil your agreed commitment as far as possible and should inform [ Project Manager ] as soon as possible if you are unable to do so. You will be expected to follow the policies and procedures referred to in your induction programme including health and safety and diversity and equal opportunities. I agree to abide with this agreement Signed ………………………………………… Date …………..…………………………… Name (please print)……………………………………………… …………..……………… For your own safety, and in order to protect those working with you, we would be grateful if you could give us details of any medical condition that may affect your ability to undertake the work for which you have volunteered. Please could you also provide us with details of any medication you take that you think we should know about. Please note the information you give is this section will be treated as strictly confidential.

VM2

Page 1 of 1

VM3: Information for Volunteer Drivers Owner-drivers must tell their insurance company in writing that they will be driving in a voluntary capacity. Otherwise the policy can be invalidated, which results in the driver being personally liable for any damage or injuries sustained in an accident. You can either contact your company directly or use the form provided to let your insurers know that you are working in a voluntary capacity. The form is from the Association of British Insurers and confirms that you should not be liable for any increase in your insurance premium if using your car for voluntary work. Further details can be obtained from the information service at the Community Transport Association Advice Services (details below). Alcohol Drivers should not drink alcohol for at least 12 hours before a journey. Alcohol remains in the body for a considerable amount of time. This is an issue that you can tackle in training and you may also want to have a clear policy on it. Luggage Luggage and shopping should be put in the boot or kept securely to prevent injury if the vehicle suddenly stops. Pets Pets can be carried with clients, at the discretion of the driver, as long as the animal does not affect the safe running of the vehicle. Guide dogs for blind and deaf clients should be taken in the vehicle, unless there are good reasons for not doing so. Seating capacity Never exceed the seating capacity of a vehicle, as stated by the manufacturer and insurer. Accidents, illness or injury In the event of an accident, the organisation and the emergency services should be informed immediately and details given. If a client falls ill or is injured during a journey, then the driver should seek immediate medical help. Further Information Community Transport Association Advice Services: Tel: 0161 367 8780 Website: http://www.communitytransport.com/advice.htm

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APPENDIX B

HEALTH & SAFETY

HS1

Page 1 of 4

HS1: Risk Assessment

[INSERT PROJECT NAME/ORGANISATION] Activity: Rock Art recording [date]

Site: [site/area name]

People at Risk: [names]

Additional Information:

Risk Evaluation Hazard Identified Risks Rating Existing Control Measures Additional Action Required Priority

HS1

Page 2 of 4

Signature:…………………………………………. Title: [e.g. Project Officer] Date………………………………

Review Date:……………

HS1

Page 3 of 4

NADRAP Example

NORTHUMBERLAND COUNTY COUNCIL Directorate: Environment Division: Section: Conservation Activity: Rock Art Volunteer survey

Site: All

People at Risk: All helpers and volunteers

Additional Information:

Risk Evaluation Hazard Identified Risks Rating Existing Control Measures Additional Action Required Priority

Driving to sites: Vehicle breakdown Vehicle Collision Careless Driving Vehicle break in

Exposure to weather/ impact by other vehicles Injury, shock Injury, shock Vehicle tampered with/ loss of equipment

M

H

M

H

Check oil, water, tyres, servicing Wear safety belts, do not store loose materials in vehicle Keep within speed limits Do not leave valuables/personal details in car. Check interior/exterior before entering Are these measures adequate?: yes

None None None None

Live Stock Charging, Crushing, Biting. Damage to facilities

L Be aware of livestock Avoid approaching livestock Be aware of cow/sheep and calf/lamb locations, avoid coming between parent and young. Ensure gates are close re these measures adequate?: Y

L

HS1

Page 4 of 4

Abnormal weather Uneven ground

Flying debris/ fallen branches, exposure Cuts, sprains, bruises, broken bones

M

L

Check Weather forecast (visit will be postponed if appropriate) Appropriate evacuation routine prepared prior to site visit. Ensure all attendants have suitable protective clothing and footwear First aid equipment and training, Suitable contact to emergency services Are these measures adequate?: yes

None None

Equipment

Injury from poorly maintained equipment or lack of adequate supervision

L

Ensure that all equipment is maintained in full working order and that all volunteers are supervised adequately at all times Are these measures adequate?: yes

Increased awareness

Signature:…………………………………………. Title: ……Conservation team leader 15 October

Review Date:……………

HS2

Page 1 of 1

HS2: Emergency Information

(To be provided to the Project Officer prior to all fieldwork visits)

TEAM #

Name of person completing form

Name of Responsible Person

Phone nos. of Team members

Date of field work

Location of field work

Purpose of field work

Leave home time

Driving time (1 way)

Arrival time on site

Est. departure time from site

Estimated time back home

Call in time

Call in person/location

Car park location

Car type

Car colour

Car registration

Name and tel. no. of next of kin

HS3

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HS3: Health & Safety Checklist

(To be completed for on all field visits)

TEAM #.......................................................... Date ................................................................................... Intended fieldwork area .......................................................................................................................

1. Are there more than 4 people undertaking the work today? Names:

(1) ............................................................. (4)..............................................................

(2) ............................................................. (5)..............................................................

(3) ............................................................. (6)..............................................................

2. Have you informed a Responsible Person and the Rock Art Officer of your intended route and return time? Names and phone numbers of people informed:

1) Responsible Person...................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................................................

(2) Rock Art Project Officer ............................................................................................... ...........................................................................................................................................

3. Have you checked that the weather forecast is OK? 4. Do you all have appropriate clothing and spare clothing? 5. Is the field kit complete? 6. Do you have spare batteries for the GPS? 7. Have you confirmed access with the landowner? Name and phone number .................................................................................................

8. Have you taken a GPS reading and Grid Reference on your car and an appropriate landmark?

9. Have you completed a Risk Assessment form? 10. Have all the team read and understood (and amended) the Risk Assessment?

11. Have you got at least one fully charged mobile with you? 12. Have you called the Responsible Person at the end of the fieldwork?

APPENDIX C

KIT LISTS

Each team should be provided with the following items of kit:

KIT BOX (hard wearing toolkit box from DIY centre) containing:

3 x 30 m tapes 1 x 5 m hand tape Permanent marker pens Retractable pencils and erasers Biros Soft paint brushes Silva Prismatic-type compass 2 x clip boards with folding covers 1 x hard back field note book IFRAO colour scale 2 x 0.5 m black and white wooden photo scale 2 x 1 m ranging poles Wooden or plastic North arrow painted black Geological identification card Small hand lens Hand held GPS 2 x rechargable AA batteries and charger for GPS First aid kit Whistle Torch and batteries Survival blanket (small silver foldaway)

Additional equipment which may prove useful: Water spray Wooden/plastic spatulas Garden parasols

Note: the kit box may be unsuitable for carrying onto site but provides a central storage solution

for each team.

DIGITAL CAMERA KIT

Digital camera + battery 2-4 GB Memory card Spare memory card Spare batteries and charger Download cable Durable and waterproof camera case

RECORDING FORMS These should be provided both in hard copy and electronically, and should include:

RF 1 – Full Recording Form RF 2 – Minimum Recording Form RF 3 – Photography Recording Form RF 4 – Photogrammetry Recording Form And optionally: RF1a - Continuation sheet for panel plans RF1b - Diary form

Templates are provided in Appendix C. It is recommended that each type of form is copied onto different coloured paper to avoid confusion.

INFO PACK This should include the following Guidance Notes:

GS1: Instructions for a ‘dry run’ GS2: Fieldwork procedure GS3: Recognising rock art GS4: Preparing the panel GS5: Using the Full Recording Form GS5a: Using the Minimum Recording Form GS6: Geology for rock art recorders GS7: Recording condition and threat GS8: Recognising biological growths GS9: Photographing rock art GS10: Photogrammetry field work GS11: Scanning drawings and forms GS12: Data management

The Guidance Notes are provided in Appendix D. It is recommended that these are laminated for use in the field, and that a set is provided to each Team.

Other items which should be included in the Info Pack:

OS maps (if possible showing location of rock art panels, derived from SMR) Emergency phone numbers

PLANNING PACK Items to be provided to each team for use in planning fieldwork should include blank forms for:

Risk Assessment Form Emergency Information Form Health and Safety Checklist Travel expense claims Budgets Volunteer driver details

Example templates for some of these are provided in Appendices A and B.

‘OFFICE’ KIT

Each team will need to undertake a degree of administrative and computer work, both to process

images and to monitor their progress. The following should be provided:

A minimum 50 GB hard drive for storage of all electronic data Copies of any necessary software (e.g. Excel, Topcon) Electronic copies of blank recording forms A progress spreadsheet containing information on all rock art panels for each team Blank CDs/DVDs for storing digital images Full hard copy of all SMR details for relevant panels for each team Box files for storing completed recording forms Blank paper (or budget allowance)

Budget allowance may also be considered for ink cartridges or photocopying costs where large numbers

of forms are printed by volunteers.

APPENDIX D

GUIDANCE SHEETS

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Guidance Sheet No. 1: INSTRUCTIONS for ‘DRY RUN’

Logistics and perception: Using the recording forms; looking at landscape

Before we do our first proper field visit to survey and record rock art sites, we would like to test some aspects of team logistics

and group perception. The more you are able to familiarise yourself with the landscape, the geology, the archaeology and your

other team members before we start work, the better. Your perceptions are very likely to change as you do more field work, so

we would like your first field visit to provide an opportunity to look at the landscape and the rock art without any pressure, to see

how easy or difficult the carvings are to find, to think about the ways you would go about surveying different bits of it and to see

how you work together as a team. This will also provide an opportunity to identify and tackle any problems before starting

fieldwork proper.

For this exercise, we will give you copies of the recording form. You can complete the forms if you want, but these will not be

entered into the database. The area will be revisited in the future to be fully recorded, photographed and surveyed.

Usually we will provide you with maps showing known locations of rock art sites and contemporary monuments, and the

available information we have on these sites. For this exercise we would prefer you to do this ‘blind’. Some of you may well

have already visited these areas and be familiar with the sites, but we would be grateful if, on this occasion, you would allow

team members unfamiliar with the sites to ‘discover’ them for themselves.

Before going into the field

(1) Agree within your team when will be the most appropriate date and time for your fieldwork. It is unlikely that all team

members will be able to join in with all field visits, but if you can make sure that at least 4 team members are present on each

visit. If different team members are going to be responsible for different tasks, try to make sure that all the task areas are

covered when you make your field visit.

(2) Check that there is a field kit available by phoning [insert number]. Arrange to collect it and complete the kit check list. Make

sure all batteries are fully charged and you have enough recording forms.

(3) Several days in advance of your visit, let us know when you will be going into the field. It is also a courtesy to check with the

landowner that this will be convenient.

(4) Agree on who will act as the emergency contact. Complete the Health and Safety Form, HS2. Make sure that the

emergency contact has a mobile phone number for at least one team member, and that they know where you are going, when

you’re expected back, what car you are driving and who to contact if there are any problems.

(5) Check the weather forecast the day before and take appropriate clothing or postpone your visit if the weather sounds too

bad. Complete the Risk Assessment, HS1 and provide the Project Officer with a copy.

In the field

(1) Look around the area, familiarise yourself with the sites, the archaeology and the landscape as a whole before you think

about using the recording form.

(2) Familiarise yourself with the equipment. Please make sure that all team members have the opportunity to use all the pieces

of equipment.

(3) Note down the grid references and elevations of all the sites you have identified using the map and/or GPS.

(4) Taking one rock art panel, go through the recording form together.

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(5) Work out how you work best as a team with the recording form. Ideally, decisions should be agreed by the group (e.g. how

many cup and rings are there?). It may be best for different team members to fill in different parts of the form, or you may prefer

to fill in the form together.

(6) Agree on provisional roles for different team members: e.g. Health & Safety/Risk Assessment; Equipment ‘monitor’; Travel

logistics.

(7) Note any problems or comments about the recording form, the equipment or the field visit and report these back to us

After field work

(1) Clean and dry all equipment.

(2) Recharge all batteries and return the field kit to the relevant office.

(3) Tell the Project Officer if anything is lost or broken.

Access authorisation

Access to the following areas has been agreed with the land owners. However, it would be appreciated if you could phone them

in advance when you have a date for your visit. We have chosen these locations because the rock art and archaeology is well

recorded and varied.

[Insert details]

Contacts

[Insert details]

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Guidance Sheet No. 2: FIELDWORK PROCEDURE

Fieldwork aims:

To visit all known sites in the area and verify their location.

To record them thoroughly using recording forms and digital photography.

To make a 3D record of each panel using photogrammetry.

Team organisation

As the teams will have a good deal of autonomy, we would like some members of each team to take the lead on coordinating

certain key ‘tasks’, both in the field and back in the ‘office’ Ideally, other than the team leader, we would like at least 2 team

members to take on each of the tasks, so that there should always be someone going out in the field who will be responsible for

each area. You can take on more than one task.

Tasks in the field might include:

overall team ‘leader’, also responsible for co-coordinating the team and travel arrangements

health and safety, and risk assessment

equipment co-ordination

Tasks in the ‘office’ might include:

data management, including maintenance of progress spreadsheet and management of all electronic files (computer

work),

image processing, including scanning of all drawings and creation of panoramic images (computer work).

photogrammetry processing (computer work)

Fieldwork Kit

Each Team will be provided with a box of equipment which will include a digital camera and GPS device as well as survey and

recording equipment. Each team will also be given a full set of laminated Guidance Sheets, a Planning Pack containing Health

and Safety forms, and set of Recording Forms. (Additional forms can be photocopied or printed from the electronic files).

Office Kit

Each Team will also be provided with electronic files including Recording Form templates, a Progress Spreadsheet or ‘Master

List’ of panels to be recorded, and any necessary software. Each Team will also be given a Hard Drive for storage of electronic

files.

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Fieldwork Procedure

1. Two-three weeks before

Decide as a team where you will base your survey and assess how much ground you think you will cover in the time

available.

Agree on individual roles for the fieldwork

Agree on a date, time and rendezvous. Let the Project Officer know as soon as you can.

Call the landowner and OK the visit with them.

Make sure you have all the relevant forms, information and maps. If any details are missing, let the Project Officer know as

soon as you can.

2. The week before

Check the equipment in the kit box and recharge the batteries

Fill in a Risk Assessment form (HS1) and send a copy to the Project Officer (or keep together in one place and send in a

batch)

Agree on who will be the emergency contact. Complete the Emergency Info form (HS2) and send a copy to the Project

Officer

3. One-two days before

Check the weather. If it’s looking really bad, postpone and let the Project Officer know as soon as you can.

Make sure you have appropriate clothing for the weather, and take a change of clothing with you.

4. On the day

Complete the Health and Safety checklist (HS3) as you progress.

Take a GPS reading on where you park your car, and on where you start your survey.

Take a good look around the area you will be working in before you start recording. Locate known rock art sites and

archaeological monuments given in SMR or other records and on the map, think about the geology, the topography, and

think about the how the landscape ‘works’. It is a good idea to locate as many panels as you can in a particular area first,

and take GPS readings on them. (Additional panels may be found subsequently in different lighting conditions or if

vegetation changes).

After this you may want to divide the team up and follow separate tasks (e.g. survey, recording, photography, taking field

notes) so that everyone is occupied. Do try and swap around tasks so that everyone has a chance to try out different things.

If anyone is getting cold and miserable, they should go back to the car immediately with another Team member.

Please fill in the recording forms legibly in black ink (pencil may be used for sketches in the field but should be redrawn in ink

prior to scanning).

Please take GPS readings to define the area that you have surveyed. You may want to do this as you go along (if the area is

large) or at the end of the day. If you need to continue surveying in this area, this will enable you to start where you left off

last time. If you are not returning to this area it will allow the extent of the survey to be plotted on the map.

Recording

In some areas panels will be found in close groupings. In this case you may find it easiest to draw a sketch map which includes

all the panels, clearly marked. This plan can then be copied onto each individual recording form for each panel in the group. The

sketch should show the spatial relationship between the individual panels and associated archaeological/physical features

(fences, walls, buildings etc). You should survey these in using tapes, or draw a rough sketch. This will help relocate the panels

in the future.

For closely grouped panels a single 360o panoramic photograph may be sufficient.

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The following are needed for each individual panel:

A completed Recording Form (RF1).

A set of digital photographs as indicated in Guidance Note No. 9.

A set of stereo-photographs as indicated in Guidance Note No. 10.

Post-field work

Kit: Kit should be cleaned, dried, checked and returned (unless you are going out again soon). Please notify [Project Officer]

immediately if anything is lost or broken.

Forms: Go through the recording forms while the day is still fresh in your mind to make sure they are legible and complete. If

necessary, convert drawings from pencil to pen. It is best to try and do this either the same day or the next day with at least one

other team member.

Photographs: Download the photos from the camera onto a computer. It is best to do this as soon as possible while the

information is still fresh in your mind. Make sure that the photo numbers and the numbers you have written on the recording

form are the same for each panel – this is very important as it is our only link between the photo and the panel!

Progress spreadsheet: Please update the Master Spreadsheet to indicate which panels have been located, recorded, and

photographed.

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Guidance Sheet No. 3: RECOGNISING ROCK ART

One challenge facing all rock art researchers is to distinguish between prehistoric rock art and marks which may be:

a) deliberately carved but with post-prehistoric origins

b) the result of other human or biological agency; or

c) the result of natural geological processes.

Accumulated hands-on experience of rock art in the field certainly helps, particularly in recognising what is not rock art, but the

positive identification of simple motifs such as cup-marks remains a challenge and is inevitably subjective, relying on each

recorder’s particular experience and knowledge of local geology. A familiarity with the range of ‘non-rock art’ features can help,

as can the application of a few basic rules of thumb.

Post-prehistoric carvings

Carved letters or inscriptions clearly post-date the prehistoric period, and carvings of bronze axe-heads are certainly post-

Neolithic. Depictions of human figures, such as the image of local deity, Cocidius, found recently in Northumberland, are

considered to date to the Romano-British period. Similarly, the animals and figures used in Pictish carvings do not occur in the

‘cup-and-ring’ or ‘passage grave’ repertoires, although elements of the more abstract symbols such as the ‘disc’ and ‘double

disc’ have been compared with cup-and-ring motifs. Remember that carvings from more than one period may appear on the

same stone.

Prehistoric carvings: multiple forms

Even at the time of creation and prior to the effects of up to 6000 years of weathering, prehistoric motifs must have had a range

of appearances, depending on the surface chosen, the tools used, and the intent and skill of the artist. ‘Soft’ sedimentary

materials such as sandstone and ‘hard’ igneous rocks like granite produce very different effects, with fine-grained stone

producing a sharper outline than coarse, composite stone. Stone tools used to ‘peck’ the surface create different effects to metal

‘blades’ which may have been used to incise marks or score the surface and the stone tools may themselves be of different

shapes and sizes, so that peck marks may vary from clearly visible (several mm) to very fine. Some peck marks may have been

deliberately smoothed whereas others were untouched. A further consideration is that motifs may not have been completed.

There is also enormous variation in the way in which similar motifs are presented with, for example, the grooves of some rings

are very narrow whereas others are much wider and less clearly defined. The spacing between rings may also vary, and some

may be more symmetrical than others. It is impossible to assess the carvings in aesthetic terms or to judge the ‘skill’ of

individual carvers, and it is dangerous to make assertions about ‘finely’ and ‘crudely’ executed motifs. The differences in the

presentation of motifs may reflect the skill, experience or simply the stylistic preference of the ‘artist’ – but may also be a

byproduct of the tools available or the geology of the rock surface. It must also be remembered that motifs may have been

added over time, so that the ‘composition’ with motifs added or ‘enhanced’ by several different carvers, and caution is needed in

interpreting the overall design.

Different appearance of rings – style, skill, or technique?

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Marks produced by human or animal activity

Marks on rock surfaces are not always carved deliberately and may be the indirect result of other human or animal activities,

either in the past or more recently, for example:

a) plough marks, often found on boulders close to the ground and also confused with striations (see below);

b) quarrying marks - indentations where stone workers have inserted wedges to pry open strata, or drilled holes intended

for explosives;

c) polishing or sharpening marks;

d) bullet percussion marks (interpreted as cup-marks - often found in the same areas as rock art (e.g. moors used for

grouse shooting or for military training);

e) hollows made by the Pholas, a marine bivalve mollusk that bores into rock;

f) scratches made by animal hoofs or antlers scraping on horizontal rock surfaces; and

g) gate socket stones – slabs with ‘cups’ which held gate posts.

Features created by natural physical processes

The features most often mistaken for rock art are those produced through natural geological processes, either during the

formation of the stone, or through later glacial action or weathering. Geological formation produces an enormous variety of

patterns depending on the process involved, and the local conditions. Sedimentary structures such as cross-bedding and

slumping can give the impression of human-made design, and metamorphic, igneous and mineralised structures such as veins,

folding, baking or fracturing of the rock can also produce deceptive features. The movement of glaciers over the surface of rocks

and outcrops can result in the smoothing of the surface and the creation of scratches known as striations. Finally, the action of

water (especially if acidic), wind, and changing temperature and humidity act may result in exfoliation or flaking of surface

layers, and the dissolution of mineral concretions or release of pebbles from conglomerate creating solution hollows. Natural

curves and grooves on upper surfaces may be enhanced by repeated water action, creating deep channels and cupules.

‘Cupules’ are also a common geological feature, created by the differential weathering of spherical concretions formed within

sedimentary rock such as shale and sandstone or in some weathered volcanic rocks. Concretions vary in size, shape,

hardness, and colour. They often appear in nodular patches, concentrated along bedding planes. When the bedding plane is

exposed, differential weathering may cause the minerals to dissolve, leaving behind hemispherical depressions.

Inspiration, incorporation and enhancement

Even greater complexity is introduced if it is considered that natural features may have been the inspiration for rock carvings, so

that the presence of natural markings does not always indicate a natural origin for all marks in the locality. Geological patterns

may be emulated by the carved motifs, and natural fissures and depressions may be incorporated. Instances where natural

features are enhanced, for example with pecking used to widen, straighten or elongate a fissure, are particularly difficult to

evaluate.

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The effect of time

The variation in features discussed so far assumes they are examined ‘as new’, at the time of creation. Despite the ‘eternal’

nature of stone, the damp North Atlantic climate can make a major difference to the appearance of both rock art and other

features. Weathering may remove peck marks and obscure, distort or destroy motifs. The extent to which the rock art is affected

depends upon:

a) geological composition and ‘hardness’ of the rock;

b) period of exposure - buried surfaces will clearly survive in better condition;

c) local environment of the rock – i.e. the elevation and orientation of the rock and position of vegetation which may

produce water run-off or a protective canopy. On horizontal surfaces, water collecting in depressions may deepen

or distort ‘cups’ or ‘grooves’; and

d) micro-climate (esp. humidity) at the rock

All these factors may affect the appearance of any given rock surface: creating features which look artificial but also obscuring,

distorting, or destroying both natural elements and carved motifs.

Natural or not?

For panels with complex designs of concentric rings and spirals there can be little doubt of a human origin, but the majority of

British rock art consists of much simpler motifs – cups and grooves. These require greater consideration before they can be

firmly identified as ‘rock art’. Cup-marks are the most common of all motifs and are found in a variety of contexts – on outcrops,

boulders, on standing stones, capstones, kerb-stones, cist covers, and on portable cobbles. Cups vary in size and shape and

may appear on vertical, horizontal or sloping surfaces. They occur in random clusters and in patterns (‘domino’ or ‘rosette’ or

lines), within motifs (e.g. ‘cup-and-ring’), and may be linked or enclosed by grooves. They also occur in isolation, and panels

with only a single cup-mark are possibly the most difficult to evaluate.

Cup-like features can be created through the differential weathering of concretions, the natural erosion of sandstone and

limestone, by the actions of molluscs, and may also be the result of bullet ricochets or even wear from gate-posts. In many

cases it is extremely difficult to differentiate these features from carved cup-marks but there are a number of rules that can help.

In 1867 Simpson listed four characteristics which suggested a human origin for cup-marks:

1. their limited size, regular, rounded forms, smooth surfaces, and shallow depths;

2. their positioning on the surfaces of rocks too hard to be weathered;

3. their arrangements in rows or in other artificial positions and groupings unrelated to any geological peculiarities in

the stone; and

4. their co-existence with other cups surrounded by single or multiple rings.

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Natural hollows

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Guidance Sheet No. 4: PREPARING THE PANEL for RECORDING

In order to make a complete and clear record of the panel you will need to prepare it very carefully. Please remember – and

make others aware – that the majority of carved rocks in England are Scheduled Ancient Monuments. This means they are

protected by law and it is an offence to damage them, even if your intentions are good! Recent research has demonstrated that

even rubbings and tracings can be damaging to the rock art, particularly over time with repetitive rubbings. You have special

consent from English Heritage to record rock art sites using these guidelines, but this consent does not extend to unconnected

activities.

The notes below offer guidance on how to prepare the rock art for recording. Please follow this guidance as far as possible and

encourage others to do so too. If in doubt, the golden rule is to keep your interaction with the rock surface to a minimum. While

one person touching the carvings or the rock surface may have very little impact, if dozens of people walk on the rock the

microscopic structure of the rock surface will be affected and, over time, the engravings will wear away.

Removing Turf

Current knowledge suggests that the protection offered by turf cover more than outweighs any deterioration it may cause

Anything that upsets the established equilibrium of a rock surface will be detrimental, so turf should not be removed unless

absolutely necessary. The only time that turf should be removed for recording purposes is to locate and record known panels

that are obscured by recent cover. Turf should then be carefully replaced. A record should be made of the current extent of turf

cover so that we can monitor its spread and effect. Persistent removal and recovering destabilises the rock surface and will be

detrimental to the rock art. You may, however wish to trim back long grass around the panel to ensure a clean edge for

photogrammetry images.

Cleaning

You may wish to clean the panel so you can better see the surface and the motifs. Never use any chemicals or abrasive

materials or tools to clean the rock surface. Loose material such as leaf litter, pine needles and animal droppings should be

gently removed from the rock surface. This can be done by picking up larger pieces or clumps of vegetation. Dry vegetation and

droppings can be cleared away using a soft brush. Lichens, mosses and algae should not be removed. Removal of lichens

is not a viable option, partly because some are protected species, and partly because the process of removal of biological

growths will damage the rock surface. New lichen growth is more aggressive than that of established lichens, so if lichens are

removed, they need to be kept off. The newly expose surface will also be more vulnerable to the effects of physical and

chemical weathering. Moss and algae should be discouraged through site management (e.g. removal of tree cover) rather than

through our interference. Until we understand better the ways in which lichens, mosses and algae act on rock art, we should not

remove them or interfere with them in any way.

Enhancing the Carvings

Carvings may be very eroded and faint, and you will need to look very carefully at the rock surface to make out some of the

motifs. Do not try to re-carve, paint or chalk the engravings. Low-angled sunlight (morning or evening) after rainfall provides

the best natural conditions for viewing, but you may also want to use artificial means to enhance the carvings so you can see

them better. If there is sunshine, you can put water from a local source on the panel and position yourself so the light enhances

the relief of the carvings. You could also try shading the rock surface then using a reflective surface to focus sunlight onto the

surface (silver survival blankets or mirrors are very effective for this). If it is an overcast day or the panel is in dark woodland,

you could use a powerful torch to shine light obliquely onto the panel.

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Guidance Sheet No. 5: USING THE FULL ROCK ART RECORDING FORM

Please use a separate recording form for each rock art panel. A panel is defined as a discrete carved surface. Where carved areas are separated by at least 1 m width of turf or other vegetation, or there is a clearly defined break, each separate carved surface should be recorded as a different panel, even if it was originally part of the same rock surface. Note: if previous recorders have used a different convention for dividing the carvings into ‘panels’ please follow that already used. Please also refer to Guidance Sheet No.4: Preparing the panel for recording.

Administration Section

If you are recording within an organised project please give the name of the project and (if appropriate) your Team number.

Leave these boxes blank if they do not apply. Give the name(s) of all individuals responsible for recording.

Please indicate which sections of the form have been completed (Section A must be completed for all panels).

The ERA ID will be assigned automatically when you input the data using the electronic form on the ERA website. This is a key

reference and will be used to tie together all the elements of the record (e.g. photographs, scans, photogrammetry model).

Please remember to add the ERA ID to the form when you input the record.

SECTION A: To be completed for ALL panels

Section A does not require the panel to be viewed in the field and may be completed before or after Section B. The information

may be available from previous publications, from database (internet) searches or can be requested from local authorities.

A1. Identifiers

Panel Name and Number

If the panel has already been documented please use this name and number. If there are several names in use please choose

the one you feel is most appropriate and ensure that alternative names are recorded in Other Panel Names. If the panel is a

new addition to a group of known panels use the same name but add the next sequential number/letter following any prior

conventions. For completely new panels use a name that relates to the area or nearest feature that appears on the Ordnance

Survey map (e.g. Barningham Moor, Marwood). If more than one panel is discovered in close proximity use the same name,

add a sequential number, e.g. Barningham Moor 1, Barningham Moor 2. The Panel Name and Panel Number will together form

a unique identifier.

Other Panel Names

Please add any other names which have been applied to the panel in the past, for example Fowberry Enclosure 3 is also known

as Gunn Rock.

Existing identifiers/references

NMR Reference

National Monuments Record unique identification number (HOBUID – Heritage Object Unique Identifier). In some cases, a

number of separate rock art panels may be lumped together under a single HOBUID; in these instances, this HOBUID should

be entered onto each recording sheet.

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The National Monuments Record brings together a range of unique archive and information resources and services, including over 12 million photographs, plans, drawings and reports. Since 1 April 1999, the NMR has been designated as the public archive of English Heritage and is responsible for curatorial and dissemination services associated with heritage datasets and archives corporately. The archives repository and main customer services activities are based in the National Monuments Record Centre in Swindon, Wiltshire. SAM Reference

The Scheduled Ancient Monument (SAM) Reference will only apply to panels that are themselves scheduled or which occur

within a scheduled monument (e.g. a stone circle) or scheduled area.

'Scheduling' is shorthand for the process through which nationally important sites and monuments are given legal protection by being placed on a list, or 'schedule'. English Heritage takes the lead in identifying sites in England which should be placed on the schedule by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. A schedule has been kept since 1882 of monuments whose preservation is given priority over other land uses. The current legislation, the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, supports a formal system of Scheduled Monument Consent for any work to a designated monument. Scheduling is the only legal protection specifically for archaeological sites.

Local HER/SMR References

Historic Environment Records (Sites and Monument Records) are maintained locally, for example by County Councils or

National Park Authorities. Please indicate the reference number and the source database. You may enter two references for

each panel if needed. (Some panels may appear on more than one database). You can find out what records are available for

your area at http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/CHR/

Other

Enter any other numbers relating to the rock art panel, for example if it has been previously catalogued or is listed on the

Portable Antiquities Scheme database. Note: Museum Accession Numbers are recorded in Section A4.

A2. Location (original find site)

County This is the county where the panel was originally found (please use post-1974 county designations). For panels that have been

relocated (e.g. to a museum) this may not be the same as its current location.

OS National Grid Reference

Please record the grid reference for the panel, for example, NZ 12345 67890. If

you are reading from a map please remember that eastings (read from left to

right) form the first part of the reference; northings (read from bottom to top)

form the second part. Your grid reference should have at least 8 figures.

The diagram represents an OS map. The estimated grid reference for the dot is

NU 1375 2785. For more information about the National Grid see the Ordnance

Survey website.

Indicate the method used to obtain the grid reference. It should preferably be

determined in the field using a hand-held Global Positioning System (GPS)

device, but it this is not possible it may be taken from an OS map or from

secondary sources such as SMR or NMR records.

Altitude

Please add the height in metres above ordnance datum [m OD] (average sea

level taken from the Ordnance Survey datum point at Newlyn, Cornwall).

Indicate the method used to obtain the altitude. It should preferably be

determined in the field using a hand-held GPS device, but it this is not possible it

may be estimated from an OS map or from an altimeter.

eastings

61100m 12 13 14

29

28

27

nort

hing

s 26

32500m

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A3. Panel Type (original archaeological context)

This indicates the broad panel classification. Note: ‘Portable’ is defined as any stone that could be carried by one or two people

(please don’t test this!)

Art in the landscape (not portable) – select this if the panel is a free-standing boulder, is on bedrock, or is a cliff wall or a

rock shelter (where the cliff overhangs), and has no clear relationship with any other structure.

Art in a structure (not portable) – select this if the panel is a fixed part of a burial cairn (e.g. kerbstone, cist slab), part of

standing stone monument (e.g. a stone circle, standing stone, stone row), or other structure (e.g. a field wall). Please

describe any other structures.

Art on a portable stone – select this if you think the panel could be carried by one or two people and is part of burial cairn

material (e.g. a ‘cobble’), is a surface find without archaeological context, is from some other context (e.g. clearance cairn,

field boundary), or the original context is unknown. Please describe any other contexts.

A4. Current Location & Provenance

At original location – select this if you believe the panel to be in its original archaeological context. This includes all panels

found in prehistoric structures such as monuments and burial cairns.

Moved from original location – select this if you believe the panel has been reused in structure (e.g. a building, field wall,

iron age hill fort, gatepost), relocated but is not included in any obvious structure (for example moved to the edge of a cleared

field, or to a secure location such as a garden), or placed in a private collection or museum.

If the panel is in a museum, please indicate whether it was obtained via an excavation, from a private donation or if the

provenance is unknown. Please record the name of the Museum and any Accession Number.

Documented as lost – select this if the panel is known to be missing.

Documented as destroyed – select this if the panel is known to have been destroyed (e.g. by quarrying).

No documented location – select this if previous records of the panel do not include an exact location, e.g. a grid reference.

Not located in the field – select this if you have looked extensively but cannot find the panel using location information from

previous records.

A5. Nature of Access

Information about Rights of Way and Open Access Land (CRoW) are shown on modern 1:25,000 maps or can be found on the

Countryside Access website at www.countrysideaccess.gov.uk, or from many local authority websites. Always seek any

necessary permission from

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SECTION B: To be completed only for panels visited by the current recorder. If the panel is known to be lost, destroyed or could not be located, please leave blank.

Sections B1 – B5 relate to panels in situ in the countryside. For panels in museums or private collections please leave these

sections blank.

Date of Visit Enter the date that you visited and recorded the panel, either in the field or in a museum or private collection. If the recording

took more than a single day just enter the first day.

B1. Landscape Situation

Terrain

Select the option which best describes the terrain in the immediate vicinity, i.e. within 10 m of the panel.

Sloping (e.g. hillside) – panel is on a slope, for example on the side of a hill or valley.

Flat (e.g. plateau) – panel is on level ground. This may be at any elevation, e.g. plateau, a coastal plain or a terrace. Also

select this option if the panel is on the top of a small knoll.

Position

Select the option which best describes the position of the panel in relation to the topography within 500 m of the panel.

Top (e.g. summit) – panel is at or close to the highest elevation in the area for example a hill top, valley ridge, or plateau.

Middle (e.g. hillside) – panel is moderately elevated compared to the local topography, for example on a hill or valley side,

or a terrace.

Bottom (e.g. valley floor) – panel is low-lying relative to the local topography, e.g. in or close to a valley bottom, or on a

coastal plain. Also select this option if panel is on a small knoll in the valley bottom.

Orientation

Draw a straight line to represent the direction the longest axis, showing the main orientation of the panel.

Slope

Record the slope of the carved surface of the rock relative to the horizontal (not the slope of the ground). If you have an

inclinometer in your compass, turn the dial so that the little red arrow points to 0o on the interior scale when the long edge of the

compass is on a horizontal surface. Make a straight edge by resting a ruler or ranging pole lightly on the rock surface, and then

hold your compass on the ranging pole so that the long edge of the compass is parallel with your straight edge. You can then

read the number off the compass dial to get the inclination of the rock surface. Mark the form to show the inclination relative to

the horizontal.

Use the boxes to indicate the orientation of the inclined surface, from Top to Bottom e.g. NE-SW

Proximity to water

Record these relationships if the carved panel is within 100 m of a spring or water course (e.g. a stream or river), or within 2 km

of a lake (or tarn/pond) or of the sea.

Underlying geology

Tick one. Refer to Guidance Sheet No. 6: Geology for Rock Art Recorders for help with identification. Please use the Notes to

make any comments on the type of rock, e.g. specific geological series such as Fell Sandstone, Borrowdale Volcanics Series,

Millstone Grit.

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Current land use

Tick all that apply to the location of the panel.

Heathland/moorland – land is that is unenclosed with rough grass, heather and/or bracken cover.

Undisturbed grassland – enclosed grassland which is not actively managed to improve the quality of the pasture, or only

managed at a low intensity.

Improved pasture – land that is enclosed and has been improved through mechanisms which might include stone

clearance, drainage, ploughing, re-seeding and fertilization.

Wood/forest – a plantation, or a natural/managed woodland or forest.

Bog/marsh – a boggy or marshy area

Arable – panel within or at the edge of an arable field or ploughed land.

Urban – built environment including parkland, gardens, thoroughfare (any form of vehicular track), waste ground (area of

untidy and agricultural waste land), golf course etc.

Military – land owned the MoD., e.g. for training.

Conservation – area set aside for nature conservation, e.g. Woodland Trust or Nature Reserve.

Other – please describe any other land uses not covered above.

B2. Nearby Prehistoric Features

Please tick any prehistoric features present within 250 m of the panel. If you are unsure use the Other box to describe the

feature rather than guessing. Useful information can be found on the Internet, for example on the DEFRA Magic website

(www.magic.gov.uk/website/magic/) or, for example, from local County Council, National Park or other HER records.

B3. Location Notes

Please provide brief directions to the panel, relating it to recognisable features such as field walls, footpaths, rivers or buildings.

You should also describe the immediate surroundings in terms of topography, views, prominent natural features or other

archaeological evidence.

B4. Location Sketch

Sketch the location of the rock art panel relative to other archaeological monuments and features, as well as other rock art

panels. This will help with identifying the panel in the future. You should include any prehistoric features identified in B2, any

geographical features such as rivers or lakes, and any modern features such as field walls, gates, buildings, pylons, tracks, or

roads.

Please orient your sketch map according to the north arrow provided. Use each square on the form to represents either 5 m x 5

m for single panels (providing a radius of 25m for a panel located at the centre), or 50 m x 50 m for groups of panels (providing

a radius of 250 m). Where several rock art panels are located close together, clearly mark the one to which the recording form

relates, and label them all using the correct Panel Name(s) and Number(s). If there are important features which do not fit within

the map, draw an arrow to indicate the correct direction, and indicate the correct distance.

To create your plan measure the distance from the panel to any features to be included and note the direction of your

measurement. For example, you might record the distance between the carved panel and a cairn as 23 m, N 120o. Distances

can be measured using tapes (for shorter intervals), or by using GPS to obtain grid references (Note: for consistency please

ensure you use the same GPS device and take all the readings on the same visit).

Where a number of panels lie within a relatively small area (e.g. within a few metres), you may only need to make one sketch for

all them and copy this to your other recording forms, making it clear which panel is which.

Please label your sketch map as clearly and consistently as possible.

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B5. Conservation and Management Information Please record the distance (in metres) from the rock art panel to any of the features which occur within 250 m.

Is the land Open Access or under an agri-environmental scheme such as Environmental Stewardship? If you are unsure leave

blank.

Is wheelchair access to the site possible?

Is there any interpretation present? This may be a board or signpost with information about the carvings.

If the panel is within a forested area, is this currently ploughed, newly planted, mature or recently felled?

B6. Panel Details

Dimensions

All dimensions must be entered in metres. Please record the maximum dimension in each case.

Panel geology

Select the rock type of the panel. This may not be the same as that of the underlying geology. Refer to Guidance Sheet No. 6:

Geology for Rock Art Recorders for help with identification.

Natural features

Are there significant natural features on the surface of the panel? Refer to Guidance Sheet No. 6: Geology for Rock Art

Recorders for help with identification.

The following three sections apply particularly to sandstone panels.

Surface compactness

Select the option which best describes the surface of the panel. Test the surface in an area away from the motifs.

Unconsolidated - flaky and falling apart

Very friable - leaves grains on your fingers when you rub it gently

Friable - leaves a few grains on your fingers when you rub it gently

Hard - no traces of grains

Grain size

Use your grain size cards1 to determine whether grains are fine, medium, coarse or very coarse.

Fine < 250 μ

Medium = 250-500 μ

Coarse = 500-1000 μ

Very coarse >1000 μ

Visible components

This is a rough gauge of the components of the rock as far as you can tell from looking at the rock surface through a hand lens.

Please tick the boxes if you can identify specific inclusions. Refer to the Geology Guide for help with identification.

1 Grain size cards are available from The Geology Shop Supplies: www.geologyshopsupplies.co.uk/22.html

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B6. Panel Notes

Please write a concise description of the panel, summarising the immediate context, the shape and size of the panel, the

position and nature of the motifs, the natural features on the rock surface and any other comments observations or impressions.

Use the continuation box on page 6 if needed.

B8. Panel Plan

This plan is intended to provide an approximate record of the panel and the motifs to help with future identification. It is not an

accurate record and does not need to be completed in fine detail or be highly artistic. You may prefer to use a soft pencil to

create the sketch (to allow for mistakes!) but please trace over this with stronger dark lines once you are happy with the sketch.

This will ensure that the sketch can be easily scanned for inclusion in the database. A continuation sheet (RF1a) is available for

large panels.

Plan

Make a measured plan of the stone to scale, showing the shape of the stone, and the location and relationship of the motifs and

natural features (fissures, dents etc.). Before you start drawing, work out what scale is best. Small panels can be drawn at 1:10

(1 m = 10 cm) but larger panels may need to be drawn at 1:20 (1 m = 5 cm) or smaller scales. Remember to note the scale

and add a North arrow in the box provided. It is a good idea to draw the outline first and then fill in the detail. It may help to

use a technique called tape and offset. Secure a tape measure parallel to the long axis of the rock art panel to provide a

baseline for measurement and then use a hand tape to measure the distance from this tape to specific features such as the

edges of the panel, natural features such as fissures and, of course, the motifs. Make sure that the hand tape is perpendicular

to the long tape before you take each measurement. For recording a cup mark or a ring, you may want to take measurements at

four points around the circumference, mark these on your sketch and then join them by eye, making sure that you have

recorded the true shape of the cup – not all cups or rings are circular!

Drawing Conventions

Please fill in all cups to distinguish them from rings, and use labels to distinguish natural features from carved motifs. This is

particularly important for natural hollows and fissures and which may appear similar to rock art motifs. Use a solid line to mark

the edge of a free-standing stone, but use a dotted line to show the presence of vegetation, such as a turf line, and label these

clearly.

Profiles

Draw two cross sections of the panel that are perpendicular to each other – draw two lines, A-B and X-Y across your plan

showing where you have taken the cross sections. This does not need to be accurately measured but profiles should ideally be

taken across the most varied (e.g. most sloping) axes of the rock.

B9. Motifs

You may find it helps to complete this section after you have done your sketch. Decide on exactly what motif types are

represented on the rock art panel and write the total number of each motif type in the box showing that motif. The common

motifs should be provided but if you identify any new motif types or variations on the themes given here, please describe them in

the Motif Notes. The table includes ‘Random peck marks’ which can sometimes be found scattered across panels, between the

motifs. These are distinct from the peck marks which in some cases remain visible in the motifs. Please indicate if these tool

marks are present.

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B10. Current Condition

This section is very important. It will record the condition of the rock and the carvings, and will alert Heritage Managers to

situations where conservation and/or management are needed urgently. The information will also provide a snap shot of the

current state of the carvings so that they can be monitored in the future to assess whether there has been any change in their

condition. Remember, this section records only the current condition; potential future threats are recorded in Section B12.

A range of factors may have affected the condition of the rock surface and the carvings. These can be grouped into three main

categories: (1) physical/chemical erosion; (2) biological coverage; and (3) human/animal impacts.

Specific evidence within each of these categories is listed on the left hand side of the condition recording sheet. There are three

sets of tick boxes running horizontally across the page. These allow you to estimate the following:

extent of damage across the whole exposed rock surface

extent of damage to the carvings

To estimate the extent of the problem, assess what proportion of the rock surface or rock art is affected (none, less than 1/3,

1/3-2/3, or more than 2/3). Please tick the relevant box.

Further help with assessing condition is given in Guidance Sheet No. 7: Current Condition and Potential Threats and Guidance

Sheet No. 8: Recognising Biological Growths.

B11. Condition and Threat Notes Please include any information which you feel is relevant to the conservation and management of the panel.

B12. Potential Threats Leave blank for panels in museums or private ownership.

This section will allow Heritage Managers to identify the panels most at risk and help to target preventative measures to ensure

that damage to panels is minimised in the future.

As with the condition recording there is a similar range of factors that may present a threat to the rock surface and the

carvings. These are grouped into the same three main categories: (1) physical/chemical threats; (2) biological threats; and (3)

human/animal threats. Specific examples of each of these categories are listed on the left hand side of the condition recording

sheet.

To estimate the severity of the threat use a scale of 0-3 for each of these where 0 is no threat and 3 is a severe threat.

Further help with assessing condition is given in Guidance Sheet No. 7: Current Condition and Potential Threats and Guidance

Sheet No. 8: Recognising Biological Growths.

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Guidance Sheet No. 5a: USING THE MINUMUM ROCK ART RECORDING FORM

Please use a separate recording form for each rock art panel. A panel is defined as a discrete carved surface. Where

carved areas are separated by at least 1 m width of turf or other vegetation, or there is a clearly defined break, each

separate carved surface should be recorded as a different panel, even if it was originally part of the same rock surface.

Note: if previous recorders have used a different convention for dividing the carvings into ‘panels’ please follow that

already used.

Please also refer to Guidance Sheet No. 4: Preparing the panel for recording.

Administration Section

Please add your name(s) and enter the date that you visited and recorded the panel, either in the field or in a museum or private

collection. If the recording took more than a single day just enter the first day.

The ERA ID will be assigned automatically when you input the data using the electronic form on the ERA website. This is a key

reference and will be used to tie together all the elements of the record (e.g. photographs, scans, photogrammetry model).

Please remember to add the ERA ID form when you input the record.

1. Identifiers

Panel Name and Number

If the panel has already been documented please use this name and number. If there are several names in use please choose

the one you feel is most appropriate and ensure that alternative names are recorded in Other Panel Names. If the panel is a

new addition to a group of known panels use the same name but add the next sequential number/letter following any prior

conventions. For completely new panels use a name that relates to the area or nearest feature that appears on the Ordnance

Survey map (e.g. Barningham Moor, Marwood). If more than one panel is discovered in close proximity use the same name,

add a sequential number, e.g. Barningham Moor 1, Barningham Moor 2. The Panel Name and Panel Number will together form

a unique identifier.

Other Panel Names

Please add any other names which have been applied to the panel in the past, for example Fowberry Enclosure 3 is also known

as Gunn Rock.


NMR Reference

National Monuments Record unique identification number (HOBUID – Heritage Object Unique Identifier). In some cases, a

number of separate rock art panels may be lumped together under a single HOBUID; in these instances, this HOBUID should

be entered onto each recording sheet.

The National Monuments Record brings together a range of unique archive and information resources and services, including over 12 million photographs, plans, drawings and reports. Since 1 April 1999, the NMR has been designated as the public archive of English Heritage and is responsible for curatorial and dissemination services associated with heritage datasets and archives corporately. The archives repository and main customer services activities are based in the National Monuments Record Centre in Swindon, Wiltshire.

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SAM Reference

The Scheduled Ancient Monument (SAM) Reference will only apply to panels that are themselves scheduled or which occur

within a scheduled monument (e.g. a stone circle) or scheduled area.

'Scheduling' is shorthand for the process through which nationally important sites and monuments are given legal protection by being placed on a list, or 'schedule'. English Heritage takes the lead in identifying sites in England which should be placed on the schedule by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. A schedule has been kept since 1882 of monuments whose preservation is given priority over other land uses. The current legislation, the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, supports a formal system of Scheduled Monument Consent for any work to a designated monument. Scheduling is the only legal protection specifically for archaeological sites.

Local SMR/HER Reference

Sites and Monuments or Historic Environment Records are maintained locally, for example by County Councils or National Park

Authorities. Some are available to be searched via the Internet.

Other

Enter any other numbers relating to the rock art panel, for example if it has been previously catalogued or is listed on the

Portable Antiquities Scheme database. Note: Museum Accession Numbers are recorded in Section A4.

2. Location (original find site)

County This is the county where the panel was originally found. (Please use post-1974 county designations). For panels that have been

relocated (e.g. to a museum) this may not be the same as its current location.

District and Parish

Please indicate the District and Parish if known.

OS National Grid Reference

For example, NZ 12345 67890. If you are reading from a map please remember

that eastings (read from left to right) form the first part of the reference;

northings (read from bottom to top) form the second part.

The diagram represents an OS map. The estimated grid reference for the dot is

NU 1375 2785.

For more information about the National Grid see the Ordnance Survey website.

Indicate the method used to obtain the grid reference. It should preferably be

determined in the field using a hand-held Global Positioning System (GPS)

device, but it this is not possible it may be taken from an OS map or from

secondary sources such as SMR or NMR records.

Altitude

Please add the height in metres above ordnance datum [m OD] (average sea

level taken from the Ordnance Survey datum point at Newlyn, Cornwall).

Indicate the method used to obtain the altitude. It should preferably be

determined in the field using a hand-held GPS device, but it this is not possible it

may be estimated from an OS map or from an altimeter.

eastings

61100m 12 13 14

29

28

27

nort

hing

s 26

32500m

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3. Panel Type (original archaeological context)

Note: ‘Portable’ is defined as any stone that could be carried by one or two people (please don’t test this!)

Art in the landscape (not portable) – select this if the panel is a free-standing boulder, is on bedrock, or is a cliff wall or a

rock shelter (where the cliff overhangs), and has no clear relationship with any other structure.

Art in a structure (not portable) – select this if the panel is a fixed part of a burial cairn (e.g. kerbstone, cist slab), part of

standing stone monument (e.g. a stone circle, standing stone, stone row), or other structure (e.g. a fieldwall). Please

describe any other structures.

Art on a portable stone – select this if you think the panel could be carried by one or two people and is part of burial cairn

material (e.g. a ‘cobble’), is a surface find without archaeological context, is from some other context (e.g. clearance cairn,

field boundary), or the original context is unknown. Please describe any other contexts.

4. Current Location & Provenance

At original location – select this if you believe the panel to be in its original archaeological context. This includes all panels

found in prehistoric structures such as monuments and burial cairns.

Moved from original location – select this if you believe the panel has been reused in structure (e.g. a building, fieldwall,

iron age hilfort, gatepost), relocated but is not included in any obvious structure (for example moved to the edge of a

cleared field, or to a secure location such as a garden), or placed in a private collection or museum.

If the panel is in a museum, please indicate whether it was obtained via an excavation, from a private donation or if the

provenance is unknown. Please record the name of the Museum and any Accession Number.

Documented as lost – select this if the panel is known to be missing.

Documented as destroyed – select this if the panel is known to have been destroyed (e.g. by quarrying).

No documented location – select this if previous records of the panel do not include an exact location, e.g. a grid

reference.

Not located in the field – select this if you have looked extensively but cannot find the panel using location information from

previous records.

5. Nature of Access

Information about Rights of Way and Open Access Land (CRoW) are shown on modern 1:25,000 maps or can be found on the

Countryside Access website at www.countrysideaccess.gov.uk. Always seek any necessary permission.

6. Location Notes

Please provide brief directions to the panel, relating it to recognisable features such as field-walls, footpaths, rivers or buildings.

You should also describe the immediate surroundings in terms of topography, views, prominent natural features or other

archaeological evidence.

7. Dimensions

All dimensions must be entered in metres. Please record the maximum dimension in each case.

8. Panel Notes

Please write a concise description of the panel, summarising the immediate context, the shape and size of the panel, the

position and nature of the motifs, the natural features on the rock surface and any other comments observations or impressions.

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Guidance Sheet No. 6: GEOLOGY FOR ROCK ART RECORDERS

An understanding of basic geology is essential for Rock Art Recording. An appreciation of the variety of natural geological forms

allows identification of rock types, helps carved motifs to be distinguished from natural features, and provides a basis for

assessing both the current condition and identification of potential threats to the rock surface.

Scientists classify rocks into three main groups, according to how they were formed. The first rocks to form were igneous rocks.

These crystallised from molten magma (underground) or lava (on the surface). Igneous rocks were then weathered and eroded

over many years. They broke down into tiny particles, becoming sands or muds which were eventually laid down in layers to

form sedimentary rocks. These may be altered by extreme heat from magma or lava or by pressure and heat deep

underground. They then become transformed into metamorphic rocks.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are made up of a mosaic of mineral crystals, usually without layers. They occur both underground (intrusive) and

on the surface (extrusive). Granite is an intrusive igneous rock that forms deep underground and makes up much of the Earth’s

continental crust. Many igneous rocks such as granite and dolerite, are very hard and durable and are quarried for use in road

surfaces. Andesite is another type of igneous rock. It solidifies from lava that erupts from volcanoes. Some andesite lavas are so

rich in gas that when they solidify, the rock is filled with gas cavities called vesicles. As well as lava, volcanoes also erupt with

broken rock, dust, ash and volcanic bombs. When it settles on the ground and hardens this material is called tuff. Tuff may have

features of sedimentary rocks (see below) such as layers or strata.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are best recognised by their layers, known as bedding planes or strata, which result from the way the

sediment is deposited. Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone, mudstone, and shale. They are formed from

particles eroded from pre-existing rocks, transported by rivers, winds, glaciers and gravity. Eventually they are deposited, for

example on the seabed, and fossils are often preserved within the layers. As layers build up the weight and pressure squeezes

out water and packs the particles together. Mineral enriched fluids may seep into any spaces left by the water. These form

natural cements binding the particles together. Common cements are calcite (calcium carbonate) present in limestone and

quartz (silicon dioxide) which is common in many types of sandstone. Many types of sediment undergo colour changes as they

harden. Iron compounds seeping into the pore spaces may colour sandstone red or yellow.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks have been changed by heat and/or pressure. Regional metamorphism occurs when mountain building,

associated with movement of the Earth’s crust takes place. The changes may take tens of millions of years. Rocks formed in

this way are recognisable by their texture: because of the stresses in the rock, minerals are streaked out in layers. The rocks

that are most altered, deep in the earth, are called gneiss; at lower depths where the temperature and pressure are lower, a

rock called schist is formed; and around the margins of the mountain region where conditions are less extreme, rocks such as

slate are created.

Table 1: Examples of different rock types

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Granite Sandstone Gneiss

Andesite Limestone Schist

Rhyolite Conglomerate Shale

Dolerite Breccia Marble

Gabbro Chalk

Basalt Coal

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Rock Art and Geology An appreciation of the processes which create rocks and affect their current condition, and a familiarity with the results of these

in the field are important for rock art researchers. It is important to be able to identify natural markings and distinguish them from

motifs, and also to evaluate the condition of the panel surface.

Common rock types used for carving

The most common type of rock on which rock art is found in England is sandstone. In Northumberland carvings are found on the

rocks of the Fell Sandstone Series; further south motifs are found on the Millstone Grits of North Yorkshire. In Cumbria, the red

sandstone of the Eden Valley and St Bee’s coastal area was also favoured.

Rock art also occurs on harder igneous and metamorphic rocks. In the west of England examples are found on the Borrowdale

Volcanic Series and Skiddaw Slates of the central Lake District. A small number of granite and gabbro panels are also known.

On Anglesey, the Isle of Man, and the west coast of Scotland, metamorphic schists are carved. Very few examples of rock art

on limestone are known – possibly because they would not survive well on this more vulnerable rock.

Natural Features

The rock surface which we view today is a product of many processes, from the formation of the rock itself to the action of

natural elements such as water, ice and temperature. Evidence of all these may be present on the rock alongside any carved

motifs; sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish natural marks from those which were added by prehistoric people. Indeed,

some natural features appear to have been enhanced by pecking, or incorporated into designs. Some researchers believe that

the presence of natural, geological features may have stimulated the addition of carved motifs, perhaps influencing where motifs

were placed on the panel. It has even been suggested that the natural markings may have been viewed as ancient ancestral

carvings to be venerated.

Fissures and cracks

Research suggests that the presence of fissures, and the type of ‘frames’ they form may influence the nature of the motifs

applied to the rock surface. Prehistoric carvers did not always choose a smooth ‘canvas’ and on some panels the fissures

appear to have been an integral part of the design. Fissures may be the result of mechanical weathering, when water in the

joints of the rock freezes and expands, or may result from the pressure of tree roots breaking up bedrock.

Natural Hollows

Although prehistoric people may not have distinguished between carved and natural markings it is important that we are able to

tell them apart. One of the most difficult motifs to confirm as artificial is the simple cup-mark. Natural hollows which look like cup-

marks can occur in both igneous and sedimentary rocks through different processes. Many igneous rocks, especially lavas that

cool on the Earth’s surface, contain large amounts of gas. The bubble cavities in the rock, caused by small pockets of gas, are

called vesicles. Vesicles are originally rounded, but if the lava continues to flow they become oval and elongated. They give the

hardened rock a rough and pock-marked appearance.

In sedimentary rocks hollow occur as a result of concretions. During the formation process, cementing material, commonly a

carbonate mineral like calcite, precipitates locally around a nucleus, often organic, such as a leaf, tooth, piece of shell or fossil.

Concretions vary in size, shape, hardness, and colour. Most are a few cm across but may also be microscopic or can measure

several metres in diameter. They often appear in rows, concentrated along bedding planes. When the bedding plane is

exposed, weathering may cause the minerals to dissolve, leaving behind a hemispherical depression. They may appear near-

circular, but can be flattened as a result of compression.

Bedding planes

Many sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers that geologists call strata or ‘bedding planes’. Each one represents the sea bed

or land surface at the time it was laid down. The bedding planes were originally deposited horizontally but when the Earth’s crust

moves they may become tilted and folded. The term is generally applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for

volcanic flows or ash layers.

Erosion channels/fluting

Erosion channels, also known as ‘decantation runnels’, are formed by the dissolution of the soluble rock surface by acids in the

water which flows across it. The channels tend to be smooth and rounded (as opposed to the fissures and cracks which tend to

be sharp and angular). The term ‘fluting’ is applied to the same phenomenon where it occurs in the vertical plane. Although

these features tend to be associated with limestone landscapes, the same processes also affect sandstone, and typical

examples can be seen on the Duddon Stones in Northumberland, and on Ilkley Moor in West Yorkshire.

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Sandstone – a closer analysis

There are many different ‘types’ of sandstone with different sand grain sizes and different qualities of hardness related to how

these sand grains are cemented together. These characteristics can affect the decay rates of the sandstones, and the biological

growths that colonise them, with implications for conservation and management of the rock art. Sandstone consists primarily of

quartz grains (clear, white or greyish glassy crystals), bonded together by a cement of silica, calcite or iron oxides which give the

sandstone its colour. The most common colours are shades of buff, red, or grey, but some may appear almost white if

weathering has penetrated deeply. The grains are quite small (rough 0.5-2mm) and rounded, and can usually be seen clearly

with a hand lens. In sandstone the most common minerals are quartz, feldspar and mica; their characteristics are described

below.

Sandstone is relatively soft and easy to work. It can be pecked and ground to give deep carvings and often elaborate designs;

tool marks can often be seen. Sandstone is easiest to recognise once its surface has been etched by weathering. At this point it

begins to look like the sand found on the beach.

Table 2: Visible components of sandstone

Quartz Transparent/white, usually near spherical (80-100% of grains in sandstones, usually >95%)

Mica Thin sheets of highly reflective grains, usually white-buff in colour (muscovite), usually found along

bedding surfaces in fine sandstones (these become layers of weakness along which fine

sandstones can be split

Feldspar White/cream/browny-orange grains. Generally rectangular. Can make up about 20% of sandstones.

Usually in local sandstones the feldspar has decayed is stained browny-red. Often these grains are

simply washed away, leaving neat rectangular gaps in the rock

Weathering

Weathering is caused by many agents including temperature changes, rain, wind, bacteria, animals and plants, and is defined

as the decomposition of the rock which does not involve movement or transportation. Mechanical weathering is mainly the

result of temperature changes. Water in cracks and joints expands when it freezes. This creates stresses which cause the rock

to disintegrate. Temperature can cause different minerals in the rock to expand and contract at different rates. This may lead to

thin sheets of rock peeling away like onion skins. Chemical weathering is caused by acidic water dissolving the rock.

Rainwater is a mild carbonic acid, which increased pollutants, becomes more acidic. Limestone is particularly vulnerable. The

calcium carbonate reacts with acid rainwater to produce soluble calcium bicarbonate.

Note: Erosion is the breakdown of rocks by processes that involve movement, for example by rivers, glaciers or the sea.

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Guidance Sheet No. 7: CURRENT CONDITION & POTENTIAL THREATS

Condition Assessment (RF1: B10) An assessment of the current condition of the panel will provide baseline data which will allow future monitoring of decay or

damage. It will also identify panels which require immediate protective measures and highlight sites which may be suitable for

public access with appropriate management.

Physical and Chemical Weathering

Rock art in England is most commonly carved on sandstone. For these rocks, the main cause of physical or chemical decay is

dissolution or alteration of the calcite matrix which cements the geological particles together, generally due to the adverse

effects of temperature, water and atmospheric pollutants. These processes result in tiny particles of the rock being lost from the

rock surface. Differential exposure of certain parts of the rock surface to the weather can lead to deeper granular loss on some

surfaces compared to others, creating surface contours that can often look like rock art and may result in water being channeled

along specific areas of the rock. Many types of sandstone are naturally laid down in layers (bedding), which makes them

susceptible to planar weathering. Material is lost due to layers of rock becoming detached from the rock surface along a

bedding plane or line of weakness. Surface material is generally lost in sheets, often leaving a rough, differently coloured

surface exposed. Cratering and pitting is caused when areas of the rock of varying hardness weather at different rates

producing uneven, pitted surfaces. Burnt areas may be the result of wildfires (extremely destructive) or controlled burning (less

damaging) of e.g. heather, as part of land management practices. Intense heat causes the rock to expand and contract leading

to cracking and spalling of flakes of stone, and to the absorption of moisture which, due to freeze/thaw action, causes further

damage.

Biological Coverage (See also Guidance Sheet No. 8: Recognising Lichens, Algae and Mosses)

Biological growths are potentially a problem for rock art, although we do not fully understand how they cause decay. It is likely

that different types of biological organisms act in different ways on different types of rock, so in order to understand these

relationships we first need to collect information and observe patterns of growth. The main types of biological growths found on carved panels are lichens, mosses, algae, grass, trees and other vegetation. Lichens are common on carved rocks.

The two main types are crustose (lies tightly on the rock surface to give a crust-like covering) and foliose (leafy, roughly

circular splodges). Several separate species can colonise a single rock surface. They can be different colours and may be

hundreds or even thousands of years old and some are. They prefer drier conditions to moss and algae. Mosses appear as

patches of green, ‘furry’ growth. They need soil and moisture to grow. The more foliage the moss has, the higher the level of

moisture in the stone. Algae appear generally as green (or sometimes red, orange or brown) strands or specks. They may look

like streaks or stains across the rock surface and can seem ‘slimy’. Algae like damp areas and grow best on porous rocks such

as sandstone. Grass and turf (and heather) embed their roots in the rock. Detritus, which may include pine needles, bracken and leaf litter can obscure the panel and may stain the rock surface. Animal and Human Impact

Animals and humans can cause significant damage to rock art sites both over a short time scale and longer term. This is

something we can prevent or mitigate through good management, so we need to record and monitor the impact of these agents.

The main types of impact on rock art are from stock and game animals and from human activity. Droppings from stock or game

animals may collect on panels (often in cups). These obscure the carvings but are also potentially damaging to the rock surface.

Wear from rubbing (by stock animals) or trampling (humans or animals) may cause panels to appear worn or polished. In the

case of sheep, rubbing may also result in coloured patches where dye marks have transferred to the rock surface. Chips and

scratches may be caused by stock animals, but may be produced by human activity, either unintentionally (through trampling)

or through misguided attempts to ‘clean’, or even to re-carve the motifs. Graffiti may be engraved, scratched, painted or

chalked. Initials and dates carved into the rock may be several hundred years old. More recent marks, for example in chalk, may

have been used to enhance faint motifs. Although these should not be permanent their temporary presence on the rock surface

could affect sensitive dating techniques in the future. Evidence of quarrying (which may be very ancient) can be detected in

sharp, angular edges to rocks, and the presence of wedge marks. In some examples motifs may be truncated by the removal of

blocks of stone. Please indicate in the Condition and Threat Notes whether or not the quarrying is recent. Plough/flail marks

caused by farm machinery may also be present on the panel.

Please use the Condition and Threat Notes section to further describe any condition if required.

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Potential Threats (RF1: B12) Identifying potential threats to rock art panels is very important as it allows heritage managers to take steps to minimise future

loss or damage to carvings which may currently be in excellent condition.

Physical/Chemical Threats

Most rock art in England is found on sandstone. For this sedimentary rock, the main cause of physical or chemical decay is

dissolution or alteration of the calcite matrix which cements the geological particles together, generally due to the adverse

effects of temperature, water and atmospheric pollutants. These processes result in tiny particles of the rock being lost from the

rock surface, leading to slow decay or erosion. They are particular threats if the panel is shaped such that water is able to pool

on the surface, or is constantly flowing or dripping across it. This results in concentrated dissolution of the surface producing

channels or hollows which may look very similar to carved motifs. Physical and chemical weathering may be a particular threat if

the panel is located so as to be in the direct path of prevailing weather in an exposed location.

Biological Threats

Biological growths are potentially a problem for rock art. They work in different ways to increase the deterioration of the rock

surface. The mechanisms by which lichens impact the rock surface are the subject of ongoing research. The situation is

complex with different lichens acting more aggressively than others on different rock types. They produce very fine roots called

‘hyphae’ which grow into the tiny pores within the rock. Mosses and algaes tend to retain moisture at the surface of the stone,

creating a micro-climate which can be detrimental. Trees can form a canopy that traps air and moisture, creating a damp

environment and concentrating atmospheric pollutants. This in turn encourages growth of certain biological organisms such as

algae. Tree roots can be very damaging causing rocks, expanding fissure and breaking apart the rock. Tree and shrub cover

also produce detritus - leaf litter, pine needles and other decaying vegetation can alter the chemical environment of the rock

surface and also trap moisture, both contributing to the dissolution of the calcite matrix. Note: Turf cover is not included here as

a potential threat as we do not have adequate information about how it affects the rock surface to allow us to make clear

decisions about its removal.

Animal & Human Threats

Animals and humans can cause significant damage to rock art sites both over a short time scale and longer term. Stock

animals can be a problem due to persistent trampling or rubbing the rock surfaces. Cattle are most damaging due to their

weight. Animal droppings alter the chemical composition of the rock surface, leading to surface erosion. Sheep droppings are

liable to pool in cup marks and rot, but they are less aggressive than cowpats – these kill off all biological organisms on the

underlying rock surface and prevent re-growth for a considerable time, which exposes the rock surfaces to the weather. Other

problems with stock animals include location of feeding troughs on or near rock art panels. Game animals are also potentially

problematic. Scattering of quartz granules on carved rocks not only causes physical wear through abrasion, it also encourages

grouse to perch on the rocks. Grouse droppings alter the chemical structure of the rock surface. Land management activities

such as ploughing can cause damage to low-lying or part-buried panels. Rotating chain flail cutters attached to tractors are used

to create fire breaks and to harvest heather, and may also result in serious damage. Other activities such as controlled burning,

or planting may also present a major risk to panels. If the panel is on or close to a route way, then farm vehicles should also be

considered a threat. People visiting the panel may be a significant threat to carvings that are well known and/or easily

accessible (for example close to an urban area or route way). Specific risks include graffiti, cleaning, trampling, chipping and

scratching.

Please use the Condition and Threat Notes section to further describe any threats if required.

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Guidance Sheet No. 8: RECOGNISING LICHENS, ALGAE & MOSSES

Algae, mosses and lichens are three distinct groups of living organisms. They frequently colonise rock surfaces with rock art on

them. The effect of these organisms on the rock surface is not clear and may vary with different species and under different

metrological and geological conditions. Although we may think they do harm, in many instances they may preserve the rock

surface from environmental factors that cause decay, such as atmospheric chemicals and persistent rain. We can cause far

more damage by removing them – cases of rock surfaces being cleaned with bleach and scrubbed with wire brushes are not

uncommon. Until we know how these organisms affect the rock art, it is better to leave them in place and monitor their growth

patterns and impact on the rock surface.

Lichens, algae and mosses are the organisms commonly found on engraved rocks where these have been exposed for some

time. There are wide variations between individual species within each group, but it is easy to learn to distinguish between them

in the field by understanding their preferred habitats, colonisation patterns, growth forms and coloration. The following guidelines

do not attempt to identify individual species of lichens, algae or mosses – these can often only be made using chemical tests,

microscopic examination or under ultra-violet light.

What are lichens?

Lichens are composite organisms, partly made up of a fungus and partly composed of algae. Only certain algae and certain

fungi can get together to form a lichen. Lichens are important in many ways:

Lichens are sensitive to pollution in the air and can tell us if the air is clear and clean.

Drug companies make antibiotics from lichen substances.

Some lichens make nitrogen in the air usable to plants.

Lichens are homes for spiders, mites, lice and other insects.

Lichens can be used as a natural dye to colour wool.

People eat lichens (careful - a few are poisonous, so don't experiment without adult help).

Lichens are capable of colonising a variety of materials, including trees and stone surfaces. You will be recording two broad

species groups for the ERA database: crustose lichens and foliose lichens

Crustose lichens

These are so called because they form distinct crusty spots or blotches which sit tightly on the rock surface. These are likely to

be the predominant species on sandstone rocks, except perhaps in the west of the country, where damper conditions favour

foliose lichens.

Foliose lichens

These are more loosely attached to the stone than crustose species and frequently take the form of well-defined rosettes or

circular forms. Foliose lichens are leaf-like and include the most easily recognised lichen species.

What are algae?

Algae are organisms that exist as single cells, in clumps or as long filaments. They like damp environments, particularly under

trees or bushes, and they colonise overhangs and projections, fissures and grooves, cups and rings, and areas of water run-off.

They tend to cover large areas of the rock, giving it a uniform green colour that is very different from the blotchy effect of lichens.

Alternatively, they may colonise a part of the rock surface, giving a streaky effect. Most common algae are light green or yellow-

green. There is also a les common species that is a distinctive orange colour and resembles orange velvet. This group is

typically found on the shaded sides of trees, rocks and stone surfaces.

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What are mosses?

Mosses are plants with a primitive root system but complex stems and leaves. Moss species vary in appearance, but most form

small, neat, round tufts. Many species can resist drought and can be found on rock surfaces in full sun, although most species

like permanently damp environments where there is constant shade and moisture. Mosses can be readily identifies from the

presence of tiny leaves and stems less than 2 mm long that can be viewed under the hand lens. Their leaves are generally

narrow and elongated with a sharply pointed end, and they vary in colour from dark green or blueish-green, depending on the

species.

General information on lichens, algae and mosses

All lichens are to a greater or lesser degree sensitive to atmospheric pollution, although different species are able to tolerate

different levels of sulphur dioxide. By regularly recording and monitoring species at sites where habitats remain undisturbed it is

possible to evaluate species composition over time and to determine how levels of air pollution are changing. This will have

implications also for our assessment of rock surface decay due to atmospheric pollution. Several factors influence the extent of

colonisation on the rock surface. These include: aspect and orientation, texture; patterns of water run-off; levels of nitrification

(e.g. due to bird or animal droppings); levels of atmospheric pollution; and mineral composition of the rock (affects acidity).

Therefore sandstone will always have a different composition of lichen species than limestone or granite, even where these

occur in the same location – the species composition can tell us about the mineral make-up of the rock, if this is not apparent.

Lichens may cause damage to carved rocks by a combination of factors – such as acidic secretions, differential thermal

movement between the lichen and rock surface, or inducing stress in the rock as a result of dehydration and re-hydration of the

lichen. Recent research suggests lichens may be more harmful to rock surfaces than previously thought as they inhibit water

evaporation from the surface after wetting, making the rock more vulnerable to frost and salt damage and the effects of acid

rain. Despite these risks, lichens are often thought to provide a protective coating over the carved surface, preventing

deterioration. However, there is no common rule, and risks vary from area to area and species to species.

Please do not remove lichens from carved stones – this may cause greater damage to the rock surface than the growth itself.

Furthermore, about 150 British lichen species are currently critically endangered or vulnerable. Twenty-six species of lichens

and thirty-three species of Bryophytes (which include mosses) are currently protected by British Statute, making it illegal to

disturb either the lichens or their habitat. Lichen conservation is therefore a current and active issue and has equal status to

monument conservation.

Further reading

Baron G 1999 Understanding lichens. The Richmond Publishing Co Ltd, Richmond

Dobson F 2000 Lichens: an illustrated guide to the British and Irish Species. The Richmond Publishing Co Ltd, Richmond

Dobson F 2003 A field key to common churchyard lichens. Privately published

English Nature 1992 Rooted in stone: the natural flora of urban walls

Gilbert O L 2000 Lichens. New Naturalist Library, Harper Collins, London

Jahns H M 1983 Ferns, mosses and lichens of Britain, Northern and Central Europe. Harper Collins, London

Richardson D H S 1992 Pollution monitoring with lichens. The Richmond Publishing Co Ltd, Richmond

World Conservation Union 1994 IUCN Red list categories. IUCN, Gland

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Recognising biological growths

Lichens

Crustose

Crust-like covering lying close to the rock surface

Foliose

Leafy growth, often loosely attached to rock surface

Mixture of crustose and foliose lichens

Mosses, algae and turf

Algae Moss Turf and moss

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Guidance Sheet No. 9: PHOTOGRAPHING ROCK ART

The Photography Recording Form

Form RF3 should be used in the field as a guide, and to keep a record of the images you take of each panel. Where

photography is carried out on a different visit to the main recording, the grid reference provides a double check that the correct

panel has been identified. The ERA filenames and the filenames of stitched panorama images should be added after the data

has been down-loaded and/or processed (see Guidance Sheet No. 12: Data Management).

What photos to take

For each panel, take the following:

A photograph from each cardinal point (N, S, E, W) looking towards the panel

A vertical photograph from directly above the panel

Close-up shots of unusual motifs, natural features or damage

‘Landscape’ photographs showing the view over the panel towards the horizon in each direction. These should capture

the context or setting of the panel

A good quality photograph for the website ‘gallery’

Please think about the shots you take and go for quality rather than quantity, and use other factors such as lighting effects to

capture a good photo. Bear in mind that the light at the end of the day is better than at the middle of the day, so you may want to

take all your good photos at the end of the day or return to the site when the lighting conditions are better. Refer to Guidance

Sheet No. 4: Preparing the Panel for more tips. Please do not take more than 30 images for each panel!

Note: although photographic documentation of rock art is essential, storage of large image files is costly and care should be

taken in selecting shots. Remember that a maximum of seven images can be uploaded to the ERA database (this does not

include panorama shots).

Scale bars and North arrow

Ideally, two black and white scale bars should be placed at right angles to each other, with one face-on to the direction of the

photograph. Where only one scale is used, this should be placed face-on to the direction of the photo. In addition a north arrow

should be placed in the photographic frame, taking care not to obscure any details on the rock surface.

For good records:

Try and remove all bags, people, etc from the shots.

Try not to get your feet, arms, hands etc in the shot.

Remember to put the photo scale where it is clear but doesn’t dominate the photo. For large-scale photos use a ranging

pole. For detailed photos use a small scale.

Try not to get your own or anyone else’s shadow across the rock.

Lighting your shot

Try to photograph the carvings in low (morning or evening) sunlight, without the automated flash. The oblique light will

throw deep shadows across carvings that are almost invisible at mid-day.

The effect of oblique lighting is even more apparent when the carvings are wet. An ideal scenario would be low sunshine

following a shower.

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Sunlight can also cause problems by casting partial shadows (e.g. of tree canopy) onto the carvings. Try and get the light

consistent on the rock surface. If it’s partly cloudy, find the best angle for the shot and wait for the sun to come out.

A reflective material such as a space blanket can be used to increase the light on the carvings, or a shade cloth (or

umbrella!) can be used to block unwanted light.

For carvings on vertical or near-vertical surfaces, try to work out in advance when they will be in sunlight

Where there is little natural light (e.g. in woodland) a strong torch can be used to provide artificial oblique lighting to good

effect.

If you fancy a ‘night hike’, photography using an artificial light source and a long exposure time on the camera (mounted on

a tri-pod) can produce excellent results.

If you have a remote camera flash, positioning the flash near the stones surface to create oblique lighting can also produce

excellent results.

Important: Note all the photo number(s) for this panel on your Photography Recording Form. This is vital for keeping track of

the photos.

Panoramas

For each site, take a 360o panoramic photograph. Where carvings are closely grouped there is no need to take a panorama for

each individual panel; one may be sufficient for an area. Only take additional panoramas if the surrounding landscape and

distant view is significantly different between panels.

Setting up the shots:

A tripod should be sued to ensure the camera stays on the same horizontal plane

Ensure bags and people are out of shot

Position the camera to take in at least one carving, preferably with motifs visible.

Place the North arrow in view or use a scale bar / ranging rod to identify the north position. This will also aid the stitching

process and ensure that only a 360 degree view is taken.

Taking the pictures

Follow the guidance of the camera manufacturer for camera settings and taking the pictures. This will usually involve the

taking of 7-12 individual images in a clockwise direction.

Start with the first shot pointing North with scale bar, north arrow or ranging rod in view.

If possible, avoid direct sunlight into lens, as this will result in lens flare and distinct contrast between stitched images

Processing of images

Follow the instructions for the stitching software supplied with the digital camera.

of 3

Guidance Sheet No. 10: PHOTOGRAMMETRY in the FIELD

Step by step details of the recommended method are provided here. Further details and diagrams are available in the

Photogrammetry Field Work presentation, PG1. Information on processing images is provided in Presentation PG2:

Photogrammetry Processing.

Things you will need:

Two scale bars, one with an IFRAO colour scale attached (see below)

Tripod with stabilising hook

Calibrated camera and memory card

Soft brush

Sponge

Umbrella or sheeting to create shade

Photogrammetry recording form (RF4)

Temporary survey targets

Tape measure

Photogrammetry recording form RF4

This form is provided to help photogrammetry both in the field and later when images are processed. It includes a sketch of the

panel showing the position of each photograph taken, and provides a record of each stereo pair used to generate 3D models.

This form is an essential part of the record and should be scanned for inclusion in the ERA database.

Camera Calibration

Your camera should be calibrated before you use it for photogrammetry. See Handbook for advice.

Step By Step Guide

A) Before you leave home

1. Check the weather

Ideally, you should aim to do the photogrammetric recording in dry, overcast conditions with high natural lighting to

minimise shadows – i.e. exactly the opposite of what you want for the normal photography. You may find it easier to

split up the photogrammetry and normal recording into separate visits or different times of the day.

2. Attach the colour scale

Please attach the IFRAO colour scale to one of the scale bars (blue tak or velcro). You may want to mount to colour

scale onto a piece of card or plastic before attaching it to make to last longer. Please DO NOT attach it with sticky

tape or cover its surface in any way as this will affect the colour calibration.

3. Calibrate the scale bars

You can do this by sticking a survey target to each end of the scale bar and then measuring the length between the

centres of each of these targets. Please then write each length legibly in permanent black marker pen on each scale

bar. The length should be given to the nearest millimetre (e.g. 3 mm).

of 3

4. Prepare the camera

Set the camera to maximise the depth of field, e.g. manual focus, widest zoom, and F22 (or the smallest available

aperture). Make sure your battery is fully charged and that you have sufficient storage space on the memory card.

B) On site

1. Prepare the panel

Remove loose vegetation and, if necessary, gently (!) brush away dry material from the surface with a soft brush. If

there is water sitting in the carvings or surface hollows, use a sponge to soak it up. The surface should be dry if

possible to minimise glare. Ensure vegetation doesn’t encroach onto the panel, as grass or plant stalks can cause

‘spikes’ during processing. The panel should be as ‘clean’ as possible. If conditions are windy, be aware of vegetation

blowing back onto the stone prior to taking the shots.

3. Plan your strategy

Work out how best to approach the panel, especially for larger panels that will need more than one set of stereo

pairs, then fill in the written details for the panel on a photogrammetry recording sheet and make a rough sketch

showing where you will take the stereo pairs relative to the carvings.

Each set of stereo pairs will include the following:

One vertical stereo pair that captures the ‘best view’ of the carvings. The ideal position is for the camera to be

is vertical to the carved surface, but as this is not possible in most cases, the camera can be tilted down slightly

but should be as near vertical as possible.

Four oblique stereo pairs, taken from each of the four corners of the stone. For these, the scale bars should

stay in the same positions as you move round the rock.

For large areas of carved bedrock oblique stereo pairs may not add anything to the record if the carvings are spread

over a wide area. For larger rocks that only have carvings on a small part of the surface, just take stereo photos of

the carved area, including both vertical and oblique shots.

For panels that are more than about 1x1 m you will need to take more than one set of stereo pairs. Take one set of

stereo pairs for each ‘frame’, with an area of overlap between each set. Ideally the area of overlap between adjacent

images should be kept constant. For very large or long panels it is useful to position a measuring tape or other

guideline behind the leading tripod leg and use it to ensure subsequent images are in line. For large panels where rows of images are necessary, a tape or other guideline which can be moved for each row helps maintain parallel rows and is a visual aid to assessing the image overlap needed.

C) Setting up

1. Camera and tripod

Set up the camera and tripod with the camera at a maximum distance of 1.5 m above the carved surface. This cane

be varied depending on the size and complexity of detail to be captured; the more oblique the camera is to the

carved surface, the more shadow and foreshortening will interfere with the end product.

If very windy, you will need to stabilise the tripod, possibly by hanging something heavy from the hook below the

camera mounting plate.

2. Scale bars

Place the scale bars at approximate right angles to each other. If possible they should be next to the rock rather

than on it, but if you have to put them on the rock surface please make sure they are not obscuring any carvings.

of 3

D) Taking the photos

Make sure the camera is set to maximise depth of field (see above).

Turn the flash off.

Turn the self timer on.

Shade the rock surface if necessary, but avoid excessive contrast between the rock surface and areas not

shaded, as this could result in the rock appearing too dark. Ideally, shade as much of the area in shot as

practicably possible.

When you are ready to take the photo, press the shutter button down half way to set the focus – the green focus

light should appear in the display, then press it down fully to take the photo. As the self timer should be on,

make sure that the photo has taken before you move the tripod to the next position (10 secs).

For the second photo in each of the stereo pairs, move the tripod and camera between 0.2 - 0.4 m away from the

first position. This does not have to be exact! The camera angle and height should ideally remain unaltered,

although if fine adjustments are needed this will be fine. However if you do move the scale bars by mistake, you will

need to start this pair again.

Repeat the sequence above.

E) Finishing off

1) Make sure that you have completed the Photogrammetry Recording Form, particularly making sure that you

have noted all the photo numbers for each panel.

2) When you get home, download the photos to your computer and check that the photo numbers correlate with the

numbers on the forms.

3) Recharge the camera battery and, if the camera is going to be used for normal photographic recording, switch

back the camera settings.

of 1

Guidance Sheet No. 11: SCANNING DRAWINGS and FORMS

The Panel Plan and Location Map (RF1), and Photogrammetry Form (RF4) provide important information and

should be digitised and uploaded to the ERA website for each record as follows:

A) Prepare the sketches

Check the clarity of the sketch and enhance any areas as required. This may involve drawing over any faint lines or

filling in ‘empty’ cups to differentiate them from ring motifs. Add any labels to ensure that all elements are clear.

Refer to the Guidance Sheet No. 5 for drawing conventions.

Note: if you are not the person who recorded the panel and you have any doubts about interpretation of motifs then

enhancements should not be made without consulting the original recorder. B) Scan size & format

Scan each page at 150 dpi in colour and in tif format. This will equate to dimensions of roughly 1240 x 1753

(pixels or mm?). At higher resolutions the resulting file size will be too large; at lower resolutions the image will not

be sufficiently detailed.

You may need to experiment with contrast settings to optimise the image; different scanners and scanning software

will vary.

Make sure the scan is correctly orientated and use the scanning software crop each scan to the edge of the heavy

black line.

C) Naming scans

Save each scan using the following filename format:

Panelname&number_[scantype].tif

where [scantype] is either:

plan (for panel plans)

map (for location sketches) or

pgform (for photogrammetry forms)

e.g. barningham03_plan.tif, barningham103_map.tif, or barningham103_pgform.tif

Where multiple plans of the same panel exist, add a further identifying number at the end,

e.g. barningham103_plan1.tif For help with file management see Guidance Sheet No. 12: Data Management.

of 2

Guidance Sheet No. 12: DATA MANAGEMENT

It is recommended that a copy of all image files (and photogrammetry models where generated) are stored

centrally by one member of each team, on the Hard Drive provided. This will reduce the risk of confusion over

naming, ensure they are backed up, can be easily identified, and will also allow better monitoring of progress.

Recommendations for file naming and organisation are provided below.

Image Files

The following procedure is recommended to ensure the images are properly managed and easily retrieved.

A. Download all the images to your PC/laptop to a single folder named ERA_date, e.g. ERA_30Jun2008,

using whatever naming/numbering convention is applied by your camera/software.

B. Make a copy of this folder to provide a back-up.

C. Create a new folder on your PC called ERA Images. Within this folder create sub-folders for each of

the panels you have recorded, named using the Panel Name and Number (PN), e.g. Barningham103,

Rooking4, Chatton1a.

D. Now transfer images from your original download folder to their correct subfolder. If you have kept

accurate notes of your images in the field (using the Photography Recording Form, RF3) this should be

a straightforward exercise, but be very careful to ensure that the images are associated with the

correct panel name and number. You should now have all your images sorted into named folders and

can begin the next level of organization.

E. Within each panel folder create further sub-folders as follows:

a. pn_con (to contain conventional photography)

b. pn_pan (to contain panorama images)

c. pn_pg (to contain photogrammetry images)

d. pn_gal (to contain gallery images)

F. Now move your images into the relevant folders and re-name them to match the folders. Where there

are several images in a folder, add a number to the end of the filename, e.g. barningham103_con_1,

barningham103_con_2,

Note: Free software such as Bulk Rename Utility is available which allows you to rename filenames in bulk.

Your folder structure should now look something like this:

ERA Images

barningham103

barningham103_con

barningham103_con_1.jpg



barningham103_pan

barningham103_pg

barningham103_gal

chatton1a

rooking4

G. When you come to upload your image to the ERA website you should have no trouble locating the

correct images for each panel.

of 2

Scanned Images

Folders for the scanned images should be created in your ERA Images folder, within each relevant panel-specific

sub-folder. The folder should be named using the same format as for the photographic images, with the appropriate

suffices as above. The folder structure will look something like this (scanned files and folders in blue):

ERA Images

barningham103

barningham103_con

barningham103_gal

barningham103_pan

barningham103_map

barningham103_map.tif

barningham103_pgform

barningham103_pgform.tif

barningham103_plan

barningham103_plan1.tif

barningham103_plan2.tif

chatton1a

rooking4 Don’t forget to back up your files on a regular basis!

APPENDIX E

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography The following references have been selected to provide background information on recording and management of rock art. Rock Art Recording Methods Atkinson, K. B. 1968. The recording of some prehistoric carvings at Stonehenge. The Photogrammetric Record 6(April): 24-31.

Barnett, T., Chalmers, A., Diaz-Andreu, M., Longhurst, P., Ellis, G., Sharpe, K & Trinks, I. 2005. 3D Laser Scanning for Recording and Monitoring Rock Art Erosion. International Newsletter on Rock Art 41: 25-29.

Bryan, P. 2004. 3D Laser Scanning: New Questions of Observation. Conservation Bulletin 45: Spring 2004: 6-8.

Bryan, P.G & Chandler J.H. 2008. Cost-Effective Rock-Art Recording within a Non-Specialist Environment, Proceedings of ISPRS 2008, Beijing, China.

Chandler, J.H., P. Bryan, & J.G. Fryer. 2007. The development and application of a simple methodology for recording rock art using consumer-grade digital cameras. The Photogrammetric Record. 22(117): 10-21.

Clogg, P, Díaz-Andreu, M. & Larkman, B. 2000. Digital image processing – the recording of rock-art. Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 837-843.

Coles, J. M. 2001. Rubbing the rocks in Sweden.’Past 39: 1-2.

Díaz-Andreu, M, Brooke, C, Rainsbury, M and Rosser, N. 2006. The spiral that vanished: the application of non-contact recording techniques to an elusive rock art motif at Castlerigg Stone Circle in Cumbria. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 1-8.

Díaz-Andreu, M, Hobbs, R, Rosser, N, Sharpe, K & Trinks, I. 2005. Long Meg: Rock art recording using 3D laser scanning. Past: The Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 50: 2-6.

Eklund, J. and P. S. Fowles 2003. Three-dimensional recording by laser scanning of the petroglyphs at Rombald's Moor, West Yorkshire. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 6: 11-22.

Gray, T. E. and L. M. Ferguson 1997) Photographing carved stones. A practical guide to recording Scotland's past. Balgavies, Angus, The Pinkfoot Press.

Goskar, T. A., A. Carty, P. Cripps, C. Brayne & D. Vickers (2003). The Stonehenge Laser Show. British Archaeology 73: 9-15.

Kirsh, R. A. 1997. Photogrammetric Reconstruction of Petroglyphs. American Indian Rock Art 23: 177-182.

Loendorf, L. 2001. Rock Art Recording. Handbook of Rock Art Research. D. S. Whitley. Walnut Creek, London, New Delhi, AltaMira Press: 55-79. Rosenfeld, A. 1978. Recording Rock Art: A conflict of purpose? In Conservation of Rock Art: Proceedings of the international workshop on the Conservation of Rock Art, Perth, September 1977. A. Rosenfeld. Perth, Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material. Swartz, B. K. J. 1981. Standards for the Recording of Petrogylphs and Pictographs. Current Anthropology 22(1): 94. Swartz Jr., B. K. and J. P. Hale 2000. Establishment of a Global Archive of Prehistoric Rock Art Photographs. Tracce 13: http://rupestre.net/tracce/12/globarch.html. Thibault, G. 2001. 3D modeling of the Cosquer Cave by Laser Survey. International Newsletter on Rock Art (INORA) 28: 25-9. Trinks, I., Díaz-Andreu, M., Hobbs, R., & Sharpe, K. E. 2005. Digital Rock Art Recording: visualising petroglyphs using 3D laser scanner data. Rock Art Research 22(2), 131-39.

Rock Art Conservation & Management Around the World

Bahn, P. G., R. G. Bednarik, et al. 1995. The Peterborough petroglyph site: reflections on massive intervention in rock art." Rock Art Research 12(1): 29-41.

Barnett, T & Diaz-Andreu, M. 2005. Knowledge capture and transfer in rock art studies: results of a questionnaire on rock art decay in Britain. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 7: 35-48.

Bertilsson, U. and J. Magnusson 2001. Documentation and Care. Rock Carvings in the Borderlands. Bohuslän/Dalsland and Østforld - An INTERREGIIA project - Final Report. K. Kallhovd and J. Magnusson. Göteborg and Sarpsborg, Länsstyrelsen Västra Götaland and Østfold County Council: 73-106.

Bolle, E. 1995. The influence of rain and humidity on the rockshelters of Cerro Intihuasi, Córdoba, Argentina. In Preservation of rock art. A. Thorn and J. Brunet. Melbourne, Australian Rock Art Research Association: 28-31.

Brown, R. 1995. A conservation approach to the construction of a viewing platform at Split Rock, Laura, Cape York peninsula. In Management of rock art imagery preservation of rock art. G. K. Ward and L. A. Ward. Melbourne, Australian Rock Art Association: 97-102.

Childers, B. B. 1994. Long-term lichen-removal experiments and petroglyph conservation: Fermont County, Wyoming, Ranch Petroglyph Site. Rock Art Research 11(2): 101-112.

Coles, J. 2001. Rock carvings, rubbings and lichen. Antiquity 75: 255-6.

Dragovich, D. 1995. Site management and the visitor book, Mootwingee. In Management of rock art imagery preservation of rock art. G. K. Ward and L. A. Ward. Melbourne, Australian Rock Art Association: 103-6. Hygen, A.-S. 1996. Conservation, intervention or destruction of rock art? Some Scandinavian experiences. Rock Art Research 13(1): 49-52. Lambert, D. 1989. Conserving Australian Rock Art: a manual for site managers. Canberra, Aboriginal Studies Press. Löfvendahl, R. and J. Magnusson 2001. Research and Development - Degradation and care. Rock Carvings in the Borderlands. Bohuslän/Dalsland and Østforld - An INTERREGIIA project - Final Report. K. Kallhovd and J. Magnusson. Göteborg and Sarpsborg, Länsstyrelsen Västra Götaland and Østfold County Council: 47-72. Loubser, J. 2001. Management Planning for Conservation. In Handbook of Rock Art Research. D. S. Whitley. Walnut Creek, London, New Delhi, AltaMira Press: 80-115. Tratebas, A. M. and F. Chapman 1996. Ethical and conservation issues in removing lichens from petroglyphs. Rock Art Research 13(2): 129-132. Wainwright, I. N. M. 1996. Structure protects rock art in Petroglyphs Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. Rock Art Research 13(1): 47-8. Walderhaug, O. 1998. Chemical Weathering at Rock Art Sites in Western Norway: Which Mechanisms are Active and how can they be Retarded? Journal of Archaeological Science 25(8): 789-800. Walderhaug, O. and E. Walderhaug 1998. Weathering of Norwegian rock art - a critical review. Norwegian Archaeological Review 31(2): 119-139. Walderhaug Saetersdal, E. M. 2000. Ethics, politics and practices in rock art conservation. Public Archaeology 1(3): 163-180. Walsh, G. L. 1991. Flinders Group National Park site management: regional cultural resource evaluation, preservation and selective presentation in far north Queensland. In Rock Art and Posterity. C. Pearson and B. K. Swartz Jr. Melbourne, Australia Rock Art Research Association: 34-44.

APPENDIX F

RECORDING FORMS

Rock Art Recording Form, Full Record, Version 2.0 Aug 2008. Page 1 of 9

Administration Project Name

Project Team

Recorder(s)

Section A complete

Section B complete ERA ID

(add when database record created)

ENGLAND’s ROCK ART

RECORDING FORM RF1: FULL RECORD

Version 2.0 Aug 2008 Please refer to Guidance Sheet No. 5.

SECTION A: To be completed for ALL panels A1. Identifiers

Panel Name

Number

Other names


NMR Other 1

SAM Other 2

HER/SMR 1 HER/SMR 2

Source Source A2. Location (original find site)

County

OS NGR :

Obtained by GPS Map HER Other source

Altitude mOD

Obtained by GPS Map Altim. Other source

A3. Panel Type (original archaeological context)

Boulder

Outcrop Art in the landscape (not portable)

Cliff/shelter

or

Burial cairn

Standing stone monument Art in a structure (not portable)

Other structure

Other structure

or

Burial cairn

Surface find Art on a portable stone

Unknown

Other context

Other context


0-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

21-25

26-30

36+

31-35

A4. Current Location & Provenance

At original location Re-used in structure

or Re-located

Moved from original location In private collection Via excavation

or In museum Via donation

Documented as lost

Provenance unknown

Documented as destroyed

No documented location

Museum Museum name

Not located in the field Accession no.

A5. Nature of Access Open Access Permissive Access Museum

Access by Right of Way Private owner (ask permission) Unknown

SECTION B: To be completed only for panels visited by the current recorder. If the panel is known to be lost, destroyed or could not be located, please leave blank.

Date of visit Day / Month / Year

B1 – B5 relate to panels in situ in the landscape. For panels that have been moved to museums, private collections or other locations please leave blank and go directly to B6.

B1. Landscape Situation

Terrain (ground 10 m around panel; tick one) Position (relative to topography within 500 m of panel; tick one)

Sloping (e.g. hillside) Other Top (e.g. summit) Bottom (e.g. valley floor)

Flat (e.g. plain) Middle (e.g. hillside) Other

Specify other terrain Specify other position

Orientation and Slope of Panel

Orientation of slope from top: e.g. N to bottom: e.g. S

ORIENTATION ORIENTATION of PANEL

N

S

E W


(B1. Landscape Situation cont.)

Proximity to water

Within 100m: Within 2km:

Spring Distance m Lake/tarn Distance m

Water course Distance m Sea Distance m

Underlying geology (Tick one)

Sedimentary Notes

Metamorphic

Igneous

E.g. Millstone grit, Borrowdale Volcanics Series, red sandstone.

Current land use (Tick all that apply)

Heathland/moorland Bog/marsh Wood/forest Military

Unmanaged grassland Arable Urban Conservation

Improved pasture Other Specify other land use

B2. Prehistoric Features within 250 m (Tick all that apply)

Other rock art Cairnfield Henge Field system Settlement

Burial mound/cairn Stone circle Burnt mound Enclosure Hill fort

Clearance cairn(s) Standing stone Hut circle(s) Ditch/bank Other

Specify other feature(s)

B3. Location Notes

For example, how to find the panel, its proximity to other panels or archaeological features,

the topography of the area, views and natural features etc.


B4. Location Sketch (Delete scale as appropriate; see Guidelines for advice)

5 m

N

50 m

B5. Conservation & Management Information

Distance to: Access/management Forestry (if present)

Road m Open Access land? Y/N Ploughed

Footpath m Subject to HLS Stewardship Scheme? Y/N New plantation

Bridleway m Wheelchair access possible? Y/N Mature

Habitation m Interpretation on site? Y/N Felled

Parking m

Sea m


B6. Panel Details

Dimensions (m)

Length m Width m Height m

Panel geology (Tick one)

Sedimentary Notes

Metamorphic

Igneous

E.g. Millstone grit, Borrowdale Volcanic Series, red sandstone, Fell Sandstone series.

Natural features present (Tick all that apply)

Fissures/cracks Natural hollows Bedding planes Weathering channels

Dominant orientation(s) of fissures/cracks:

From To

From To

Surface compactness Grain size Visible components (tick all that apply)

Unconsolidated Fine Quartz

Very friable Medium Feldspar

Friable Coarse Mica

Hard Very coarse Other

Specify other visible components

B7. Panel Notes (see over page for continuation)

E.g. description of the immediate context and form of the panel, the position and nature of the carvings and any other surface

features, and any other comments, observations or impressions.


B8. Panel Plan (Please refer to Guidance Notes and use continuation sheet if needed)

A

Pro

file

B

Scale (e.g. 1:10)

North arrow

X

Profile

Y

(B7. Panel Notes cont.)


B9. Motifs (Indicate no. of each motif present in appropriate boxes)

Cups Cups with linear grooves Random peck marks

Single

Random cluster

Parallel domino

Cup and groove

Single ring Single arc Single penannular

Yes/No

Counter-sunk cup

Rosette Curved or

straight line Dumb-bell

Multiple ring

Multiple arc Multiple

penannular

Curved grooves without cups Cups within curved grooves Keyholes

Single ring Single arc

Single penannular

Single ring Single arc Single penannular

Keyhole KH around

ring

KH around cup + grv.

Multiple

ring Multiple arc

Multiple penannular Multiple

ring Multiple arc

Multiple penannular

KH around cup

Multiple KH around cup

Penannular around KH

Linear grooves Spirals Grooves with multiple cups

Linear Parallel Serpentine Left-hand

spiral L-H horned

spiral Running

spiral

Rosette

Rosette and groove

Groove and cups

Chevron Grid/

hatching Triangle Right-hand

spiral R-H horned

spiral Triple spiral

Heart with grv. + cups

Square + cups

Multi-sq. + cups

Tool marks visible in motifs? Yes/No


B10. Current Condition (Refer to Guidance Sheet N)

Extent of impact across exposed area

Extent of impact across carved area

No

ne

<1/

3

1/3-

2/3

>2/

3

No

ne

<1/

3

1/3-

2/3

>2/

3

Differential (channels/hollows) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Planar (scaling/flaking) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Cratering/pitting 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Ph

ysic

al/ c

hem

ical

w

eath

erin

g

Burnt areas 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Lichen (crustose) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Lichen (foliose) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Moss 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Algae 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Grass/turf patches 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 Bio

log

ical

co

vera

ge

Detritus (leaves/needles) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Droppings (game/stock) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Wear (rubbing/trampling) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Chips or scratches 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Graffiti (carved) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Graffiti (painted) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Quarrying 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 An

ima

l an

d h

um

an i

mp

act

s

Plough/flail marks 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Other condition 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

Specify other condition

B11. Condition & Threat Notes

E.g. descriptions of condition or potential threats, information about access, ownership, or land management schemes.


B12. Potential Threats (Refer to Guidance Sheet N)

Severity of threat

No

ne

Slig

ht

Mo

der

ate

Sev

ere

Water pooling 0 1 2 3

Water flow 0 1 2 3

Ph

ysic

al

and

ch

emic

al

thre

ats

Prevailing weather 0 1 2 3

Lichen (crustose) 0 1 2 3

Lichen (foliose) 0 1 2 3

Moss 0 1 2 3

Algae 0 1 2 3

Tree canopy 0 1 2 3

Roots 0 1 2 3

B

iolo

gic

al t

hre

ats

Detritus (leaves/needles) 0 1 2 3

Stock animals 0 1 2 3

Game animals 0 1 2 3

Land management 0 1 2 3

H

um

an

an

d a

nim

al

thre

ats

People 0 1 2 3

Other threat 0 1 2 3

Specify other threat

(B11. Condition & Threat Notes cont.)

of 1

Administration

Recorder(s)



RECORDING FORM RF1a: PANEL PLAN CONTINUATION SHEET Version 2.0 Aug 2008 Please refer to Guidance Sheet No. 5.

ERA ID(add when database

record created)

Panel Name

Number

of 1

Administration

Recorder(s)



RECORDING FORM RF1b: DIARY PAGE

Version 2.0 Aug 2008


record created)

Page of

Panel Name

Number

Notes

Rock Art Recording Form, Minimum Record, Version 2.0 Aug 2008. Page 1 of 2

Administration

Recorder(s)



record created)


RECORDING FORM RF2: MINIMUM RECORD

Version 2.0 Aug 2008 Please refer to Guidance Sheet No. 5a

1. Identifiers

Panel Name

Number

Other names


NMR Other 1

SAM Other 2

HER/SMR 1 HER/SMR 2

Source Source 2. Location (original find site)

County

OS NGR :

Obtained by GPS Map HER Other source

Altitude mOD

Obtained by GPS Map Altim. Other source

3. Panel Type (original archaeological context)

Boulder

Outcrop Art in the landscape (not portable)

Cliff/shelter

or

Burial cairn

Standing stone monument Art in a structure (not portable)

Other structure

Other structure

or

Burial cairn

Surface find Art on a portable stone

Unknown

Other context

Other context

Rock Art Recording Form, Minimum Record, Version 2.0 Aug 2008. Page 2 of 2

4. Current Location & Provenance

At original location Re-used in structure

or Re-located

Moved from original location In private collection Via excavation

or In museum Via donation

Documented as lost

Provenance unknown

Documented as destroyed

No documented location

Museum Museum name

Not located in the field Accession no.

5. Nature of Access

Open Access Permissive Access Museum

Access by Right of Way Private owner Unknown

6. Location Notes

For example, how to find the panel, its proximity to other panels or archaeological features,

the topography of the area, views and natural features etc.

7. Dimensions (m)

Length m Width m Height m

8. Panel Notes

E.g. description of the immediate context and form of the panel, the position and nature of the carvings and any other surface

features, and any other comments, observations or impressions.

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ERA ID

(add when database record

created)

Project Name

Project Team


RECORDING FORM RF3: PHOTOGRAPHY Version 2.0 Aug 2008 Please refer to Guidance Sheet No. 9

Recorder(s)

Date of visit dd / mmm / yy OS NGR :

Panel Name Number

Conventional photography record Note: A maximum of seven images can be uploaded to the ERA database.

Caption Filename on camera ERA filename

Panel from N Panel from S Panel from E Panel from W Vertical view Landscape/context view (indicate direction)

Panorama 1

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

Stitched filename

Panorama 2

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

Stitched filename

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ERA ID (generated when record is created)

Please ensure this is added before the form is scanned

Project Name

Project Team


RECORDING FORM RF4: PHOTOGRAMMETRY Version 2.0 Aug 2008 Please refer to Guidance Sheet No. 10

Recorder(s) Date of visit dd / mmm / yy OS NGR :

Panel Name Number

Camera make and model

Vertical Oblique (small panels only) Set of

stereo pairs Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5

1

2 Small panels

3

Image Numbers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Row 1

Row 2

Row 3

Row 4

Row 5

Large panels

Row 6

Sketch (Roughly sketch panel outline illustrating and numbering positions of stereo pairs/image rows. Please indicate (north arrow) the panel’s orientation)

PG fieldwork complete Y/N Comment

Processing complete Y/N Comment

Model resolution(s), mm

Saved formats & filenames e.g. VRML (Barningham_101_.wrl )

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RF5: ERA Check Sheet

ERA ID(assigned when database record

created)

Project Name

Recorder(s)/Team

Recording form ERA ID

Section A complete (required)

ERA ID added to all forms

Section B complete

Input to ERA

Scanned Imagery

No. scans Filename(s) Uploaded

Panel Plan

name_number_plan_#.jpg

Location Sketch

name_number_map_#.jpg

Photogrammetry Form

name_number_pgform_#.jpg

Photographic Imagery

No.

images/ models

Uploaded

Conventional photography

Panorama images

Stitched panorama To be completed by validating

officer

Photogrammetry images

Validated

Photogrammetry models

Uploaded to ERA

appendices - archaeology data service...recording england’s rock art a handbook for project...

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