1

APPALACHIAN PLANT MONOGRAPHS

Prepared by Tai Sophia Institute

For

Appalachian Center for Ethnobotanical Studies

September 2011

Eupatorium perfoliatum L. Boneset

Chief Author and Editor: Andrew Pengelly PhD, AHG, FNHAA

Assistant Author: Kathleen Bennett Editorial Team: James Snow AHG

Bevin Clare MS, AHG Nora Zietz

Deborah Mizur Lindsay Kluge

Mimi Hernandez, MS, RH(AHG)

Citation Instruction: Pengelly, A., & Bennett, K.,(2011). Appalachian plant monographs: Eupatorium perfoliatum L., Boneset. Retrieved from http://www.frostburg.edu/aces/appalachian-plants/

2

Boneset – Eupatorium perfoliatum L.

1 . Taxo n o m y

Eupatorium perfoliatum L.

Family: Asteraceae

Common names: boneset, ague-weed, crossword, feverwort, Indian sage, sweating weed,

thoroughwort, wild Isaac, tea-gel, vegetable antimony.

Synonyms: There are no commonly accepted synonyms for E. perfoliatum.

2 . Bo tan ical d e scrip tio n an d d istribu tion

E. perfoliatum is an upright perennial growing to about four feet, with a stout stem

covered with long spreading hairs and branching at the summit. Leaves are opposite,

sessile and lanceolate in shape with acuminate tip, the opposite leaf pairs adjoining at

their bases and encircling the stem node („perfoliate‟). Flowers are born in capitula of 9-

23 white tubular florets arranged in terminal corymbs, the florets maturing to produce

dry, angular achenes (Gleason & Cronquist, 1991). E. perfoliatum is found in swamps

Figure 1. Image from

A Textbook of Botany

and Pharmacognosy

by Henry Kraemer

1907. J.B. Lippencott,

Philadelphia.

3

and damp areas, alluvial woods and pastures throughout the Appalachian region

(Krochmal, Walters & Doughty, 1969).

Part Used

Dried flowering herb harvested in summer.

3 . Trad ition al u se s

Traditional uses in Appalachia

E. perfoliatum was among the many indigenous plants that Appalachian settlers learned

to use from the local Native Americans (Crellin & Philpott, 1989). By the 1800s, it had

become a favorite household herb and was used for a variety of conditions such as fevers,

colds, coughs, headaches, and rheumatism (Howell, 2006). A tea was also used for

consumption and as a laxative (Krochmal, Walters and Doughty, 1969). E. perfoliatum

remains a common remedy for promoting digestion and tonifying the gastrointestinal

system. In small doses it is said to soothe the tissues while larger doses promote an

emetic response useful in fevers and chronic illness. The whole plant is administered as a

strengthening tonic in low grade fevers, and as a hot infusion it is known to promote

diaphoresis. It has been particularly useful to the people of Southern Appalachia for

“sweating a cold out of the body” (Cavender, 2003, p. 84). No other herb seemed to rival

its effectiveness in dealing with fevers, with few or no ill side effects (Erichsen, 1979).

Traditional uses outside Appalachia

Native American Most common uses of E. perfoliatum were for treatment of fevers and as a

gastrointestinal aid for pains in the stomach. The entire plant was used, with an infusion

of the leaves (and sometimes the whole plant) applied topically for headaches and fevers,

and as a poultice on broken bones. An infusion of leaves and flowers was taken for a

laxative effect. The smashed roots were said to cure typhoid conditions. Infusions of the

leaves were also employed for early stages of colds and fevers, kidney troubles, and for

“general debility” (Moerman, 1998). The Mesquakies used the root for snakebite and the

aerial parts for expulsion of worms (Kindscher, 1992).

Folklore & Home

A preparation of E. perfoliatum in any form (tea infusion or decoction or powder) was

used with “uniform success” in the treatment of intermittent fevers, in particular yellow

fever. It was also a popular home remedy for dyspepsia when drunk as a cold tea

throughout the day, while in the form of a warm infusion it acted as an emetic – it was

dose dependent in its response (Beach, 1851). Often, it was preferred in place of

chamomile as a tonic stimulant (Child, 1837). As a general tonic, it was employed with

aromatics in tinctures or powders (Gardner & Aylworth, 1836). An infusion was said to

be diaphoretic and was commonly drunk at the onset of fevers to promote sweating

(Child, 1837).

4

Physiomedical

E. perfoliatum was a popular remedy for physiomedicalists also, and its effects were

often dose and preparation dependent. Given as a cold infusion, it was a decidedly

relaxing tonic acting primary on the liver and gall bladder while also acting as a mild

laxative. It was said to target sensitive or tense tissues, providing a relaxing, calming

effect on the smooth muscle. It was commonly combined with other herbs to promote a

strengthening response for general debility, and also for weak tissue states. Prepared as a

warm infusion, it was an excellent remedy for yellow fever as a diaphoretic. It was used

to provide relief from “aching limbs” secondary to rheumatism and, in larger quantities,

to promote emesis (Cook, 1869). Clymer later confirmed this approach, using the cold

infusion and tincture as a tonic, warm infusion as a diaphoretic and larger doses as an

emetic – however he believed it to be inferior to Lobelia inflata L. in that respect

(Clymer, 1905).

Eclectic

Scudder (1898) found E. perfoliatum to be a useful remedy for the onset of colds and

fevers, where the body becomes stiff and achy. The relaxing effect proved most useful in

joint, muscle and skeletal pain, as well as promoting secretions to eliminate lingering

illness. It was used by nearly every Eclectic physician in the treatment of fevers and flu

and for the common cold “especially when accompanied by deep-seated, aching pain”.

For respiratory conditions, Felter (1922) considered it, “efficient to relieve cough, acting

best in that occurring in the aged and debilitated, where there is an abundance of

secretion, but lack of power to expel it”.

The most well documented use of E. perfoliatum by Eclectic physicians was during the

1918-19 influenza epidemic, highlighted by two practitioner reports of over 1,000 treated

cases with only five fatalities (Brinker, 2009). The two popular preparations in use at the

time were the warm infusion and Lloyd‟s Specific Eupatorium extract (Brinker, 2009).

Regulars

Following observations of Native Americans, allopathic physicians used E. perfoliatum

for febrile conditions such as influenza, typhoid and yellow fever - especially when the

pains were at their worst. In the early 1800s Dr. Brigalow of Harvard University applied

it to cutaneous conditions as well as for intermittent fevers, while William Barton MD

praised its use in typhus and N. Chapman MD recommended it for respiratory catarrh and

as a hot infusion for the “breakbone fever‟ form of influenza, leading to the use of the

common name - boneset (Brinker, 2009). Other physicians used it for dyspepsia and

general debility (Wood & Bache, 1858). It was official in the United States

Pharmacopeia (USP) between 1820 and 1900.

4 . Scie n tific re search

5

Phytochemistry

Sesquiterpene lactones Sesquiterpene lactones (STLs) are signature compounds of the large Eupatorium genus

and of the Asteraceae family in general. In E. perfoliatum the STLs are represented by

two structural classes, the guaianolides and the germacrolanolides (Herz, Kalyanaraman,

& Ramakrishnan, 1977). Recently Mass et al. (2011) described several new STLs using a

high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with mass spectrometry

(MSMS) method. There were four new guaianolides - one dimeric guaianolide and one

germacroanolides - and all showed antiprotozoal activity against the malaria vector

Plasmodium falciparum and other protozoa (Maas,Hensel, da Costa, Brun, Keiser &

Schmidt, 2011).

Table 1. Classification of named sesquiterpene lactones in E. perfoliatum

Guaianolides Germacrolanolides

Euperfolide Euperfolitin

11,13 – dihydroeuperfolide Euperfolin

Eufolitin

Eufoliatorin (a dilactone)

(Herz, Kalyanaraman, & Ramakrishnan, 1977; Maas et al., 2011)

Polysaccharides

Two polysaccharides have been isolated from E. perfoliatum by HPLC coupled with

nuclear magnetic resonance (13

C NMR) spectroscopy methods (Vollmar, Schäfer, &

Wagner, 1986). The two compounds were characterized as 4-0-methylglucuronoxylans,

one of high molecular weight (>500,000) and a smaller one (ca 40,000), and both showed

phagocytocis-enhancing activity (Vollmar, Schäfer, & Wagner, 1986).

Flavonoids

Methoxyflavonoids are another characteristic compound group among the Eupatorium

genus. Herz et al. (1972) isolated three dihydroxyflavonols from E. perfoliatum in the

early 1970s, while Wagner et al. identified astragalin, hyperoside, quercetin and

kaempferol (Maas, Petereit, & Hensel, , 2009). More recently four methoxylated

flavonoid aglycones - eupafolin, hispidulin, patuletin and kaempferol - were identified

using HPLC coupled with 1H and

13C NMR and mass spectroscopy (MS) (Maas et al.

2011) as well as glycosides of quercetin and kaempferol (Maas et al. 2009).

Phenolics Using reverse phase HPLC coupled with diode array (DAD-UV), six caffeic acid

derivatives were isolated and identified by NMR spectroscopy. They were quinic acid,

chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid and three depsides of caffeic acid (Maas et al.

6

2009). A chromatogram showing eight caffeic acid derivatives and four flavonoids is

presented in appendix 1.

Figure 2. Structure of caffeic acid derivatives in E. perfoliatum. Reproduced from Maas

et al. 2009

Other constituents Other less well characterized constituents of E. perfoliatum are chromenes and the

triterpene alpha-amyrin, sterols, diterpenes dendroindinic acid and hebenolide,

dotriacontane – a hydroharbon, and volatile oils (Skenderi, 2003; Brinker 2009; Natural

Standard, 2011).

Pharmacology

General Sesquiterpene lactones from E. perfoliatum have been shown to have cytotoxic and

immune-stimulating actions in vitro (Herz, Kalyanaraman, & Ramakrishnan, 1977;

Wagner, Proksch, Vollmar, Kreutzkamp, & Bauer, 1985) while an ethanolic extract of

the dried leaves showed stong cytotoxic effects against three mammalian cell lines and

weak antibacterial effects against two gram-positive species (Habtemariam &

Macpherson, 2000). Aqueous extracts and isolated polysaccharides have also shown

immune modulating effects - by significant enhancement of phagocytosis in vitro and in

vivo (Wagner et al., 1985; Vollmar, Schäfer, & Wagner, 1986). Studies conducted in the

early 1900s demonstrated antibacterial activity against Staphyloccus aureus in vitro

(Brinker, 2009)

Antimalarial effects E. perfoliatum has long had a reputation for treating febrile disorders, and was widely

used by Indians for this purpose (Hall, 1974; Brinker, 2009). Studies with STLs indicate

many of these compounds have potent effects against protozoans, though the effects may

be linked to their inherent cytotoxicity (Schmidt, Nour, Khalid, Kaiser, & Brun, 2009).

Chloroform extract of E. perfoliatum aerial parts actively inhibited the malarial vector

Pasmodium falciparum in vitro, and a dimeric guaianolide STL was shown to be the most

active constituent (Maas et al., 2011). The cytotoxicty of this compound was relatively

weak. Using a rodent malaria, Lira-Salazar and co-workers found that homeopathic

potencies of E. perfoliatum tincture demonstrated significant – though not completely

inhibitory – effects against Plasmodium berghei, which were stable over several days

7

(Lira-Salazar, Marines-Montiel, Torres-Monzón, Hernández-Hernández, & Salas-Benito,

2006).

Clinical trials No published clinical trials were found in the literature review.

5 . Mo d e rn Ph y to th erap y

Modern therapeutic use of E. perfoliatum reflects traditional indications. The German

herbal physician Rudolf Weiss (1988) lists boneset alongside other tonics such as

Echinacea spp. for treating acute viral infections and enhancing overall immunological

resistance. Modern herbal practitioners continue to value the therapeutic benefits of fever,

and boneset‟s diaphoretic effect is seen as playing a key role in the treatment of the

common cold and influenza (Mills & Bone, 2000). Kuts-Cheraux (1953) suggests that

boneset‟s positive influence on body aches associated with infections can be extended

more broadly to treatment of rheumatic pains in general. A classic indication is fevers

with “dry skin, not followed by perspiration, with deep seated aching pain and great

thirst” (Harper-Shove, 1952).

Table 2: Modern phytotherapeutic uses of E. perfoliatum

ACTIONS

Diaphoretic emetic (high doses)

Expectorant immune-stimulant

Aperient Bitter

THERAPEUTIC INDICATIONS

Early stages of colds and influenza

Nasopharyngeal catarrh

Acute bronchitis

Fever accompanied by aching bones and muscles

Rheumatoid and gouty arthritis

(Priest & Priest, 1982; British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983; Mills & Bone, 2000)

Specific indication

Influenza with deep aching, and congestion of the respiratory mucosa (British Herbal

Medicine Association, 1983)

Combinations With Sambucus nigra L. and Salix spp. for prostrating fevers with aching in the bones.

With Scutellaria lateriflora L. and Asclepias tuberosa L. for influenza (Clymer, 1905).

8

Preparations and dosage Dried herb 1-2g three times daily or by infusion.

FE 1:1, 1-2 mL, 3 times daily (British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983).

Toxicity and contraindications The Botanical Safety Handbook classifies E. perfoliatum as Class 4 – “Herbs for which

insufficient data is available for classification,” because of the possibility of other

potentially toxic Eupatorium species being substituted (McGuffin, Hobbs, Upton, &

Goldberg, 1997). While toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been identified in some

Eupatorium species (Smith & Culvenor, 1981), none have ever been identified in E.

perfoliatum (Skenderi, 2003; Maas & Hensel, 2008). This herb has a long history of

documented usage and few side effects have been reported, although large doses are

emetic and purgative. E. perfoliatum may cause contact allergic dermatitis in persons

hypersensitive to Asteraceae plants containing sesquiterpene lactones (Skenderi, 2003). It

should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation.

E. perfoliatum does not contain the toxic alcohol tremetol, found in the related species E.

rugosum, (now reclassified as Ageratina altissima), which is responsible for trembles in

livestock and milk sickness in humans (Lee et al., 2010; Brinker, 2009).

E. perforatum is regulated in the USA as a dietary supplement.

6 . Su stain ability

Ecological status-RTE status

While E. perfoliatum is not considered an endangered or threatened species, it is native to

US wetlands and as wetlands continue to disappear, the status may change.

A variety, E. perfoliatum var. colpophilum also called common boneset or estuary

boneset is only found in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont

and Ontario. Estuary boneset is listed by the USDA as endangered and possibly

extirpated in Maine. Currently however, the Maine Natural Areas Program (2008) does

not list E. perfoliatum on its endangered, threatened and rare list.

Harvesting & Collection regulations

Maine does not have any laws protecting rare plant species (MNAP, 2008), but people

gathering plants in the wild should be able to identify related species and varieties that

may be endangered. (Robinson, Agurkis, & Scerbo, 2007).

Market data - harvesting impact, tonnage surveys

According to Jancke (2004) market potential was low to medium as most is gathered in

the wild, but buyers may prefer to purchase from a known organic source. Jancke also

notes that studies mentioning the possibility of liver toxicity have limited its popularity.

In 2004, retail prices ranged from $10.36 to $23.15/lb dry weight.

9

Cultivation

The preference is full or partial sun, and wet to moist conditions. The soil should contain

considerable organic material so that it can retain moisture. This plant can withstand

flooded conditions for short periods of time, but it is not really aquatic. The foliage

appears to be little bothered by pests and disease (Hilty, 2002-2011). Jancke (2004) notes

that boneset can also be field grown in Kansas under fairly dry conditions.

Height: 2 to 5 feet

Sun: Full sun to partial shade

Soil: Prefers a rich, moist soil

Water: Natural habitat is on wet sites, and plant prefers regular, deep watering.

However, boneset also appears to withstand Kansas heat and drought fairly well.

Propagation: Easily propagated from seeds or cuttings. Take cuttings before the plant

has flowered. Seeds will germinate without stratification, but will germinate better with

stratification. Seeds need light to germinate. Do not cover. Germination is typically two

to three weeks, with 80 to 90 percent germination. Older plants can be divided and

replanted in the spring. Plant on 18 to 24 inch centers, with row spacing of 24 to 30

inches, because each plant will form a clump.

Pests: No major pests

Harvesting: Harvest aboveground portion when flowers are starting in early or

midsummer.

Dry quickly, or it will decompose. A second, fall harvest may be possible (Jancke, 2004).

E. perfoliatum is being grown for seed by inmates at Michigan's Saginaw Correctional

Facility as part of a program to restore the prairie at the Shiawassee refuge (Conat2010).

7 . Su m m ary – so m e p ossib ilitie s m o vin g forward

According to Millspaugh (1892) “There is probably no plant in domestic practice that has

more extensive or frequent use” (in reference to E. perfoliatum) and it is mentioned in

virtually all of the historic books on American plant medicine (Kindsher, 1992). With the

advent of antibiotics and so called “magic bullets‟ in the 20th

century, traditional use of E.

perfoliatum for respiratory infections and fevers has declined, and demand is confined

largely to herbalists and phytotherapists in the USA and abroad. The decline in popularity

has not been helped by unfounded reports that the species contains hepatotoxic

pyrrolizide alkaloids (PAs), at a time when there is a great need for alternatives to

antibiotics and to the influenza drugs now in use.

Further analytical studies are needed to determine decisively whether PAs are present and

if so, at what concentrations, as well as toxicological investigations to assess potential for

10

acute or chronic adverse effects. Provided safety can be demonstrated by such studies, E.

perfoliatum would be an excellent candidate for clinical research.

8 . Re fe re n ces

Beach, B.W. (1851). The American Practice, Condensed:Or, the Family Physician. New

York, NY: James M‟Alister.

British Herbal Medicine Association (1983), British herbal pharmacopoeia.

Bournemouth U.K.: B.H.M.A.

Brinker, Francis. 2009. “Boneset in Dyspesia and Febrile Infections.” Journal of the

American Herbalist Guild 9, 1-13.

Cavender, A. (2003). Folk Medicine in Southern Appalachia. Chapel Hill, NC: The

University of North Carolina Press.

Child, Mrs. (1837). The Family Nurse. Boston, MA: Charles Hendee.

Clymer, R.S. (1905). Nature’s Healing Agents. Humanitarian Society, Quakertown, PA.

Conat, R. (2010). Program gives prisoners a chance to grow. ABC12 WJRT-TV

MD/Michigan. Retrieved on June 21, 2011 from:

http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section=news/local&id=7595683

Cook, W. (1869). The Physiomedical Dispensatory. Cincinnati, OH: Wm. H. Cook.

Crellin, J. K. & Philpott, J. (1989). Trying to give ease: Tommie Bass and the story of

herbal medicine. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Daucus, S., &Bergner, P. 1996. Eupatorium: clinical correspondence and commentary.

Med Herbalism 7 (4): 10-12.

Erichsen-Brown, C. (1979). Use of plants for the past 500 years. Aurora Ont, Canada:

Hunter Rose Co.

Felter, H.W. (1922). The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics.

Cincinnati: John. K. Scudder.

Gardner, M., & Aylworth, B. (1836). The Domestic Physician and Family Assistant.

Cooperstown, NY: H & E Phinney.

Gleason, H.A. and Cronquist, A. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern

United States and Adjacent Canada. New York Botanical Garden, New York.

11

Habtemariam, S., & Macpherson, A. M. (2000). Cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity of

ethanol extract from leaves of a herbal drug, boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum).

Phytotherapy Research, 14(7), 575-577.

Hall, T B, Jr. 1974. “Eupatorium perfoliatum. A plant with a history.” Missouri Medicine

71 (9), 527-528.

Harper-Shove, F. 1952. Prescriber and clinical repertory of medicinal herbs. Bradford

UK: Health Science Press.

Herz, W, P S Kalyanaraman, and G Ramakrishnan. 1977. “Sesquiterpene lactones of

Eupatorium perfoliatum.” The Journal of Organic Chemistry 42 (13), 2264-2271.

Hilty, J. (2002-2011) Common boneset, Eupatorium perfoliatum. Prairie wildflowers of

Illinois. Retrieved from: http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/index.htm

Howell, P. K. (2006). Medicinal plants of the southern Appalachians. Mountain City,

GA: Botanologos Books.

Jancke, R. (2004) Boneset: A grower's guide. K-State Research and Extension: MF-2607.

Accessed at http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/hort2/mf2607.pdf

Janke, R., DeArmond, J. & Coltrane, D. (2004) Farming a few acres of herbs: An herb

growers handbook. Department of Horticulture, Forestry and Recreational

Resources and the Department of Agricultural Economics, Kansas State

University. Accessed online at http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/hort2/mf2607.pdf

Kindscher, K. (1992). Medicinal wild plants of the prairie. Kansas: University Press of

Kansas

Kraemer, H. (1907). A textbook of botany and pharmacognosy. Philadelphia, PA:

Lippencott.

Krochmal, A., Walters, R. & Doughty, R. (1969). A Guide to Medicinal Plants from

Appalachia. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Paper NE-138. Upper Darby, PA:

Northeastern Forest Experiment.

Lee, S.T., Davis, T.Z., Gardner, D.R., Colegate, S.M., Cook, D., Green, B.T.,

Meyerholtz, K.A., Wilson, C.R., Stegelmeier, B.L. & Evans, T.J. (2010).

Tremetone and Structurally Related Compounds in White Snakeroot (Ageratina

altissima): A Plant Associated with Trembles and Milk Sickness. Journal of

Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (15), 8560-8565.

Lira-Salazar, G., Marines-Montiel, E., Torres-Monzón,J., Hernández-Hernández, F.,&

Salas-Benito, J.S.( 2006). Effects of homeopathic medications Eupatorium

perfoliatum and Arsenicum album on parasitemia of Plasmodium berghei-infected

mice. Homeopathy: The Journal of the Faculty of Homeopathy 95 (4), 223-228.

12

Maas, M., & Hensel, A. (2008). “Eupatorium perfoliatum L.” Zeitschrift für

Phytotherapie 29 (05) (November): 249-254. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1102730.

Maas, M., Petereit, F., & Hensel, A. (2009). Caffeic acid derivatives from Eupatorium

perfoliatum L. Molecules 14, (1), 36-45.

Maas, M., Hensel, A., da Costa, F.B., Brun, R., Kaiser, M., & Schmidt, T.J. (2011). “An

unusual dimeric guaianolide with antiprotozoal activity and further sesquiterpene

lactones from Eupatorium perfoliatum.” Phytochemistry 72: 635-644. Maine

Natural Areas Program (MNAP). (2008). Rare, threatened & endangered plant

taxa. Maine Department of Conservation. Accessed online at

http://www.maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mnap/features/plantlist.htm

McGuffin, M., Hobbs, C., Upton, R., & Goldberg, A. (eds.). (1997). Botanical safety

handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Mills, S.Y., & Bone, K. (2000). Principles and practice of phytotherapy: modern herbal

medicine. Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingstone.

Millspaugh, C. F. (1892). American medicinal plants. New York, N.Y: Dover.

Moerman, D.E. (1998). Native American ethnobotany. Portland, OR: Timber

Press.Natural Standard (2011). Natural Standard Database. Accessed June 16th

,

2011 from http://naturalstandard.com/mono-

print.asp?file=/monographs/herbssupplements/boneset.asp

National Wildlife Refuge System (2010). Inmates lend a hand for conservation.

Retrieved on June 10, 2011 from:

http://www.fws.gov/refuges/mediatipsheet/Stories/201009_InmatesLendHandCon

servation.html

Priest, A.W., & Priest, L.R. (1982). Herbal medication: A clinical and dispensary

handbook. London, UK: L.M. Fowler & Co

Robinson, G., Agurkis, G. & Scerbo, A. (2007) Medical attributes of Eupatorium

perfoliatum - Boneset. (Student paper). Wilkes-Barre, PA: Wilkes University.

Accessed online at http://klemow.wilkes.edu/Eupatorium.html

Scudder, J.M. (1898). The American Eclectic Materia Medica and Therapeutics (12th

Ed.). Cincinnati, OH: The Scudder Brothers Company, Publishers.

Schmidt, T. J., Nour, A.M.M., Khalid, S.A., Kaiser, M., and Brun,R .(2009). Quantitative

Structure - Antiprotozoal Activity Relationships of Sesquiterpene Lactones.

Molecules, 14 (6):2062-2076Skenderi, G. (2003). Herbal Vade Mecum.

Rutherford, NJ: Herbacy Press.

Skenderi, G. (2003). Herbal vade mecum. Rutherford, NJ: Herbacy Press

13

Smith, L.W. & Culvenor, C.C..J. (1981). Plant Sources of Hepatotoxic Pyrrolizidine

Alkaloids. Journal of Natural Products 44 (2), 129-152.

Stille, A. (1874). Therapeutics and material medica (4th

ed.). Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea.

United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USPC), (1820 through 1900). The

Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America. Philadelphia, PA: J.B.

Lippincott Company.

Vollmar, A., Schafer, W., & Wagner, H.( 1986). Immunologically active polysaccharides

of eupatorium cannabinum and eupatorium perfoliatum. Phytochemistry 25

(2):377-381.

Wagner, H.Proksch, A., Vollmar, A. ,Kreutzkamp B., & Bauer, J. (1985). In vitro

phagocytosis stimulation by isolated plant materials in a chemoluminescence-

phagocytosis model. Planta Medica 2: 139-144

Weiss, R. & Fintelmann, V. (1988). Herbal Medicine (2

nd ed.). Stuttgart, Germany:

Thieme.

Wood, G. B. & Bache, F. (1858). The Dispensatory of the United States of America (11th

ed.). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippencott and Co.

Appendix-1 Summary of Endangered, threatened or rare Eupatorium species

Area Status Source

global secure

federal none Natural Heritage Endangered Species Program (2010)

Ma Endangered

E. novae-angliae

Natural Heritage Endandered Species Program (2010) - threatened by any activity

that affects the water quality or soil integrity: shore development, eutrophication,

horse & foot traffic, camping, boat launches and digging.

ME E. perfoliatum var. colpophilum possibly extirpated

Range: New England and Ontario

(estuary boneset)

MD E. altissimum

G5, S3

tall boneset - MD RTE 2010

http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Plants_Wildlife/rte/pdfs/rte_Plant_List.

pdf Formerly: Uncasia altissima (IPNI, 2005)

MD E. leucolepsis

G5 S2-S3 Threatened

white bracted boneset - MD RTE 2010 -

http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Plants_Wildlife/rte/pdfs/rte_Plant_List.

pdf basionym: E. novae-angliae (IPNI, 2005)

MI, VT E. sessilifolium

upland boneset

S1, threatened

G5 secure

MI Michigan Natural Features Inventory. 2007. Rare Species Explorer (Web

Application). Available online at http://web4.msue.msu.edu/mnfi/explorer

[Accessed May 29, 2011]

Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife Nongame and Natural Heritage

Program, Vermont. 2011. Threatened and endangered plants of Vermont, Vermont

Natural heritage information project, Vermont fish & Wildlife Department Feb 16,

2011

14

legally protected, Synonym: Uncasia sessifolia (IPNI, 2005)

NY E. album

white boneset

S1, G5T5

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf synonym=Uncasia alba (IPNI, 2011)

NY E. subvenosum

trinerved white boneset

Threatened, S2S3

G5T3T4

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf not listed in IPNI

NY E. leucolepsis var.

leucoleptis

White bracted boneset

Endangered, S1 G5T5

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf

NY E. pubescens serrate

round-leaf boneset

Endangered, S1, G5T5

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf no pubescens (IPNI, 2005)

NY E. resinosum

pine barrens boneset

Unknown, SX, G3

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf IPNI(2005) E. resinosuum var. kentuckiense

NY E. rotundifolium

round leaved boneset

Endangered, SH, G5

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf synonym: E. cordigerum (IPNI, 2005) = E. rotundifolium var. cordigerum

NY E. torreyanum

fringed boneset

Threatened, S2,

G5T4T5

New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York

Rare Plant Status Lists.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf Synonym Uncasia torreyana (IPNI, 2005).

15

Appendix II.

Voucher specimen lodged at the Claude E. Phillips Herbarium, Delaware State

University. Specimen collected from Tai Sophia Institute garden, 8/1/11.

16