AP PSYCHOLOGYReview for the AP Exam

Chapter 5-

SENSATION

Chapter 5

Sensation*a process by which our sensory receptors and nervous

system receive and represent stimulus energyPerception

*a process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom-Up Processing*analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to

the brain’s integration of sensory informationTop-Down Processing

*information processing guided by higher-level mental processes

*as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

The implications of this top to bottom flow if information is that information coming into the system (perceptually) can be influenced by what the individual already knows about the information that is coming into the system

Sensation- Basic Principles

Psychophysics*study of the relationship between physical characteristics

of stimuli and our psychological experience of them*Light- brightness*Sound- volume*Pressure- weight*Taste- sweetness

TRANSDUCTION: transformation of one form of energy into another-- especially the transformation of stimulus information into nerve signals by the sense organs. Without transduction, ripe tomatoes would not appear red (or pinkish gray--in the case of many tomatoes purchased in the grocery store).

SENSORY ADAPTATION--loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while, as when a

swimmer becomes adapted to the temperature of the water.

Absolute Threshold*minimum stimulation needed to detect a

particular stimulus*usually defined as the stimulus needed for

detection 50% of the timeDifference Threshold

*minimum difference between two stimuli that a subject can detect 50% of the time

*just noticeable difference (JND)*increases with magnitude

Sensation- Thresholds

Signal Detection Theory*predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus

(signal) amid background stimulation (noise)*assumes that there is no single absolute threshold*detection depends partly on person’s

• experience• expectations• motivation• level of fatigue

Weber’s Law- to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant proportion

– light intensity- 8%

– weight- 2%

– tone frequency- 0.3%

Vision- Stabilized Images on the RetinaOur perceptions are organized by the meanings our minds impose.

Transduction- conversion of one form of energy to anotherWavelength- the distance from the peak of one wave to

the peak of the nextHue- dimension of color determined by wavelength of lightIntensity- amount of energy in a wave determined by

amplitude– brightness– loudness

Vision-Spectrum of Electromagnetic Energy

Vision- Physical Properties of Waves

Short wavelength=high frequency(bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)

Long wavelength=low frequency(reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)

Great amplitude(bright colors, loud sounds)

Small amplitude(dull colors, soft sounds)

Wave amplitude determines the

intensity of colors and sounds.

Amplitude: greatness of magnitude….(physics) the maximum displacement of a periodic wave

VisionPupil- adjustable opening in the center of the

eye

Iris- a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Lens- transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina

VisionAccommodation --the process by which the eye’s lens changes

shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina– change in shape of lens– focus near objects

Retina --the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information – inner surface of eye– light sensitive– contains rods and cones– layers of neurons– beginning of visual information processing

VisionAcuity- the sharpness of visionNearsightedness --condition in which nearby objects are seen

more clearly than distant objects because distant objects in front of retina– nearby objects seen more clearly– lens focuses image of distant objects in front of retina

Farsightedness --condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind retina– faraway objects seen more clearly– lens focuses near objects behind retina

Vision

Light rays from distant objects focus in front…when image reaches the

back, the rays spread out creating a blur.

Light rays from near objects focus behind the retina

creating a blur.

Farsighted Nearsighted Normal

Vision Vision Vision

Optic nerve- nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Blind Spot- point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind spot” because there are no receptor cells located there

Fovea- central point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors

Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors

Cones

– near center of retina (fovea)

– fine detail and color vision

– daylight or well-lit conditions

Rods

– peripheral retina

– detect black, white and gray

– twilight or low light

**Rods are more sensitive to light than the cones which is

why the world looks colorless at night.

**Nocturnal animals such as mice, toads, rats and bats have retinas made up almost entirely of rods.

Vision- ReceptorsReceptors in the Human Eye

Cones Rods

Number

Location in retina

Sensitivity in dim light

Color sensitive? Yes

Low

Center

6 million

No

High

Periphery

120 million

Visual Information ProcessingFeature Detectors

– neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features

– shape– angle– movement

Stimulus

Cell’s responses

Illusory Contours

Subjective Contours

Visual Information Processing

Parallel Processing– simultaneous processing

of several dimensions through multiple pathways (color, motion, form, depth)

Trichromatic (three color) Theory

– Young (1802) and Helmholtz (1850)

– three different retinal color receptors

• red

• green

• blue

You see colors according to their response to the wavelengths of light striking the retina---short-preferring (blue), middle-preferring (green), and long-preferring (red).

Visual Information ProcessingOpponent-Process Theory-

opposing retinal processes enable color vision

“ON” “OFF”red greengreen red blue yellow yellow blueblack whitewhite black

Visual Information Processing

Color ConstancyPerceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

Audition

Audition• the sense of

hearingFrequency

• the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

Pitch• a tone’s highness or

lowness• depends on

frequency

Outer Ear– Auditory Canal– Eardrum

Middle Ear --chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

Inner Ear --innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs– oval window– Cochlea-- coiled,

bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear

– basilar membrane

– hair cells

Audition- The Ear

AuditionPlace Theory

– the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

Frequency Theory

– the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

How We Locate Sounds

Older people tend to hear low frequencies well but suffer hearing loss for high frequencies

1time

10times

100times1000

times 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192 16384Frequency of tone in waves per second

Low Pitch High

Amplitude required forperception relative to 20-29 year-old group

20-29 years

30-39 years40-49 years

50-59 years

Over 60 years

Conduction Hearing Loss– hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that

conducts sound waves to the cochleaNerve Hearing Loss

– hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve

Touch

Skin Sensations– pressure

• only skin sensation with identifiable receptors

– warmth– cold– pain

PainGate-Control Theory

– theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

– “gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers

– “gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Sometimes a child can be afflicted with a disorder known as CIPA -- congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis, She can feel touch, her brain doesn't receive signals that she's experiencing pain, and she hardly sweats.When Gabby was 4 months old, she was biting her fingers until they bled. By the time she was 2, her teeth had to be removed so she wouldn't hurt herself.

When she was a toddler, Gabby scratched her cornea and was given eye gel, The thick gel had a reflux reaction to rub your eye, Because one eye became so infected, it had to be removed

Taste

Taste Sensations

– sweet

– sour

– salty

– bitter

Sensory Interaction

– the principle that one sense may influence another

– as when the smell of food influences its taste

Age, Sex and Sense of Smell

Women

Men

10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99Age Group

4

3

2

0

Numberof correct

answers

Women and young adults have best sense of smell

Body Position and MovementKinesthesis

– the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Vestibular Sense

– the sense of body movement and position

– including the sense of balance

PERCEPTION

Chapter 6

Perception

Selective Attentionfocus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

….means that at any moment

we focus our awareness on only a limited aspect of all that we are capable of

experiencing.

Change Blindness

Perceptual Illusions

Perceptual Illusions

Perceptual Illusions

Perceptual Illusions

Picture or a word?

Perceptual Organization- GestaltVisual Capture tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information into

meaningful wholes

Escher

Perceptual Organization- GestaltGrouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

Grouping Principles

– proximity- group nearby figures together

– similarity- group figures that are similar

– continuity- perceive continuous patterns

– closure- fill in gaps

– connectedness- spots, lines and areas are seen as unit when connected

___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___

Perceptual Organization- Grouping Principles

Closure

Illusory Contours

Perceptual Organization

Figure and Ground--organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Perceptual Organization- Grouping Principles

Gestalt grouping principles are at work here.

Perceptual Organization-Depth PerceptionDepth Perception

– ability to see objects in three dimensions

– allows us to judge distanceBinocular cues

– retinal disparity• images from the two

eyes differ • closer the object, the

larger the disparity– convergence

• neuromuscular cue• two eyes move inward

for near objects

Visual Cliff

Perceptual Organization-Depth PerceptionMonocular Cues

– relative size **• smaller image is more distant

– interposition• closer object blocks distant object

– relative clarity• hazy object seen as more distant

– texture coarse --> closefine --> distant

– relative height **• higher objects seen as more distant

– relative motion• closer objects seem to move faster

– linear perspective• parallel lines converge with distance

– relative brightness• closer objects appear brighter

Interposition

Light & Shadow

Perceptual Organization-Depth Perception

Perspective Techniques

Perceptual Organization: Depth Perception

Illusory Depth

Photographer Walter Wick cut out pieces of paper shaped to imitate

stair positions and colored them to simulate light and shadow.

Perceptual ConstancyPerceptual Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in retinal image

• color

• shape

• size

Ponzo Illusion

Perceptual Organization-Muller-Lyer Illusion

Perceptual Organization-Brightness Contrast

Perceptual Organization-Brightness Contrast

Perceptual Constancy: We know that the shadow doesn’t change the color of tile B to the same as tile A, even when it looks that way.

Sensory Restriction-Blakemore & Cooper, 1970

Kittens raised without exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty perceiving horizontal bars.

Perceptual InterpretationPerceptual Adaptation

– (vision) ability to adjust to an artificially displaced visual field

• prism glassesPerceptual Set

– a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Perceptual Set-Schemas

What you see in the center is influenced by perceptual set

Perception and the Human FactorHuman Factors Psychology explores how people and machines interact

explores how machine and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors

Perceptual Set- Human Factors

Actualdescent

path

Pilot’s perceiveddescent path

Altitude looksthis much higher

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2Distance from runway (miles)

10

8

6

4

2

0

Altitude(thousands

of feet)

CONSCIOUSNESS

Chapter 7

Consciousness

*our awareness of ourselves and our environments*the process by which the brain creates a model of internal and external experience.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Some occur spontaneously

Some are physiologically induced

Some are psychologically induced

Daydreaming Drowsiness Dreaming

Hallucinations OrgasmFood or oxygen starvation

Sensory deprivation

Hypnosis Meditation

CORE CONCEPT: Consciousness can take many forms, while other mental processes occur simultaneously outside our awareness.

Consciousness is not good at multitasking: So, if you try to drive while talking on the cell phone, you have to shift your attention back and forth between tasks.

The NONCONSCIOUS MIND

*Preconscious: defined as memories of events (i.e. a wedding) and facts (i.e. Lansing is the capital of Michigan) that have once been the focus of attention

*Unconscious: defined as many levels of processing that occur without awareness, including brain systems and others that can have subtle influences on behavior.

PRIMING: a technique that has an influence on answers people give without their being conscious that they were influenced.

There are many possible answers to this question, but I increased the probability that you would chose the word, DEFINE, by using it twice in the previous slide.

Sleep and DreamsBiological Rhythms

periodic physiological fluctuations

Circadian Rhythm the biological clock

regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle, such as of wakefulness and body temperature

Daydreaming

*mildly, altered state of consciousness

*attention inward to memories, expectations, and desires often with vivid mental imagery

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep *recurring sleep stage

*vivid dreams

“paradoxical sleep”

muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active

Brain Waves and Sleep Stages

Alpha Waves slow waves of a

relaxed, awake brain

Delta Waves large, slow waves

of deep sleep

Hallucinations false sensory

experiences

Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4

3

2

1

Sleepstages

Awake

Hours of sleep

REM

Sleep Across the Lifespan

How much sleep we need depend on several factors:

*genetics--different for each species

*circadian rhythms

*personal characteristics and habits

*exercise influences the need for sleep (however, strenuous physical activity increase the amount of slow-wave stage 4 sleep)

*Exercise increases endorphins and activity in your system. It is best to exercise in the early morning or late afternoon.

*Eating activates the digestive system. It is best to eat prior to 6 or 7:00 pm.

*Alcohol depresses activity in the brain that control our self-monitoring behaviors. While it will initially induce relaxation, overuse will interfere with REM sleep and cause insomnia and infrequent sleep patterns.

What interferes with sleep?

Dreams

*sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

*hallucinatory imagery

*discontinuities

*incongruities

*delusional acceptance of the content

*difficulties remembering

Sigmund Freud--The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) wish fulfillment discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings

Manifest Content remembered story line

Latent Content underlying meaning

As Information Processing

helps facilitate memories

REM Rebound

REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation

ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY

Dreams result when the sleeping brain tries to make sense of its own spontaneous bursts of activity.

In this view, dreams originate when their own periodic neural discharges emitted by the brain stem. When the energy sweeps over the cerebral cortex,

the sleeper experiences impressions of sensation, memory, motivation, emotion and movement. (Hobson, McCarley 1977)

Sleep DisordersInsomnia

*persistent problems in falling or staying asleepNarcolepsy

*uncontrollable sleep attacksSleep Apnea

*temporary cessation of breathing, as much as several hundred times a night …..(it’s normal to cease breathing a few times an hour during the night)

*momentary reawakeningsNightmares

Occur in REM sleep during the early morning hoursNight Terrors occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during

Stage 4 high arousal-- appearance of being terrified

Hypnosis

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Posthypnotic Amnesia

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis

induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

Dissociation

a split in consciousness

allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Hidden Observer

Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

Explaining Hypnosis

Uses of hypnosis:

*Research--can induce temporary mental conditions (anxiety, hallucinations, depression)

*Treatment--phobias, eliminating unwanted behaviors (smoking, eating)

*Anesthesia--medical & dental practices (not everyone can do this)

Drugs and Consciousness

Psychoactive Drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

Physical Dependence physiological need for a drug marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

Psychological Dependence a psychological need to use a drug for example, to relieve negative emotions

Tolerance diminishing effect

with regular use

Withdrawal discomfort and

distress that follow discontinued use

Depressants drugs that reduce neural activity, inhibits the

transmission of messages in CNS slow body functions

alcohol, barbiturates, opiates, benzodiazepines

Stimulants drugs that excite neural activity in CNS Dangers include frightening hallucinations, paranoid

delusions; children born to users at at increased risk for cognitive problems, emotional difficulties and behavior-control disorders.

speed up body functions, increase concentration, reduce behavior in ADHD. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, methamphetamine,

MDMA (ecstacy),

Psychoactive DrugsHallucinogens psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort

perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Most hallucinogens work at the receptor sites for the neurotransmitter serotonin LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, PCP, cannabis

Opiates opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening

pain and anxiety Similar to body’s pain relieving chemicals, the

endorphines Opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, methadone

Psychoactive Drugs

Barbiturates drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing

anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

Side effect of reducing REM sleep time; withdrawal from barbituates results in REM rebound and unpleasant dreams Sedatives, sleep, anesthetic, anticonvulsant

Amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up

body functions and associated energy and mood changes Weight control, counteract anesthesia

Cocaine Euphoria and Crash

Psychoactive Drugs

Ecstasy (MDMA) synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen

both short-term and long-term health risks

LSD lysergic acid diethylamide

a powerful hallucinogenic drug

also known as acid

THC the major active ingredient in marijuana

triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Psychoactive Drugs

LEARNING

Chapter 8

• Learning– relatively

permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

– experience (nurture) is the key to learning

• John B. Watsonviewed psychology as

objective science• generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes

not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

John B. Watson in his experiment with Little Albert, an 11 month old baby, studied how emotions are

learned. He presented (A) a white rat (CS) and (B) a loud noise (US) to Little Albert. After several

pairings, Albert showed fear (CR) of the white rat. Later, Albert generalized the fear to stimuli that were

simular to CS, such as (C) a beard.

It is widely known that human beings are born

with only two natural fears. One is the fear of falling and the second is the fear of loud noises. Where, then, do all of our other fears come from?

Overgeneralization

Association• We learn by association

– Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

– Aristotle 2000 years ago– John Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago

• Associative Learning– learning that two events occur together

• two stimuli• a response and its consequences

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Vs.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

The core of classical conditioning stems from reflex responses.

A REFLEX is an unlearned response that is naturally elicited by specific stimuli that are biologically relevant

for the organism.

Prior to the experiment the “tone” used had no prior meaning for the dogs. This was a NEUTRAL

STIMULUS and elicits no effect.

* The UCS naturally elicits the UCR.

Dogs were placed in a restraining harness. At regular intervals, a tone (NS) sounded and the dogs were given food (UCS). With repeated

pairings of the NS and UCS, the neutral stimulus becomes the CS and dogs began salivating (CR).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)– effective stimulus that unconditionally-automatically and

naturally- triggers a response• Unconditioned Response (UCR)

– unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus

• salivation when food is in the mouth• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

– previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

• Conditioned Response (CR)– learned response to a previously neutral conditioned

stimulus

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

SUMMARY

Classical Conditioning

– organism comes to associate two stimuli

• lightning and thunder

• tone and food

– begins with a reflex

– a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex

– neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex

Acquisition

– the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened

– in classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response

– in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Extinction

– diminishing of a CR

– in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS

– in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous Recovery-reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR

Discrimination

– in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal an UCS

– in operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

Generalizationtendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

UCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

– type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect– Thorndike’s principle that

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)Harvard University

– elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect

– developed behavioral technology

Thorndike's Puzzle Box, used a cat solving the puzzle of how to escape from the box. However, unlike Skinner's experiment with rats, the cat did not show any systematic

strategies in learning. He simply scrambled around in the box until he stepped on the

lever.

From this, Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect which says that an animals learned

response that results in rewarding consequences are strengthened, and the

responses with punishing consequences are weakened.

In one experiment, Skinner placed a rat inside a box with two levers, one that issued a reward when pulled and the other that issued a punishment. Over time, the rat began to stop pulling the lever that shocked him and just focused on the lever that gave him food.

As a result, Skinner was able to show the effects of

reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

Reinforcer

– any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

– conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

Successive Approximations

– reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior

Skinner Box– soundproof chamber

with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward

– contains a device to record responses

Principles of ReinforcementPrimary Reinforcer

– innately reinforcing stimulus

– satisfies a biological needSecondary Reinforcer

– conditioned reinforcer– learned through association

with primary reinforcer

Continuous Reinforcement– reinforcing the desired response

each time it occurs– learning occurs rapidly– extinction occurs rapidly

Partial Reinforcement– reinforcing a response only part of

the time– results in slower acquisition– greater resistance to extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement1) Fixed Ratio (FR)

– reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

– like piecework pay 2) Variable Ratio (VR)reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses

like gambling, fishingvery hard to extinguish because

of unpredictability3) Fixed Interval (FI)

– reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

– response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near 4) Variable Interval (VI)

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

produces slow steady respondinglike pop quiz

In essence, if one's actions make the thing happen it is a

ratio; if timemust pass then it is an interval.

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

• Punishment– aversive event that decreases the behavior that it

follows

– powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed-behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent

Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

Creates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do--punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone

Punishment teaches how to avoid it

Latent Learning

– learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Overjustification Effect– the effect of promising a reward for doing what one

already likes to do– the person may now see the reward, rather than

intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Operant Conditioning

Punishment

Martin Seligman’s LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

Taught dogs that they were helpless to escape from an electric shock by placing a barrier in the cage to prevent dogs from escaping when they were shocked.

Removed the barrier but the dogs made no effort to escape.

This “learned helplessness” has been compared to people who are depressed. They feel past/future events are out of their control and they are helpless = depression.

Father of Positive Psychology

Univ. Pennsylvania

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and

to be effective Extrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior due to promised

rewards or threats of punishments

Observational Learning– learning by observing and imitating others

Modeling– process of observing and imitating behavior

Prosocial Behavior– positive, constructive, helpful behavior– opposite of antisocial behavior

Observational LearningMirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing

certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and

empathy

Albert Bandura wanted to study aggression in adolescents. He suggested that environment causes behavior, true; but behavior causes environment as well. He labeled this concept reciprocal determinism: The world and a person’s behavior cause each other.

The bobo doll studies:

*made of film of one of his students, a young woman, essentially beating up a bobo doll.

*showed his film to groups of kindergartners who, as you might predict, liked it a lot.

*when they were let out to play, the little kids started beating the daylights out of the bobo doll.

He called the phenomenon observational learning or modeling, and his theory is usually called social learning

theory.

Components of Thought

CONCEPTS: Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience.

*building blocks of thinking

*allow organization in systematic ways

CONCEPTS: Might be

*classes of objects (chairs, birds, birthday parties)

*properties (red, large)

*abstractions (truth, love)

*relations (smarter than….)

*procedures (how to tie your shoes)

*intentions (intention to break into a conversation)

CONCEPTS: TWO KINDS

Natural concepts: mental classifications that develop out of everyday experiences in the world. (birds, mother’s face, artichokes, Statue of Liberty)

Artificial concepts: defined by a set of rules or characteristics (dictionary definitions, mathematical formulas)

We organize much of our memory into CONCEPT HIERARCHIES.

Animal

Bird Fish

Canary Ostrich Shark Salmon

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Cognitive MapsMental, visual representation of the layout of one’s environmentexample- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Cognitive maps help you get to psychology class or drive your mom to the theatre or help you walk around your house.

Schema: Cluster of related concepts that provides a general conceptual framework for thinking about a topic, an event, an object, people or a situation in one’s life. (Zimbardo)

*provide contexts

*provide expectations

*provide features likely to be found when encountering familiar people or situations.

For example, take the word, TERMINAL.

Are you in:

*an airport?

*a hospital?

*an auto shop?

How does the meaning change?

We also have SCHEMAS about persons, roles, and ourselves. An event schema is called a SCRIPT.

We have scripts for going to restaurant, going to church,

going to the library, or making love.

Culture influences our scripts. U.S. servicewomen in the middle east had to change many behaviors taken for granted at home, such as walking unescorted in public or driving a car or wearing clothing that showed their faces and legs, when they went into Arab countries.

Conflicting scripts can make people awkward and difficult to understand. Sometimes it can be so uncomfortable, they don’t want to play the scene again.

INDUCTIVE REASONING: form of thinking using individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion.

The ice is cold = all ice is cold

DEDUCTIVE REASONING: form of thinking in which conclusions are inferred from premises, the conclusions are true if the premises are true (if this, then that)

All men are mortal & Socrates is a man = Socrates is mortal

SELECT A STRATEGY:

a) Trial and error (for simple problems)

b) Algorithms

c) HeuristicsALGORITHMS: formulas or procedures. If applied correctly, algorithms will always work.

*balance checkbook, figure gas mileage, calculate gradepoint average.

What abilities do good thinkers possess?

a) Identify the problem

b) Select a strategy

HEURISTICS: simple, basic rules or “rule of thumb”. (i.e.) “feed a cold, starve a fever” Heuristics do not guarantee a solution, but they give us a good start. Useful heuristics include:

a) Working backward

b) Searching for analogies. (if the new problem is similar to the one you’ve faced previously)

c) Breaking a big problem into smaller pieces

Obstacles to problem-solving include:

a) Mental set

b) Functional fixedness

c) Self-imposed limitations

Say this word 3 times.

SILK

What do cows drink?

Did you say milk?They actually drink water. . . . But this is an example of mental set.

OTHER OBSTACLES:

a) Lack of specific knowledge

b) Lack of interest

c) Low self-esteem

d) Fatigue

e) Drugs (even legal drugs)

f) Stress

g) Bias

BIAS

a) Confirmation bias: finding fault with information that doesn’t confirm your belief.

b) Hindsight bias: people overestimate their ability to have predicted an event

c) Anchoring bias: faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity.

1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 = ?

8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = ?When these equations are given to 2 separate groups of people to ESTIMATE, the average answer for #1 was 512, and #2 was 2250.

d) Representativeness bias: faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category.

e) Availability bias: faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience.

Marzano outlined 9 strategies most likely to improve student achievement:

1. Identifying similarities and differences2. Summarizing and note taking3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition4. Homework and practice5. Nonlinguistic representations6. Cooperative learning7. Setting objectives and providing feedback8. Generating and testing hypotheses9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers

Following the 1948 Convention of the American Psychological Association, B S Bloom took a lead in formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational process".

Three "domains" of educational activities were identified. • Cognitive Domain• Affective Domain • Psychomotor Domain

Bloom and his co-workers established a hierarchy of educational objectives, (Bloom's Taxonomy), which divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from the simplest behaviour to the most complex.

BLOOM’s TAXONOMY

High school students are rarely asked higher level questions:

Level 1: KnowledgeLevel 2: ComprehensionLevel 3: ApplicationLevel 4: AnalysisLevel 5: SynthesisLevel 6: Evaluation