AP Psychology-Midterm Review

2014-2015Units 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11

(Notes on Units 11 and 7B are not included since they were just covered in class-Terms for those units are on

the study guide)

Please Note:

These concepts are incomplete. You must add to them from old notes. Be sure to understand them at a deep level, being able to provide multiple examples, preferably personal examples. This will ensure a deeper comprehension of what is needed for success on the midterm and the AP Exam

Units 1 and 2

Eight Perspectives:1. Psychoanalytic-unconscious childhood experiences2. Behavioral-rewards (reinforcements) and punishments impact on behavior/learning3. Biological/biomedical-brain chemistry/body systems4. Evolutionary-reproduction/survival5. Humanistic-innate potential for growth6. Socio-cultural/Social Learning-imitation of models/one’s culture7. Biopsychosocial-combination of perspectives8. Cognitive-problem solving. language; interpretation of situations

Unit 2 - Research

positive correlation-as one variable increases, so does the other ; as one variable decreases, so does the othernegative correlation-one variable increases the other decreasesmean-average scoremode-most frequently occurring score (can be bimodal)median-middle score (even, must add and divide center scores)

Unit 2 Reviewlongitudinal study study same people over a long perioddisadvantage=expensive; drop outadvantage=same cohort, less confounding variablescross sectional study different cohorts at the same time, less expensive

and less time; disadvantage=different cohortsSurvey- questionnaire (can study more people, study things not ethical

through experiment)case study- in depth study of an individual (used for rare occurrences of

events/illnessesexperimental study-manipulation of Independent variable

(experimental group receives the treatment/control group does not) to see it’s effect on the dependent variable

Unit 2 Review placebo effect-expectations lead to expected results

operational definitions -clear definitions of IV and DV; purpose is replication of study, most needed aspect of a study so study can be refuted or verified (makes study scientific)

descriptive statistics describes data– mean, mode , median, standard deviation

statistical inference-conclusions drawn about the relationship between variables, from a sample to entire population

random sampling/representative sample -all in population have equal chance of selection, Rep. sample is only way to generalize results to population

random assignment-participants have equal chance of placement in control or experimental groups; lessons confounding variables

Unit 2 Review

normal curvedistribution of scores-68% fall within 1 SD above/below the mean

standard deviation -how far scores are from the mean

statistical significance - relationship between IV and DV not due to chance (.05 level of significance)

percentile scores – the same as or better than 72% of population/test takers

scatterplots - shows relationship between variables

Un it 2 Review

American Psychological Associations ethical guidelines for research:

1. Informed consent – participant’s permission, told potential risks, offered alternative activity

2. No harm to humans3. Minimal harm to animals4. Debriefing to offset deception5. Confidentiality- cannot share names (includes test

scores-UNLESS WRITTEN PERMISSION PROVIDED)

Unit 5 Consciousness circadian rhythm – 24 hour biological clock regulated

by lightsomnambulism – sleep walking, non-REMnarcolepsy – uncontrolled sleep, go into REM

(amphetamines)sleep terrors – appearance of terror, non-REM, no

memorysleep apnea – interrupted breathing and brief

awakeninginsomnia - trouble falling/staying asleep; early waking

Unit 5 Consciousness stimulants- Amphetamines-excite CNS

depressants- alcohol, barbiturates-slows the CNSwithdrawal- Physical symptoms when no drugtolerance- needing increasing amount of drug to get same effecthallucinogens- causehallucinations=visual/auditory perceptions, Marijuana, LSD

Unit 5 Review

Hypnosisstate theory =actual alternative consciousness; pain control due to diversion of attentionrole theory=playing a role that is expected

Unit 6-Learning ReviewClassical Conditioning-Pavlov (behavioral

perspective)• UCS (Natural-food)• UCR (Natural to UCR-Salivation)• CS (Paired with UCS-food and bell –CS)• CR (Salivation is Result of CS-bell)

Unit 6 –Learning ReviewOperant Conditioning – BF SkinnerPositive Reinforcement=increase behavior (buckling seat belt);

money pops out of dash(reward)Response to a reward is called an Operant ResponseNegative Reinforcement=increases behavior by removing a noxious

stimulus (seat belt buzz, I buckle; painful sound endsShaping= reward close behaviors (successive approximations) to desired behavior (ex. Potty training)

Discrimination= only responding to the original conditioned stimulus in Classical Conditioning

Generalization= Responding to stimuli similar to the CS (learning that spoons are table wear, but realizing that forks are table wear)

Extinction= CR no longer occurs because no pairing with the US or because of no reward in Classical Conditioning ; no reward presented in Operant Conditioning

Unit 6 Learning

• Schedules of reinforcement (fixed ratio and interval, varied ratio and interval)

• Robert Rescorla’s contingency model of classical conditioning=cognition plays a role in conditioning-must realize my behavior leads to outcome

• Latent learning= using things learned at a later time then when learned (esp. with modeling)

• Learned helplessness= do not try since your actions do not result in good outcome

• Biofeedback = use awareness of physiological responses to change those responses

• Habituation=No longer react to a repeated stimuli

Memory 7A procedural memory- non declarative, how to walk,

tie a knot, ride a bikeepisodic memory- declarative, events in our lives; diary-my trip to Niagara Fallssemantic memory – declarative; facts; where is Niagara Falls?declarative memory- can put into words (1. Episodic and 2. Semantic Memories)non-declarative memory- cannot put into words (1. Emotional and 2. Procedural Memories)serial position effect- items in beginning and end remembered more than in middle of event/list

Memory 7A retrograde amnesia can’t remember events before injury anterograde amnesia can’t remember events after injury-50

first datespriming-activating the semantic networks

Framing- the way the problem/situation is presented impacts one’s view/decision (car accident wording)

levels of processing theory- deep encoding ( by meaning) is best for input/recall proactive interference-old info. interferes with learning newretroactive interference-new learning interferes with oldelaborative rehearsal- using examples is best, esp. self referent encoding (personal examples)

Motivation and Emotion Unit 8A/BMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (People Sniff Because Everyone

Smells-Self Actualized make own choices, not influenced by others, innate need/life goal

Three Kinds of Conflict:1. Approach/Approach (FSU or UF)2. Approach/Avoidance (Good Option with Possible Bad

Outcome: Ask someone to prom-May reject you)3. Avoidance/Avoidance (Back Surgery or Continued Pain)Optimal Arousal TheoryDrive Reduction Theory-seek homeostasis (biological

equilibrium/balance) when physical need causes a state of tension (ex. Put jacket on when cold)

Incentive Theory- something outside pulls us to behavior (new car, getting a date, good grades, etc…)

Motivation and Emotion Unit 8A/BSympathetic (activates) and parasympathetic (calms) nervous systems

physiological reaction to threat/stress:Sympathetic: Pupils dilate, respiration increases, perspiration increases, heart

rate increases, digestion slows, mouth gets dryParasympathetic: oppositeYerk-Dodson Law and performance (arousal level and performance interact)=As

task difficulty Increases, lower arousal neededneeded; for easier task, higher arousal needed

Schachter Singer Two Factor Theory=Stimulus Pysiological Response (heart pounds)Interpret /Cognitive Appraisal of Heart Pound Emotional Experience (Love/Fear/Extreme Joy)

Facial feedback theory= When I smile I start to feel happyself-efficacy

Set Point Theory=Weight stays the same due to hunger and metabolism changes that work to maintain my ideal weighthomosexuality and genetic influence

Development-Unit 9

All of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Concepts/Stages:Assimialtion- information goes into existing schemaAccomodation- change or create new schema for new info. 1.Sensory Motor-object permanence2 . Preoperational-animism and egocentrism3. Concrete Operational-Conservation; reversibility; seriation 4. Formal Operations-Hypothetical ReasoningCarol Gilligan’s moral development concepts= male and females are

different in moral developmentAttachment concepts =secure attachment in infancy results in social

competence, trust in the worldHarry Harlow’s Study

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning– 3 levels• Preconventional (no-he may get caught and go to

jail)• Conventional (moral choice based on how others

will view them-they want to be seen as good-steal the drug so others would see him as a hero)• Postconventional=(morality of social rules are

evaluated rather then blindly accepting rules-transcends beyond society rules-ex., conscientious objector)

Erickson’s Psychosocial Development:

Development-Unit 9Habituation=infants do not show as much interest in previously seen (and therefore

learned)Type A and B Personalities-The anger of A connected to arteriosclerosis (heart

disease)Infant reflexes (see old notes)Visual Cliff Study=3D perception starts with crawling since fear of the visual cliff sets inThree Parenting Styles (permissive-do as you please, authoritative-fair, authoritarian-

dictator type)primary (needed for reproduction: testes, sperm production, ovaries, menstruation) verses secondary sex characteristics: facial hair, breasts, wide hips, etc…)

Imprinting and critical period=attachment needs to occur at a specified timeInstrumental aggression(aimed to get something-a toy from another child) verses

hostile aggression (just being mean) sex determination= by father (dad provides X or Y; mom provided an X) X=female;

Y=maleHomosexuality=genetic aspect as seen in identical twins

Personality –Unit 10Traits =consistent behavioral characteristics, more consistent over time than situation

Defense Mechanisms: defends ego against of unconscious desires• Sublimation=take out frustrations in a socially acceptable way (the gym)• Denial=refuse to believe reality (boyfriend would never cheat on me!)• Repression= Can not recall painful events (most disputed since painful events

difficult to forget)• Projection= see my faults in others (she is so lazy, when I am lazy)• Displacement= Take out aggression on a safe target (yell at brother when I had a

bad day at school)• Rationalization= Explain away failure or flaws• Regression= act immature (I whine when I do not get my way)• Reaction Formation= Behave opposite of what I feel (I am extra nice to someone I

dislike)

Ego: Conscious level , seeks to satisfy both ID and Super Ego Id: Impulsive, pleasure principalSuper-ego: Conscience, guilt over feelings and desires