ap language and composition: information and summer

AP Language and Composition: Information and Summer Assignments – 2021

Instructor: Mr. Treherne

Contact Information:

Email: [email protected]

Congratulations on your course selection of Advanced Placement Language & Composition. In this class you will be reading a

variety of texts and articles and you will learn how to be critical thinkers and writers. I have high expectations for this class and

demand students who are willing to put in the required effort necessary to succeed. My goal is for every student enrolled in the

class to take the AP Exam in May, giving you the chance to earn college credit. That requires dedication, enthusiasm, and hard

work for you and me.

This summer you must read the novel Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe. More than two million copies of Things Fall Apart

have been sold in the United States since it was first published here in 1959. Worldwide, there are eight million copies in print in

fifty different languages. This is Chinua Achebe's masterpiece and it is often compared to the great Greek tragedies, and currently

sells more than one hundred thousand copies a year in the United States. A simple story of a "strong man" whose life is dominated

by fear and anger, Things Fall Apart is written with remarkable economy and subtle irony. Uniquely and richly African, at the same

time it reveals Achebe's keen awareness of the human qualities common to men of all times and places.

You must read the novel and annotate the novel thoroughly. You will be completing two assignments for this novel. Be sure to

follow all instructions carefully. Both assignments are due the first day of school. Also, we will be analyzing the novel, and you

will have an exam on the novel the first week. You need a paper copy of the assignments or share or email me the assignments

before 8:00 the first day of school.

Be sure to contact me with any questions over the summer. Please do not wait until the week before the assignment is due to ask

questions. Manage your time wisely; start and finish early.

Assignment #1 – Analysis Entries – 20 points

Directions: You will complete 5 analysis entries for the novel Things Fall Apart. Your entries should be taken from the chapters as

you read from beginning to end. Do 1 entry for chapters 1-5; 1 entry for chapters 6-10; 1 entry for chapters 11-15; one entry

for chapters 16-20; 1 entry for chapters 20-25.

There are SEVEN categories you will be analyzing for the novel. You must choose at least TWO points listed from FIVE

citations when completed. There is an example below for you to review.

1. Reader Response: Be able to trace your reactions, to ask questions in class, to remind yourself when you find answers to

earlier questions. This should help note the writer’s effectiveness.

Make note of the following:

-Your reactions/emotional responses (humor, surprise, sadness, anger, frustration, etc.)

-Your questions or lack of understanding or doubts (why?)

-Your revelations (when things become clear to you, and/or you link ideas)

-Similarities to other works with which you are familiar

-Passages that strike you artistically/aesthetically and why

mailto:[email protected]

2. Speaker: Think about who the writer is and what he NEEDS to communicate. This should help you determine credibility


- Introductory facts (author background, relationship to the topic)

- Ethos – how does the author establish credibility and character on the topic?

- Note words and language that indicate tone

- Note when the author directly or indirectly states how he or she feels

- Observe key lines that stand out as CRUCIAL to the author’s argument

3. Occasion: Think about what caused the author to write about this topic


- The author’s motivation for writing

- Historical, political, and social issues surrounding the topic

- The author’s personal reasons as well as the greater influences for the piece

- Evidence of views characteristic of the time period and culture surrounding the work

- Descriptions of class judgments, racism, gender bias, stereotypes, etc.

4. Audience: What kind of person did the author intend to view the piece? Does the author connect effectively?


- Evidence of who the author is trying to reach

- Where the author directly or indirectly addresses a specific audience

- Any “call to action” the author is issuing to the reader

- Pathos – does the author appeal to your sense emotion through anecdotes and figurative language?

5. Purpose: Why is the author writing the book, and is it effective?


- Specific reasons for writing (informing, persuading, arguing, refuting, exemplifying)

- Logos – the author’s appeal to reason. Examine how the author makes the reader believe in that purpose

6. Subject: What is the book discussing and why is the subject important


-Elements related to the problem or issue

-How the author develops or deepens the aspects of the problem or issue

-How the author shows the complications of the subject and the greater implications

7. Authorial Devices and Structures in the Argument: Think about techniques and how effective the author’s methods are for

the rhetorical purpose


- Changes in point of view

- Crucial language/vocabulary (words crucial to understanding the argument)

- Stylistic techniques (irony, satire, hyperbole, patterns, metaphors, or other literary devices)

- How the author’s structure influence the reader and relate to the subject, audience, and purpose

Example Format (You need 5 such entries)

Citation /Passage from the text with page # Paraphrase of Summary citation Analysis and Reaction to Citation

The author explains, “I played a lot of Monopoly growing up. Like most players, I loved drawing a yellow Community Chest card and discovering a “bank error” that allowed me to collect $200. It never occurred to me not to take the cash. After all, banks have plenty of money, and if one makes an error in your favor, why argue? I haven’t played Monopoly in 20 years, but I’d still take the $200 today. And what if a real bank made an error in my favor? That would be a tougher dilemma. Such things do happen” (Last Name, 1).

The author is remembering that a common childhood game had a positive moment when a player received “free” cash because a bank made a mistake. This is the way the book begins and sets up the idea of the Cheating Culture.

By beginning with a reference to a childhood game, the author reminds the audience of something that most people probably remember – not just the game, but the excitement of a “bank error” card. He also issues the question that “banks have plenty of money” so “why argue?” This really mimics what most people would probably say in real life to justify why they should keep money that isn’t rightfully theirs. He moves from this game topic to a suggestion that it could really happen (which he will explain later) and suggests it would be a “tougher dilemma.” It almost seems like this could be a sarcastic remark. I think many people would just take the money. We tend to view banks as huge institutions that they will not miss a few rogue dollars here and there. This idea that Wall Street continues to pay out bonuses while the “little guy” is barely getting by or may not even have a job is especially prevalent now. By this question, the author seems to be trying to get us to ask if we can even justify that type of thinking. Is this the right decision to make?

Assignment 2: Things Fall Apart – Literary Analysis Summer Essay – 30 points

For your essay on the novel Things Fall Apart, you will be writing a five-paragraph literary analysis of character’s growth.

Prompt: Write a literary analysis of Things Fall Apart in which you examine how Achebe uses literary devices to show a

character’s change in identity from the beginning of the novel to the end due to the cultural collision caused by the introduction of

Western ideas into Ibo culture. Choose only one character for this essay. Be sure to explain within each paragraph why the use of

the literary device is effective in showing the character’s development.

In your essay, analyze

1. How the collision of cultures challenges the character’s sense of identity

2. How the literary device is effective in portraying the character’s change from the beginning of the novel to the end

Reminders

-Have a strong thesis statement

-You must include at least 2 citations in each paragraph to support your claims/statements (however, make sure they don’t replace

your argument)

-Make sure quotes have POINT-EXAMPLE-CONNECTION format. Show how the quote supports your claim.

-DO NOT summarize, critically analyze the novel!

-Write in formal voice, no personal pronouns

-Keep literature in present tense

-12-point font

-MLA format

There is a PowerPoint on how to properly analyze and complete the essay. Please read it before beginning.

This is due the first day of school by 8:00am. Share it or email it.

Assignment 3: Rhetorical Terms

Directions: Familiarize yourself with the terms on the succeeding pages. It would be helpful if you create flashcards using index

cards. Place the term on one side and the definition and an example on the other side. These cards will be very helpful when

studying for your AP Exam. You will have a quiz each week for the first 5 weeks of school over these terms. Each quiz will be

worth 10-20 points and will be used in conjunction with classwork that we are doing in the first month.

Purpose: Knowing these terms will allow you to discuss an author’s work at a more sophisticated level

as you discuss how an author achieves his or her purpose.

Test Format: Section one – matching definition to term (not cumulative). Section two – you will have

small reading passages and you will identify which rhetorical device is being used (cumulative).

Missed Test: If you miss an exam and you are excused, you may make up the exam during XH Time in

the following week only. If you miss an exam and you are not excused, you will a receive a zero on the

quiz and no chance to make up the exam. There are no re-takes on exams. There is no final exam.

Test #1 “Allegory” – “Connotation”

Allegory – The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction

in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters

to personify an abstraction lie hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth

or a generalization about human existence. Ex. “Animal Farm” George Orwell

Alliteration - The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonants in two or more neighboring words

(as in “she sells sea shells). Although the term is not used frequently in the multiple-choice section, you

can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply

a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Allusion – A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an

event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or

mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of

allusion. Ex. “Plan ahead: it wasn’t raining when Noah built the ark” - Richard Cushing

Ambiguity (am-bi-gyoo-i-tee) - The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word,

phrase, sentence, or passage.

Analogy - A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them.

An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to

something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually

engaging. Ex. He that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which ignorance

produces, as to him that should extinguish the tapers of a lighthouse might justly be imputed the

calamities of shipwrecks.” Samuel Johnson

Anaphora - (uh-naf-er-uh) – One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or

words) is repeated at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences. Ex. “It was the best of

times; it was the worst of times.” “They are masters who instruct us without rod or ferule, without angry

words, without clothes or money.” – Richard de Bury

Glossary of Rhetorical Terms – AP English Language and Composition

Anecdote – A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most

frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person.

Antecedent (an-tuh-seed-nt) - The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP Language

exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group

of sentences.

Antithesis (an-tih-theh-sis) – Figure of balance in which two contrasting ideas are intentionally

juxtaposed, usually through parallel structure; a contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent phrases,

clauses, or sentences. Antithesis creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas.

Ex. “He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain that which he cannot lose” – Jim Elliot. “That’s

one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind” - Neil Armstrong

Aphorism – A terse statement of know authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle.

(If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism

can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.

Apostrophe – A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified

abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The

effect is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back: Ex. William

Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /England

hath need of thee.” “O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with time, virtue ever flourishing that

cleanseth its possessor from al venom! O heavenly gift of the divine bounty, descending from the

Father of lights, that thou mayest exalt the rational soul to the very heavens! Thou art the celestial

nourishment of the intellect…” - Richard de Bury

Asyndeton (uh-sin-di-tuhn): consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. This

can give the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored account.

Asyndetic lists can be more emphatic than if a final conjunction were used. Ex. On his return he

received medals, honors, treasures, titles, fame. They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking,

understanding.

Atmosphere – The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the

setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as

description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows

events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Chiasmus (kahy-az-muhs) - (From the Greek word for “criss-cross,” a designation based on the Greek

letter “chi,” written X). Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which two successive phrases or clauses are

parallel in syntax but reverse the order of the analogous words. Ex. “The land was ours before we

were the land’s” - Robert Frost (N, V, Pro: Pro, V, N) “Pleasure’s a sin, and sometimes sin’s a pleasure”

– Lord Byron Sitting together at lunch, the kids talked incessantly; but they said nothing at all sitting in

the dentist’s office.


Clause – A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause

expresses a complete thought and can sand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause

cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that

you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other.

You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Colloquial/colloquialism (kuj-loh-kwee-uhl) - The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not

generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone.

Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Coherence - A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning

of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence;

and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the unit that by their progressive

and logical arrangement, make for coherence.

Conceit - A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy

between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the

unusual comparison being made.

Connotation - The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning.

Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

Test #2 “Denotation” to “Imagery” Denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word,

devoid of any emotion attitude, or color.

Diacope – repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or phrase: word/phrase X, . . .,

word/phrase X. Ex. We will do it, I tell you; we will do it. We give thanks to Thee, O God, we give

thanks (Psalm 75:1)

Diction – Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their

correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s

diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can

complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices,

etc., creates an author’s style.

Didactic (dahy-dak-tik) – From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic works have the

primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

Enumeratio – Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and

may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences; the listing or

detailing of the parts of something. Ex. I love her eyes, her hair, her nose, her cheeks, her lips. “Who’s


gonna turn down a Junior Mint? It’s chocolate; it’s peppermint; it’s delicious . . . It’s very refreshing!” –

Kramer (Seinfeld).

Expletive (ek-spli-tiv) - Figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting

normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to the words on either side of the expletive. Ex. in fact, of

course, to be sure, indeed, I suppose, I hope, you know, you see, clearly, in any event, in effect,

certainly, remarkably.

Euphemism (yoo-fuh-miz-uhm) - From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable

or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be sued to

adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Ex.

Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.

Exposition - In essays, one of the four chief types of composition, the others being argumentation,

description, and narration. The purpose of exposition is to explain something. In drama, the exposition

is the introductory material, which creates the tone, gives the setting, and introduces the characters and

conflict.

Extended metaphor – A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout the

work.

Figurative language – Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually

meant to be imaginative and vivid.

Figure of speech – A device used to produce figurate language. Many compare dissimilar things.

Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox,

personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Generic conventions – This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define

each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and

political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work

from those dictated by convention.

Genre – The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose,

poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many

subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction

(novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be

divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy,

melodrama, farce, etc. ON the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the

following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political,

scientific, and nature writing.

Homily (hom-uh-lee)- This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious

talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.


Hyperbole (hahy-pur-buh-lee) – A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement.

Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole

produces irony. Ex. “So first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear

itself - Franklin D. Roosevelt This stuff is used motor oil compared to the coffee you make, my love.

Hypophora – Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, often

at length, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one’s own question(s). A common

usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use the paragraph to answer it.

You can use hypophora to raise questions which you think the reader obviously has on his/her mind and

would like to see formulated and answered. Ex. “When the enemy struck on that June day of 1950,

what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism

of its youth.” - Dwight D. Eisenhower Imagery - The sensory details or figurative language used to

describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imager y uses terms related to

the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader and

deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present

visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree

of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being). An author may use complex imagery

while simultaneously employing other figure s of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition,

this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. ON the AP exam, pay attention to how an

author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

Test #3 “Inference” to “Parallelism”

Inference/infer – To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-

choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable

inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct

answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong. You must be

careful to note the connotation – negative or positive – of the choices.

Invective – an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attach using strong, abusive language.

Irony/ironic - The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference

between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony

used in language; (1) In a verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s)

true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the

characters and the readers think ought to happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to

a character in a play or piece of fiction, but know to the reader, audience, or other characters in the

work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it’s used to create poignancy or humor.


Juxtaposition (juhk-stuh-puh-zish-uhn) - When two words, phrases, images, ideas are placed close

together or side by side for comparison or contrast.

Litotes (lahy-toh-teez) – From the Greek word “simple” or “plain.” Litotes is a figure of thought in which

a point is affirmed by negating its opposite. It is a special form of understatement, where the surface

denial serves, through ironic contrast, to reinforce the underlying assertion. Ex. He’s no fool (which

implies he is wise). Not uncommon (which implies that the act is frequent)

Loose sentence - a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed

by wdependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the

independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose

sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose

style.

Metaphor – A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution

of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid,

imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Metonymy (mi-ton-uh-mee) – A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name.”

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another

closely associated with it. A news release that claims “the White House declared” rather that “the

President declared” is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional

response.

Mood – This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is

grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker’s attitude. The indicative mood is used only for

factual sentences. For example, “Joe eats too quickly.” The subjective mod is used to express

conditions contrary to fact. For example, “If I were you, I’d get another job.” The imperative mood is

used for commands. For example, “Shut the door!” The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning

the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.

In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

Narrative – The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Onomatopoeia (on-uh-mat-uh-pee-uh) – A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the

sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur.

If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

Oxymoron – From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the

author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo

shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but

there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect which the author achieves

with this term.


Paradox – A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon

closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

Parallelism – Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek

roots meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words,

phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve but is not limited to

repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of

parallelism begins Charles Dickens’s novel A Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the

worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was

the epoch of incredulity . . .” The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an

organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a

musical rhythm.

Test #4 “Parody” to “Sarcasm”

Parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic

effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerated distinctive features of the original. As

ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to

illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but

poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion

and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work.

Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original

Pedantic (puh-dan-tik) - An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly

scholarly, academic, or bookish.

Periodic sentence – A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This

independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example: “Ecstatic

with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout!” The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis

and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.

Personification – A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or

inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to

make these abstractions, animal, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

Polysyndeton (paulee-sin-dih-tawn) – Figure of addition and emphasis which intentionally employs a

series of conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) not normally found in successive words,

phrases or clauses; the deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words or clauses. The

effect is a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up – a persistence or intensity. Ex.

They read and studied and wrote and drilled. I laughed and talked and flunked. “It’s [football] a way of

life, really, to those particular people who are a part of it. It’s more than a game, and regardless of what

level it’s played upon, it still demands those attributes of courage and stamina and coordinated


efficiency and goes even beyond that for [it] is a means – it provides a mental and physical relaxation to

everybody that watches it, like yourself.” - Vince Lombardi

Point of view – In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions

of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) the first-person narrator tells the story with

the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a

participant (character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action).

2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.”

There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the “third

person omniscient” point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge., present the thoughts and

actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and

thinks at any given moment. The “third person limited omniscient” point of view, as its name implies,

presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining

characters. This definition applies in question in the multiple-choice section. However, on the essay

portion of the exam, the “point of view” carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze

the author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude.

Predicate adjective – One type of subject complement is an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective

clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the

subject.

Predicate nominative - A second type of subject complement - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause

that names the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the

predicate of the sentence.

Prose – One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and non-fiction, including all its

forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length

of the line Repetition - The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such

as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

Rhetoric – From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing

effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Rhetorical modes - This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and purposes of the major

kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: (1) The

purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,

relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently

expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view,

by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader.

Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action.

(3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action

so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in

description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be

straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell


a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of

descriptive writing. These four modes are sometimes referred to as mode of discourse.

Rhetorical Question [erotesis] – differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer because

its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a yes or no answer would suffice. It is used

for effect, emphasis, or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from the fact at hand.

Ex. We shrink from change; yet is there anything that can come into being without it? What does

Nature hold dearer, or more proper to herself? Could you have a hot bath unless the firewood

underwent some change? Could you be nourished if the food suffered no change? Do you not see,

then, that change in yourself is the same order, and no less necessary to Nature? --Marcus Aurelius

Sarcasm – From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is

meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony is a device, but not all ironic

statements are sarcastic, that is, intended to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and

insightful; when done poorly, it’s simply cruel

Test #5 “Satire” to “Wit”

Satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or

ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a

style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used

effectively the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The

effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought

provoking and insightful about the human condition.

Semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and

psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Style - The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an

author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors’

styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating

that author’s style)/Compare, for example, Jonathan’s Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to

Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on

how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling,

bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples. (2) Classification of

authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and

comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the

Renaissance of the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or

realist movement.


Subject complement – The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clauses that follows a linking verb

and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing

it. The former is the technically a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective. Multiple-choice

questions.

Subordinate clause - Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any

accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot

stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate

clause depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning.

Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses 0 for example: although, because,

unless, if even though, since, as soon as, while who, when, where, how and that.

Syllogism (sil- uh-jiz-uhm)– From the Greek for “reckoning together, “ a syllogism (or syllogistic-

reasoning or syllogistic logic is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first

one called “major” and the second, “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently

cited example proceeds as follows; Major premise: All men are mortal Minor premise: Socrates is a

man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. A Syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two

premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second

(“All men”).

Symbol/symbolism – Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a

symbol is something concrete – such as object, action, character, or scene – that represents something

more abstract. However, symbols, and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies

symbols in three categories: (1) Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent

ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing

love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested with

meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag

or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scales of justice for

lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a

variety of works and are generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated as

is the whale in Moby Dick and the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what

abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

Synecdoche (si-nek-duh-kee) – is a type of metaphor in which the part stands for the whole, the whole

for a part, the genus for the species, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made, or in

short, any portion , section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself (or vice versa). Ex. Farmer

Joes has two hundred head of cattle [whole cattle], and three hired hands [whole people]. If we had

some wheels [whole vehicle], I’d put on my best threads [clothes] and ask for Jane’s hand [hopefully her

whole person] in marriage.

Syntax – The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar

to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction

refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some questions about


how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces

effects.

Theme - The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated

in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or

argumentative writing.

Thesis – In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or a group of sentences that directly

expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by

analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proved the thesis.

Tone – Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both.

Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work

would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone

are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

Transition – A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in

expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A

few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for

example, in addition, likewise, similarly and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more

subtle means of transition. We will discuss these methods later.

Understatement – The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant

than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of

hyperbole. Ex. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown

area. Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for

the worse. – Jonathan Swift

Undertone - An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface,

for example, a work may have threatening undertones. William Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper” from

the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone.

Wit – In modern usage, intellectually amazing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is

humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks.

Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic

understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early

seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to

articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

Information in handout compiled from the following resources:

* Essential Literary Terms with Exercises – Sharon Hamilton * A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices –

Robert A. Harris [http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm] * American Rhetoric: Rhetorical Figures in

Sound [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/rhetoricaldevicesinsound.htm] * “Glossary of Terms” – V.

Stevenson

Assignment 5: Rhetorical Precis (3)

Directions: Read all attached documents & be ready for class discussion during the first week of class. For each article, you

must write a rhetorical précis paragraph. See attached instructions. This work is a snapshot of the level of reading, writing, and

thinking that will be required of you throughout the year in AP English Language and Composition

Rhetorical Précis Assignment: “Rhetorical Précis” is a fancy way of saying “paragraph of introduction and analysis.” For JFK’s

inaugural speech, The Constitution, and The Bill of Rights, you are required to write one paragraph of rhetorical précis on

each article (3 different paragraphs total). For JFK’s speech, focus on appeals to ethos, logos and pathos as you read and

write (read the handouts on rhetoric for this information). 15 points (5 points for each paragraph).

The following is an example of the rhetorical précis as well as directions on how to formulate each sentence. Please adhere to this

format.

AP Language: Rhetorical Précis

Sentence #1: Name of author, (optional: a phrase describing the author), the genre and title of the work, a rhetorically accurate verb

(such as "assert," "argue," "suggest," "imply," "claim,"), and a THAT clause containing the major assertion (thesis statement) of the

work

Sentence #2: An explanation of how the author develops and/or supports the thesis usually in chronological order.

Sentence #3: A statement of the author’s apparent purpose, followed by an "in order" phrase

Sentence #4: A description of the intended audience and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience

Example:

Toni Morrison, in her essay "Disturbing Nurses and the Kindness of Sharks," implies that racism in the United States has affected

the craft and process of American novelists. Morrison supports her implication by describing how Ernest Hemingway writes about

black characters in his novels and short stories. Her purpose is to make her readers aware of the cruel reality of racism underlying

some of the greatest works of American literature in order to help them examine the far-reaching effects racism has not only on

those discriminated against but also on those who discriminate. She establishes a formal and highly analytical tone with her

audience of racially mixed (but probably mainly white), theoretically sophisticated readers and critical interpreters of American

literature.

- Adapted from Dr. William Banks http://english.ecu.edu/~wpbanks/eng8601/8601precis.html

Sentence #1: Name of author, [optional: a phrase describing the author], the genre and title of the work, a rhetorically accurate verb

(such as "assert," "argue," "suggest," "imply," "claim,"), and a THAT clause containing the major assertion (thesis statement) of the

work

Sentence #2: An explanation of how the author develops and/or supports the thesis usually in chronological order.

Sentence #3: A statement of the author’s apparent purpose, followed by an "in order" phrase

Sentence #4: A description of the intended audience and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience

John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address 20 January 1961 A study in Ethos, Pathos and Logos (rhetorical appeals)

Vice President Johnson, Mr. Speaker, Mr. Chief Justice, President Eisenhower, Vice President Nixon, President Truman,

Reverend Clergy, fellow citizens:

We observe today not a victory of party but a celebration of freedom--symbolizing an end as well as a beginning--signifying

renewal as well as change. For I have sworn before you and Almighty God the same solemn oath our forbears prescribed nearly a

century and three-quarters ago.

The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all

forms of human life. And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe--the

belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God.

We dare not forget today that we are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend

and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans--born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined

by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage--and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human

rights to which this nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world.

Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support

any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.

This much we pledge--and more.

To those old allies whose cultural and spiritual origins we share, we pledge the loyalty of faithful friends. United there is little

we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do--for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds

and split asunder.

To those new states whom we welcome to the ranks of the free, we pledge our word that one form of colonial control shall not

have passed away merely to be replaced by a far more iron tyranny. We shall not always expect to find them supporting our view.

But we shall always hope to find them strongly supporting their own freedom--and to remember that, in the past, those who

foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside.

To those people in the huts and villages of half the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery, we pledge our best

efforts to help them help themselves, for whatever period is required--not because the communists may be doing it, not because we

seek their votes, but because it is right. If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.

To our sister republics south of our border, we offer a special pledge--to convert our good words into good deeds--in a new

alliance for progress--to assist free men and free governments in casting off the chains of poverty. But this peaceful revolution of

hope cannot become the prey of hostile powers. Let all our neighbors know that we shall join with them to oppose aggression or

subversion anywhere in the Americas. And let every other power know that this Hemisphere intends to remain the master of its

own house.

To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have

far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support--to prevent it from becoming merely a forum for invective--

to strengthen its shield of the new and the weak--and to enlarge the area in which its writ may run.

Finally, to those nations who would make themselves our adversary, we offer not a pledge but a request: that both sides begin

anew the quest for peace, before the dark powers of destruction unleashed by science engulf all humanity in planned or accidental

self-destruction.

We dare not tempt them with weakness. For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that

they will never be employed.

But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course--both sides overburdened by the

cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain

balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind's final war.

So let us begin anew--remembering on both sides that civility is not a sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject to proof.

Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.

Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms--and bring the

absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations.

Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts,

eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths and encourage the arts and commerce.

Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah--to "undo the heavy burdens . . . (and) let the

oppressed go free."

And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion, let both sides join in creating a new endeavor, not a

new balance of power, but a new world of law, where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved.

All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of

this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.

In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course. Since this country was

founded, each generation of Americans has been summoned to give testimony to its national loyalty. The graves of young

Americans who answered the call to service surround the globe.

Now the trumpet summons us again--not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need--not as a call to battle, though embattled

we are-- but a call to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle, year in and year out, "rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation"--a

struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease and war itself.

Can we forge against these enemies a grand and global alliance, North and South, East and West, that can assure a more fruitful

life for all mankind? Will you join in that historic effort?

In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum

danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility--I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other

people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all

who serve it--and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.

And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.

My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and

sacrifice which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go

forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God's work must truly be our own.

[Constitution for the United States of America]

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide

for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain

and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article. I.

Section. 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate

and House of Representatives.

Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several

States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State

Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of

the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union,

according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those

bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons [Modified by Amendment

XIV]. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and

within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not

exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be

made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations

one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North

Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill

such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chose their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof

[Modified by Amendment XVII], for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three

Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the

Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every

second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the

Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such

Vacancies [Modified by Amendment XVII].

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United

States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chose their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall

exercise the Office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation.

When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the

Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any

Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to

Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State

by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of

choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December [Modified by

Amendment XX], unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each

shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the

Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence

of two thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their

Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth

of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any

other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section. 6.The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out

of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from

Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any

Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority

of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no

Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Section. 7.All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with

Amendments as on other Bills.

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the

President of the United States;[2] If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in

which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such

Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other

House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all

such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against

the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days

(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless

the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except

on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall

be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives,

according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section. 8.The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for

the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the

United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to

their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the

Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the

Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession

of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like

Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of

Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; — And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers

vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section. 9.The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be

prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such

Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety

may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be

taken.

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another; nor shall

Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and

Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall,

without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King,

Prince, or foreign State.

Section. 10.No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money;

emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post

facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be

absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws; and the net Produce of all Duties and

Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall

be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter

into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such

imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Article. II.

Section. 1.The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the

Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of

Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person

holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an

Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes

for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to

the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all

the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such

Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have

an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if

no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in

chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; a quorum for this

Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a

Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the

Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice

President [Modified by Amendment XII].

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall

be the same throughout the United States.

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be

eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty

five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties

of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal,

Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and

such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected [Modified by Amendment XXV].

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished

during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the

United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm)

that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and

defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section. 2.The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several

States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in

each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to

grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators

present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other

public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not

herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such

inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions

which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their

Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both

Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn

them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the

Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment

for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Article. III.

Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the

Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices

during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during

their Continuance in Office.

Section. 2.The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United

States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public

Ministers and Consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall

be a Party; — to Controversies between two or more States; — between a State and Citizens of another State [Modified by

Amendment XI]; — between Citizens of different States; — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of

different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme

Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction,

both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said

Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the

Congress may by Law have directed.

Section. 3.Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving

them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act,

or on Confession in open Court.

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood,

or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Article. IV.

Section. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other

State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved,

and the Effect thereof.

Section. 2.The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State,

shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having

Jurisdiction of the Crime.

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law

or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such

Service or Labour may be due [Modified by Amendment XIII].

Section. 3.New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the

Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the

Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property

belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United

States, or of any particular State.

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each

of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened),

against domestic Violence.

Article. V.

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on

the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in

either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths

of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by

the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in

any

Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be

deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article. VI.

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United

States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which

shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall

be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and

judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this

Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article. VII.

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States

so ratifying the Same.

The Word, "the," being interlined between the seventh and eighth Lines of the first Page, The Word "Thirty" being partly written on

an Erazure in the fifteenth Line of the first Page, The Words "is tried" being interlined between the thirty second and thirty third

Lines of the first Page and the Word "the" being interlined between the forty third and forty fourth Lines of the second Page.

Attest William Jackson Secretary

done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one

thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof

We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

Go. WASHINGTON — Presidt. and deputy from Virginia

New Hampshire { JOHN LANGDON NICHOLAS GILMAN Massachusetts { NATHANIEL GORHAM RUFUS KING

[Bill of Rights]

The conventions of a number of the States having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to

prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added.

Article the first [Not Ratified]

After the first enumeration required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty

thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there

shall be not less than one hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every forty thousand persons, until the

number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred; after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there

shall not be less than two hundred Representatives, nor more than one Representative for every fifty thousand persons.

Article the second [Amendment XXVII - Ratified 1992]

No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of

Representatives shall have intervened.

Article the third [Amendment I]

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the

freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of

grievances. Article the fourth [Amendment II][4]

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be

infringed.

Article the fifth [Amendment III]

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner

to be prescribed by law.

Article the sixth [Amendment IV]

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall

not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing

the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Article the seventh [Amendment V]

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand

Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor

shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal

case to be a witness against

himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,

without just compensation.

Article the eighth [Amendment VI]

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and

district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be

informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for

obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Article the ninth [Amendment VII]

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and

no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common

law.

Article the tenth [Amendment VIII]

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Article the eleventh [Amendment IX]

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Article the twelfth [Amendment X]

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States

respectively, or to the people.

Notes:

4. In the Congressional Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, Page 97, at

http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=220, the first and third commas are omitted,

so that it reads:

A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be

infringed.

The question remains open of where those additional, and grammatically spurious, commas came from, but they do not change the

legal meaning of the provision, and it would not be erroneous to omit them.

INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC

Directions: Read & highlight this information. Be ready to excel on a test on this material.

Rhetoric is the ancient art of argumentation and discourse. When we write or speak to convince others of what we believe, we are

"rhetors." When we analyze the way rhetoric works, we are "rhetoricians." The earliest known studies of rhetoric come from the

Golden Age, when philosophers of ancient Greece discussed logos, ethos, and pathos. Writers in the Roman Empire adapted and

modified the Greek ideas. Across the centuries, medieval civilizations also adapted and modified the theories of rhetoric. Even

today, many consider the study of rhetoric a central part of a liberal arts education.

One assumption implicit in the art of rhetoric is that people--even intelligent people--can disagree with each other. Sometimes they

disagree with each other about deeply held beliefs. When such disagreements become pronounced, there are two typical results--

either they begin to fight, or they engage in debate. The choice is up to every country and every citizen--do we solve our problems

by using a bullet or by engaging in rational discourse? Mild ethos or a military invasion? Pathos or plastique? Rhetoric removes

disagreement from the arena of violence and turns it into debate--a healthy and necessary step in any democracy. For any headway

to occur in a debate, wise participants should begin through figuring out what assumptions drive each group. Usually, when two

groups disagree, it is because they do not share certain assumptions. The rhetor must assess her audience and then figure out what

assumptions operate in her own argument and then what assumptions operate in the arguments made by others.

Common Rhetorical Mistakes:

The best arguments make use of shared assumptions--beliefs that both the writer and the reader can agree about even if they don't

yet agree about the entire argument. It's often hard to find this common ground, but once a rhetor does find it, that clever writer can

tailor her argument in an essay around that shared belief. Many amateur rhetors think of debate as an "us-versus-them" sort of

affair, and that the readers who disagree are the enemy whose inferior arguments must be ground into the dirt. Accordingly, they

mistakenly believe that ridiculing or attacking these mistaken beliefs is the most effective way to "win" the argument. These

approaches are not usually the best means of persuasion. Such approaches do not constitute good rhetoric (or good manners, for

that matter).

Master rhetors find it useful to think of debate as a cooperative, honest venture. This belief works for both a practical and an

idealistic reason. On a practical level, people who feel insulted become unnecessarily defensive. Defensive people do not tend to be

open-minded about new ideas coming from the mouth that just spewed venom upon the listeners. As a writer or speaker, it is far

better to treat those who disagree with you respectfully. If the writer acknowledges disagreement, and acknowledges that her

opponents have legitimate points, and carefully considers their concerns, it is far more likely these dissenting souls will consider

her worth listening to. A pinch of politeness will work far better than a pound of verbal abuse. That's the practical reason for

considering debate as a cooperative rather than confrontational practice.

In terms of idealism, there is a second reason to think of debate as cooperative rather than confrontational. Suppose each debater

doesn't simply seek to "win" the argument for the sake of winning, but each one honestly wants to arrive at the truth, or the best

solution, or the most logical conclusion. One participant presents the very best argument he can think up, offering the best evidence

to support his case. Likewise, his "opponent" (who believes differently than he does) presents the very best case she can think up,

offering the best evidence to support her case. If both approach the issue with an open mind, and are both prepared to change their

minds after weighing the evidence carefully, the odds are pretty good that the best case will prevail. They have unleashed their best

arguments, without seeking to trick or mislead each other, and the one with the most evidence or the most persuasive reasoning

wins the day. That means every idea gets a fair shot, and the not-so-great ideas tend to fall before the better-than-average ideas, and

in turn the better-than-average ideas tend to give way before the bestwe've-seen-thus-far arguments. If people are trying to create a

personal policy, determine a course of action for their community, or even just plan something simple like a bedroom's layout, such

a debate is a healthy way to

"test-drive" many possible courses of action. It lets people locate potential problems or shortcomings in each solution before going

to the work of implementing any one option. It helps people spot logical fallacies in their own arguments that they didn't notice

before. That's a useful endeavor, one we should encourage in the public arena generally.

For such a system to work, each participant has to honestly want to find the answer by an efficient and thorough discussion. The

point isn't merely to win the debate. As a result, certain techniques that might help one win the debate are ultimately self-

destructive. For instance, falsifying information, misrepresenting data, and bolstering one's case through deception, lies, logical

fallacies, or exaggeration--such techniques are not good rhetoric. They do not lead to the best possible answer, but instead make a

weak answer appear better than it really is. The rhetor may think he's won his argument by engaging in this sort of trickery, but in

actual point of fact, the entire community involved in that decision has lost by accepting an inferior substitute. That's the idealistic

reason we should consider debate as a cooperative, honest venture.

How Does Rhetoric Work? With that caveat in mind, how does one make an argument persuasive enough to change the beliefs of

another person? In classical Greek rhetoric, there are three basic approaches--three "rhetorical appeals"--one can use to make a

convincing argument. They include these three items:

Logos (using logical arguments such as induction and deduction) Pathos (creating an emotional reaction in the audience) Ethos

(projecting a trustworthy, authoritative, or charismatic image)

You can click on any one of the terms above for a slightly longer discussion and some links. In addition to balancing logic,

emotion, and charisma, the rhetor also has to adapt the argument, tone, and approach for the specific audience. This audience

adaptation takes into account the assumptions of that audience, and analyzes the spoken and unspoken assumptions behind a

specific line of argument.

Rhetoric also involves language as an art. We have all heard, at some point in our lives, a particularly eloquent speaker. That

speaker had good rhetoric. Rhetoric also involves what are often called "The Flowers of Rhetoric." These include inventio (the

techniques for thinking up the points to discuss), schemes (rhetorical devices that involve artful patterns in sentence structure) and

tropes (rhetorical devices involving shifts in the meaning or use of words).

(More on these later!)

Wheeler, Kip. “Rhetoric.” Carson-Newman University Teacher Pages. 2012. Web. 5 June 2012.

Scholarly Definitions of Rhetoric

Plato: [Rhetoric] is the "art of enchanting the soul." (The art of winning the soul by discourse.)

Aristotle: Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular case all of the available means of persuasion."

Cicero: "Rhetoric is one great art comprised of five lesser arts: inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronunciatio." Rhetoric

is "speech designed to persuade."

Quintilian: "Rhetoric is the art of speaking well" or "...good man speaking well."

Francis Bacon: The duty and office of rhetoric is to apply reason to imagination for the better moving of the will.

George Campbell: "[Rhetoric] is that art or talent by which discourse is adapted to its end. The four ends of discourse are to

enlighten the understanding, please the imagination, move the passion, and influence the will."

Henry Ward Beecher: “Not until human nature is other than what it is, will the function of the living voice-the greatest force on

earth among men-cease...I advocate, therefore, in its full extent, and for every reason of humanity, of patriotism, and of religion, a

more thorough culture of oratory and I define oratory to be the art of influencing conduct with the truth set home by all the

resources of the living man.”

I. A. Richards: Rhetoric is the study of misunderstandings and their remedies.

Richard Weaver: Rhetoric is that "which creates an informed appetition for the good."

Erika Lindemann: "Rhetoric is a form of reasoning about probabilities, based on assumptions people share as members of a

community."

Philip Johnson: "Rhetoric is the art of framing an argument so that it can be appreciated by an audience."

Andrea Lunsford: "Rhetoric is the art, practice, and study of human communication."

Kenneth Burke: "The most characteristic concern of rhetoric [is] the manipulation of men's beliefs for political ends....the basic

function of rhetoric [is] the use of words by human agents to form attitudes or to induce actions in other human agents."

George Kennedy: Rhetoric in the most general sense may perhaps be identified with the energy inherent in communication: the

emotional energy that impels the speaker to speak, the physical energy expanded in the utterance, the energy level coded in the

message, and the energy experienced by the recipient in decoding the message.

Lloyd Bitzer: "...rhetoric is a mode of altering reality, not by the direct application of energy to objects, but by the creation of

discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action."

Douglas Ehninger: "[Rhetoric is] that discipline which studies all of the ways in which men may influence each other's thinking and

behavior through the strategic use of symbols."

Gerard A. Hauser: "Rhetoric is an instrumental use of language. One person engages another person in an exchange of symbols to

accomplish some goal. It is not communication for communication's sake. Rhetoric is communication that attempts to coordinate

social action. For this reason, rhetorical communication is explicitly pragmatic. Its goal is to influence human choices on specific

matters that require immediate attention."

C. H. Knoblauch: "...rhetoric is the process of using language to organize experience and communicate it to others. It is also the

study of how people use language to organize and communicate experience. The word denotes both distinctive human activity and

the "science" concerned with understanding that activity."

John Locke: "[Rhetoric,] that powerful instrument of error and deceit."

Charles Bazerman: "The study of how people use language and other symbols to realize human goals and carry out human

activities...ultimately a practical study offering people great control over their symbolic activity."

Michael Hyde and Craig Smith: "The primordial function of rhetoric is to 'make-known' meaning both to oneself and to others.

Meaning is derived by a human being in and through the interpretive understanding of reality. Rhetoric is the process of making

known that meaning. Is not rhetoric defined as pragmatic communication, more concerned with the contemporary audiences and

specific questions than with universal audiences and general questions?"

Alfred North Whitehead: "The creation of the world -- said Plato -- is the victory of persuasion over force. The worth of men

consists in their liability to persuasion."

Samuel M. Edelman: "Rhetoric can be defined as the art or method of reconciling...individual and systemic goals and constraints."

(JCR Sept 2003)

Andrew King and Jim Kuypers: "The strategic use of communication, oral or written, to achieve specifiable goals." (The Art of

Rhetorical Criticism, 2004)

Thomas B. Farrell: Rhetoric is an acquired competency, a manner of thinking that invents possibilities for persuasion, conviction,

action, and judgments." (The Norms of Rhetorical Culture, 1993)

Richard E. Vatz: "This [is the] sine qua non of rhetoric: the art of linguistically or symbolically creating salience. After salience is

created, the situation must be translated into meaning.“ (Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1973)

Michael E. Eidenmuller: "Rhetoric is a rational study and artful practice of human symbol use (especially if not exclusively with

words) when and where those symbols target identifiable communities of interest to create, enhance, undermine, or otherwise

influence human belief, attitude, emotion, judgment, behavior." (Voice of America Interview, 2011, and modified for print)

Eidenmuller, Michael E. “Scholarly Definitions of Rhetoric.” American Rhetoric. 2012. Web. 5 June 2012.

ap language and composition: information and summer

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