ap human geography: industrialization and economic development · 2021. 4. 18. · ap human...

AP Human Geography: Industrialization and EconomicDevelopment

Written and Compiled by the ProcrastiNote TeamLast Updated: April 3, 2021

Contents

1 The Origin and Influences of Urbanization 3

1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Cities Across the World 7

2.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Cities and Globalization 9

3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 The Size and Distribution of Cities 11

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

5 The Internal Structure of Cities 15

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

6 Density and Land Use 22

6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

7 Infrastructure 23

7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

AP Human Geography Industrialization and Economic Development

7.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Urban Sustainability 25

8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

9 Urban Data 26

9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

10 Challenges of Urban Changes 27

10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2710.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability 30

11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3011.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

12 TL;DR 31

A Credits 36

A.1 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36A.2 External Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36A.3 Image Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

B Extra Resources 37

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1 The Origin and Influences of Urbanization

1.1 Overview

Terms to Know• urban area: a city and its surrounding suburbs• city: relatively large, densely populated settlement; commercial, governmental and cultural hubs• urbanization: the movement of people to towns, cities, and metropolitan areas• metropolitan area: a city and the surrounding areas that are influenced economically and culturally

by the city (ex. greater NYC, LA Metro, Nashville Metro)• First Urban Revolution: the innovation of cities that occurred in five di�erent hearths; during

this time, people took part in activities other than agriculture like government, military, trade, andcrafting

• Urban Hearth Areas: Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley, the Indus River Valley, Mesoamerica, theAndean Region, and the Huang He Valley; the regions where the first cities evolved

• Rural-to-urban migration: the movement of people from countrysides to cities• streetcar suburbs: residential communities whose growth and development were strongly influ-

enced by the use of streetcar lines as a primary means of transportation• Second Urban Revolution: time period in the late eighteenth century when the linkage of urbaniza-

tion and industrialization led to the rise of industrial cities

1.2 Notes

• Remember the di�erence between site factors and situation factors

– Site factors are the climate, physical features, natural resources, and absolute location of a region(think about what features of the region are unique enough to allow for a settlement to develop there)

– Situation factors are the features of a region’s surrounding area like rivers and roads that connect dif-ferent places together or access to railroads, ports, and airports

– This is important because regions with more access to di�erent forms of transportation are morelikely to be influenced by other places, which can allow them to develop socially and economically

• Changes in population, communication, migration, transportation, and government policies can all influ-ence how settlements develop and grow

• More and more people have been moving to urban areas in search of economic opportunities as the popu-lation has grown

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• This can result in challenges as urban areas become more populated, as the increased population densitycan raise the cost of land and cost of living in those regions

– This can cue governments to place price ceilings on rent in order to reduce the cost of living– Also, the more cities expand, the more bills those cities have to pay and the farther cities have to ex-

pand their services to. This often results in increased taxes.• According to the UN, 55 percent of all people live in urban areas today and 68 percent of all people will live

in urban areas by 2050– In 1950, the world had 751 million urban dwellers– In 2018, the world had 4.2 billion urban dwellers

• Urbanization is relatively new: if you think of the two million years since humans appeared as 24 hours,settlements of 100+ people only appeared in the last thirty minutes, and towns and cities only emerged inthe last few minutes

• Permanent settlements originated in the First Agricultural Revolution– Agricultural surpluses allowed for this; there were enough crop yields to feed more people than just

the farmer’s family– Socioeconomic stratification, the structuring of society into distinct socioeconomic classes, also al-

lowed for permanent settlements• Societies that had an agricultural surplus and a means to store and distribute it were ready for urbanization• The first cities began to organize during the First Urban Revolution• Urban hearth areas were the regions where the first cities evolved; these were Mesopotamia, the Nile River

Valley, the Indus River Valley, Mesoamerica, the Andean Region, and the Huang He Valley

• In Europe, Ancient Greek and Roman empires established cities throughout the Mediterranean– These empires built infrastructure, transportation networks, military outposts, trade networks, etc.

• In Mesoamerica, Aztecs built huge cities before the Spanish got there– Tenochtitlan was a city built on Lake Texcoco with more than 200,000 residents– Tenochtitlan had canals, gardens, palaces, fountains, zoos, and aqueducts– Unfortunately, the Spanish then razed it and built Mexico City in its place

• In Asia, cities were built around spiritual sites– Ex. the Forbidden City in Beijing

• Rural-to-urban migration, which is the shift from rural areas to cities, was caused by pull factors like avail-able jobs and a high quality of life in cities

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Figure 1: Cities in China Arranged by Population Size

• In MDCs, rural-to-urban migration began during the Industrial Revolution• In LDCs, rural-to-urban migration is happening right now

– In LDCs, jobs in cities don’t require much skill and don’t pay very much (ex. manufacturing, servicejobs)

– The UN predicts that 4/5 of the world’s urban growth will be a result of rural-to-urban migration inAfrica and Asia

• When China was under communism, most people lived in rural areas and worked on government-ownedfarms

– However, the government lifted restrictions on internal migration in 1978, resulting in many peoplemoving to cities

– Now, 59 percent of China’s population lives in urban areas and the populations in Shanghai, Guangzhou,and Beijing have grown exponentially

– Researchers predict that there will be 240 Chinese cities with populations over 1 million by 2025, andthat China’s urban population will exceed one billion by 2030

– China’s "urban billion" has resulted in changes in labor, housing, buying patterns, eating patterns, andpop culture

• Improvements in transportation have shaped and reshaped city layouts– Transportation networks are an example of situational factors that dictate urban development

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– Public transportation makes it easier for people to get around downtown, and advancements in carsand highways allow people to live in less densely-populated suburbs while still having access to theservices that cities o�er

– Streetcar suburbs, which are settlements outside of cities with streetcar lines that allow residents tocome and go from the city easily, impact the development of cities

– Cars also played a big role in the development of cities because they freed common people from thelimitations of geography

• Improvements in communication like the development of the telegraph, telephone, and Internet also influ-enced urbanization

– These improvements slowly allowed for easier connection between places (ex. business can now beeasily conducted across oceans)

– These are situational factors that changed how cities functioned and were used• All together, advancements in communication and transportation have allowed our entire world to be more

connected than before, allowing many regions to create a stronger sense of place• These advancements have led to increasingly specialized regions too; some cities specialize in tourism

while others specialize in manufacturing or specific industries like education or healthcare• The Second Urban Revolution resulted in industrial innovations in mining and manufacturing that led to

increased urban growth– During this time period, urban land served as a source of income– Land in the city was more expensive than land far away from the city (this can be tied back to the bid-

rent theory)• Emerging capitalist cities allowed the wealthy to pay to live in nicer neighborhoods, which were usually

located on the outskirts of cities so that they could have more land and build bigger houses– Less wealthy people lived in less desirable areas, which were usually flood-prone, contaminated, and

inconvenient• During this time period, there was increased spatial separation between work and home, which impacted

gender roles• Early cities were governing bodies responsible for managing agricultural surpluses, water resources, in-

frastructure, sewage, and garbage disposal• Colonial cities emerged as administrative/commercial centers in colonies• During the Industrial Revolution, government policies regulated city transportation, housing, culture, and

public safety

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• In recent cities, government policies have focused on redeveloping to address changes– Redeveloping involves trying to revitalize an area that has fallen on hard times in order to attract new

businesses, jobs, and residents to the area– However, redevelopment can’t get rid of homelessness, deindustrialization, or environmental issues in

those areas

2 Cities Across the World

Terms to Know• megacities: cities with over ten million residents• metacities: cities with over twenty million residents• urban sprawl: the expansion of urban areas, usually in the form of suburbs that are developed over

fertile agricultural land• suburbanization: a population shift from central urban areas to suburbs; results in urban sprawl• boomburb: suburb that has rapidly grown into a sprawling city with over 100,000 residents• exurb: fast-growing community outside of or on the edge of a metropolitan area; exurbs have less

population density than the metropolitan area that they surround and are located farther away fromcities than suburbs

• edge city: type of community located on the outskirts of a larger city; basically a specialized suburbthat specializes in providing entertainment, shopping centers, and businesses

• distance decay: concept that states that the interaction between two locales declines as the dis-tance between them increases

• counterurbanization: the process by which people move from urban areas to rural areas

2.1 Notes

• More than 2/3 of the world’s population will live in urban areas by 2050• Increases in urbanization have led to the creation of megacities, which are cities with over ten million resi-

dents, and metacities, which are cities with over twenty million residents• Megacities and metacities used to only be located in core countries, but they are starting to pop up in pe-

riphery and semiperiphery regions like South America, Asia, and Africa

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• Cities around the world are changing, and many are struggling to keep up with the rapid growth occurringthere

• Infrastructure in cities is being tested because an increasing number of people now need access to roads,fresh water, sewer systems, electricity, and transportation

– Some cities are starting to experience shortages in services and housing, which has led to the cre-ation of informal settlements like squatter settlements, favelas, and slums, many of which lack accessto fresh water, electricity, and sewer systems

• Cities in LDCs are especially struggling to adapt to rapid urban growth because most of their resourcesare located in the center of cities, and those cities expand outwards when they grow, making it di�cult forsome people to reach the resources

• Cities grow outwards as urbanization occurs and demonstrate the impact of urban sprawl, which is causedby advancements in transportation

– Advancements in roads and transportation allow people to live farther away from a city but still haveaccess to the city’s resources

– This allows housing and commercial industries to expand outwards with the city, often resulting infarmlands and rural areas being replaced with suburbs

• Urban sprawl became increasingly more common in the US as metropolitan areas grew in the age of auto-mobiles

• Advancements in transportation have also led to suburbanization, which is a shift in population from urbanareas to suburbs

• These advancements allow people to live in the suburbs while still having jobs in the city– This has led to the creation of boomburbs, suburban cities growing at such a fast rate that they often

become the same size as actual cities, but still maintain a suburban feel• Exurbs, which are settlements outside of the suburban area that still maintain a connection with the metro

area, are also being formed– People who live in exurbs usually work from home and go to di�erent boomburbs and edge cities to

get resources/services instead of the city• Edge cities are cities located on the outskirts of a city and typically connected to the city by a major road-

way; edge cities have their own distinct economic district– Edge cities have lower population densities than cities, and businesses and homes there are more

spread out due to more land being readily available– Edge cities have their own goods, services, businesses, and opportunities for citizens in the area

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– Edge cities also have more specialization, allowing citizens to no longer have to go to the city to workor get goods and services

– Edge cities are usually connected to a beltway that surrounds an urban area so that people can travelbetween di�erent edge cities to access the di�erent goods and services that each one o�ers

– Edge cities sometimes have goods/services that smaller settlements around them don’t have (ex. edgecities often have their own restaurants, hospitals, and shopping malls; this allows people living aroundthe edge city to go to the edge city for all the goods and services they need instead of going to the ur-ban area)

• Make sure to remember the concept of distance decay, which states that the farther away something is, theless likely you are to interact with it

• The bid-rent theory also ties back to this because land becomes more available the farther away it is fromthe central business district and population density decreases away from the city

– This means that people can get cheaper homes with more space and business owners can get cheaperland to put retail locations on just by moving farther away from the city

• Basically, advances in transportation and technology are causing more people to move to boomburbs, ex-urbs, suburbs, and edge cities

• While core countries are experiencing counterurbanization, semi-periphery and periphery countries areexperiencing huge increases in urbanization, which is placing pressures on those countries to improvetheir infrastructure, transportation systems, and housing markets

– The rise in urbanization is also changing the demographics in LDCs; many countries are moving fromStage 2 to Stage 3 of the DTM and experiencing changes in population growth

3 Cities and Globalization

3.1 Overview

Terms to Know• global cities (world cities): centers of economic, cultural, and political activity that are strongly in-

terconnected and together control the global systems of finance and commerce• hierarchical di�usion: the spread of an idea from persons or nodes of authority or power to other

persons or places• top-tier world cities: cities with significant, well-rounded influence• second-tier world cities: cities that are world cities for one main reason (ex. government, culture,

etc.)

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3.2 Notes

• Global cities, also known as world cities, are connected to large cities around the world and influence theentire global community as a whole

• Paris, London, Tokyo, and New York City are global cities• Global cities are centers of culture and are the homes of international organizations, governments, multi-

national companies, stock exchanges, diverse populations, entertainment industries, and the most recentcultural trends

• Global cities are linked together through a variety of global networks like trade networks, manufacturingnetworks, communication networks, banking networks, etc.

• These cities allow ideas, goods, cultures, and foods to di�use worldwide through hierarchical di�usion– Global cities are usually at the top of urban hierarchies, so di�usion starts at global cities then spreads

to the settlements surrounding them• Many global cities influence each other and even work together to solve problems

Figure 2: The Top 25 Global Cities

• Top-tier world cities are cities with significant, well-rounded influence like London, New York City, Tokyo,Paris, and Shanghai

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• Second-tier world cities are cities that are world cities for one reason, whether it be economics, govern-ment, or culture

– Government: Moscow, Washington D.C.

– Culture : Los Angeles, Toronto

– Financial: Hong Kong, Frankfort

– Quality of life: Boston, Melbourne, Sydney

– Other second-tier global cities include Dubai, Singapore, Berlin, Seoul, Amsterdam, and Rome

4 The Size and Distribution of Cities

4.1 Overview

Terms to Know• rank-size rule: states that the nth largest city in any region will be 1/n the size of the largest city• primate city: city that is at least twice as large as the next largest city in a country and has prece-

dence in aspects of its country’s society like economics, politics, culture, and education• gravity model: states that places that are larger and closer together will interact more often than

places that are smaller and farther away from each other• urban system: an interdependent set of cities within a region• pull factor: something that attracts an individual to migrate to a certain place; usually an economic,

political, cultural, or environmental factor• central place theory: theory developed in 1933 by German geographer Walter Christaller that ex-

plains the distribution of cities of di�erent sizes across a region• central place: a location where people go to receive goods and services• threshold: the size of a population necessary for any particular service to exist and remain prof-

itable• range: the distance people will travel to obtain specific goods or services

4.2 Notes

• Countries usually follow the rank-size rule or the primate city rule• Countries that follow the primate city rule have one large city with twice the population of the country’s

second largest city11


• Countries that follow the rank-size rule have a variety of larger cities; the second largest city will have halfthe population of the largest city and the third largest city will have a third of the population of the largestcity

• Places that follow the rank-size rule have a variety of goods and services that are dispersed throughout so-ciety, reducing the time citizens have to travel to get to those goods and services

• Rank-size distribution is usually a characteristic of well-developed regions or countries and is commonin countries with federal governments that share power with other levels of government

• However, countries that follow the primate city rule have goods and services centered in a primate city,which is usually a social, political, or economic hub with wider services than the cities surrounding it

• Because services are more centralized in these regions, this pattern is more typical in LDCs, countriesthat follow a unitary form of government, or countries with an extremely strong central government

• These regions often have uneven economic development, with most economic development taking place inthe primate city; this can be risky, because if anything happens to the primate city, the rest of the countrywill be impacted

• The gravity model predicts the likelihood of interactions between two places based on the population sizeof each place and the distance between the two places

• The larger the population of a city is, the more likely it is that people will interact with it• Larger cities usually have more economic opportunities, social opportunities, cultural diversity, goods, ser-

vices, and political stability, all of which pull people to these cities even more• Basically, large cities have more pull factors than smaller cities• This concept even ties back to Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration, which state that big cities attract long-distance

migrants and that most migration is rural to urban• The central place theory uses hexagons in order to distribute the spatial layout of di�erent goods and set-

tlements– The central place theory defines a central place as a location where people go to receive goods and

services– A central place could be a tiny community with only a convenience store, post o�ce, and religious

center, or a slightly larger town with more stores and services, or even a major city with a huge vari-ety of goods and services

• Hexagonal market areas surround each central place on the map because they provide goods and servicesthat draw the population to the area; market areas are shaped liked hexagons because a hexagon is a com-promise between a square (in which people living in the corners would be farther from the central place)and a circle (in which there would be overlapping areas of service)

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• Using hexagons allows central places of di�erent sizes to distribute themselves in a clean pattern over aregion

• Larger settlements o�er more goods and services, so they have a larger pull factor and therefore a largerrange

• Goods and services that are very specialized also have a large range because they may not be o�ered inmany locations, so people will travel over farther distances to obtain those goods/services

• Central place theory uses the concepts of threshold and range to answer what determines which serviceswill be available in any central place and how far apart central areas of the same population size should be

• Threshold is the size of a population necessary for a service to exist and remain profitable– Gas stations and convenience stores have a low threshold and are present in almost any size central

place– Restaurants, hospitals, high schools, and department stores have high thresholds, so they require a

larger population within the market area to survive economically– Services like sports teams, symphony orchestras, research centers, and stock market exchanges with

very high thresholds can only appear in the largest market areas because they depend on the supportof huge populations

• Range is the distance people will travel to obtain specific goods or services– Goods and services are usually located at the center of a hexagon– The larger a settlement is, the more services it o�ers, and the more specialized its goods and services

are, the larger its range will be– For example, people will travel very far for high-order services like heart transplants, but are less

likely to travel far for basic services like fast food– This explains why jewelry stores are less common than gas stations

• Businesses often use census data and look at the demographics and medium income of an area to deter-mine where they should open stores

• Central place theory also applies to settlements; the larger a settlement is, the more specialized goods andservices it will have, so the more people it will pull in

• While cities are located in the center of hexagons, towns (which have the next largest populations), are lo-cated the farthest away from cities because they have large populations and can provide more goods andservices for themselves

• Hamlets and villages are located on the outskirts of cities and towns and depend on cities and towns toprovide them with goods and resources because they don’t have a large enough population to create thosegoods and resources themselves

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Figure 3: Christaller’s Central Place Theory

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5 The Internal Structure of Cities

5.1 Overview

Terms to Know• bid-rent theory: geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real

estate changes as the distance from the Central Business District (CBD) decreases• Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model: description of the process of urban growth that views the city as

a series of circular areas or zones, each characterized by a di�erent type of land use that developedfrom a central core

• gentrification: the process by which wealthy people move into an underdeveloped urban area, re-sulting in increased rents, the displacement of current residents, improved housing, and changes inthe district’s character and culture

• urban renewal: the redevelopment of areas within a large city, typically involving the clearance ofslums

• Hoyt Sector Model: urban land use model that suggests that cities grow in sectors/wedges alongcommunication lines such as rivers, roads, and railroads

• Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model: representation of urban structure based on the idea thatthe functional area of cities develop around various points rather than just one in the central busi-ness district

• Galactic (Peripheral) Model: suggests that an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded bylarge suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road

• Latin American City Model: model that combines elements of Latin American culture and global-ization by combining radial sectors and concentric zones; includes a thriving CBD with a commer-cial spine

• disamenity zones: the poorest parts of a city that in extreme cases are not even connected to cityservices and are controlled by gangs and drugs

• squatter settlement: any collection of buildings that has been developed without legal claims to theland and/or permission from the concerned authorities to build; as a result of their illegal or semi-illegal status, infrastructure and services are usually inadequate

• Sub-Saharan African City Model: model created to explain the cities of periphery and semi-periphery countries

• Urban Realms Model: suggests that cities are made up of small "realms", which are self-su�cienturban areas with independent focal points

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• Southeast Asian City Model: model that features high-class residential zones that stem from thecity center, middle-class residential zones that occur in the inner-city areas, and low-income squat-ter settlements that occur in the periphery

5.2 Notes

• The bid-rent theory looks at the relationship between the price of land and its distance from the mar-ket/urban area

– The further away land is from a city, the cheaper it will be because there is more of it available and thepopulation density in the region will be lower

Figure 4: The Bid Rent Curve

• Large retail stores and specialized services are more likely to locate near the CBD, while industrial zonesand residential areas are located farther out

• However, the bid-rent theory can’t always e�ectively predict where people live because sometimes peoplerent their homes, taking out the factor of the price of land

• Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model was the first urban city model (developed in the 1920s based o� of the cityof Chicago)

• The model focuses on the di�erent socioeconomic statuses of individuals and homes within a city• Typically, older homes are located closer to the CBD, while newer homes and buildings are located further

out• In the United States, lower income residents and industries are located in the "Zone of Transition", which is

the closest zone to the CBD, but in Europe, wealthy individuals usually live in that zone

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• This model is starting to change due to globalization, changes in the production of goods, gentrification,and urban renewal policies

Figure 5: Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model

The Hoyt Sector Model also uses the CBD as the center point, but the model develops in a series of wedges/sectorsbased on di�erent environmental and economic factors

• For example, industries align near transportation systems so that they can export their goods more e�-ciently and connect with consumers

This model is also starting to experience changes because of advancements in our transportation systems andinfrastructure

• People now live farther away from cities due to advancements in transportation, meaning that businessesare moving with them

Figure 6: The Hoyt Sector Model

• The Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model was created around 1945 and focuses on trying to account forthe changes in technology and transportation that were occurring at the time

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• The model has multiple CBDs, each with their own purpose and unique economic opportunities• Each CBD acts as a node that attracts certain industries, people, and organizations based on what it o�ers• For example, people who work in the manufacturing industry are more likely to live in the area around a

CBD that specializes in manufacturing• Certain CBDs can repel each other too; wealthy people probably won’t want to live near the manufacturing

CBD

Figure 7: The Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model• The Galactic (Peripheral) Model was made around the 1960s, a time past the point of post-industrialization,

and tried to address changes in the economy• During this time, cities focused more on services than manufacturing and people could live farther away

from the CBD thanks to advancements in transportation• The model incorporates edge cities, which are connected by a beltway/highway, allowing the edge cities to

o�er specialized services, as they are connected to other edge cities

Figure 8: The Galactic (Peripheral) Model

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• The Latin American City Model includes aspects of Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model, the Hoyt Sector Model,and colonization

• The CBD is located in the center of the model and has a spine that goes to the mall; most wealthy residentsare located in the spine

• This model shows the division between di�erent socioeconomic classes; some residents of the city live inan areas known as the disamenity zones, which are plagued by poverty and often lack basic infrastructurelike running water or power

• The model also shows the formation of squatter settlements on the outside of the model due to the in-creased urbanization occurring in the center of the city

Figure 9: The Latin American City Model

• The Sub-Saharan African City Model was greatly influenced by European colonization• The model includes three CBDs: one traditional CBD, one CBD built by European colonizers with grid-like

street patterns and multi-story buildings with European architecture, and one open-market CBD• Infrastructure is more robust near the center of the city• Much like the Latin American City Model, shanty towns and squatter settlements form on the outskirts of

the city– This is because people move to urban centers as countries become more developed

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Figure 10: The Sub-Saharan African City Model

• The Southeast Asian City Model was influenced by the Hoyt Sector Model, Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model,and the colonial era

• This model does not have a CBD

• During colonial times, many western countries wanted to trade with port cities, so the center of the city isthe port zone

• Port cities have special economic zones that encourage trade and development from western countries aswell as special zones for Chinese merchants, government zones, and residential zones

Figure 11: The Southeast Asian City Model

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• The Urban Realms Model has small realms, each of which is a separate economic, social, and political entitythat is linked to the other realms to form a larger metropolitan framework

Figure 12: The Urban Realms Model

• Also know how to spot the Islamic City Model and Western European City Model

Figure 13: The Islamic City Model

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Figure 14: The Western European City Model

6 Density and Land Use

6.1 Overview

Terms to Know• density gradient: the change in density in an urban area from the center (CBD) to the periphery

6.2 Notes

• The bid-rent theory comes back into play when it comes to the density gradient of a city because there isless land availability closer to cities and there are more people living in those areas, so the cost of land ishigher

• The bid-rent theory shapes the density gradient of cities around the world• An interesting phenomena explained by the bid-rent theory is that cities often have skyscrapers and make

their buildings large by adding space vertically, while rural areas make their buildings large by expandingthem horizontally

• Some cities have been able to change their density gradient through urban policies and legislation– European cities put a height limit on their buildings so that skyscrapers can’t take attention away from

the European cultural landscape– However, the United States doesn’t implement restrictions like these, so there are more skyscrapers in

American cities

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• People who live in highly-densely populated areas are more likely to have goods and services near them butalso more likely to have to rely on public transportation and less likely to have a car, front yard, or backyard

• E�ective urban planning and reliable public transportation are extremely important to running a city witha unique cultural landscape, providing opportunities, goods, and services to all residents, and preventingfood deserts

• People who live in medium-densely populated areas like suburbs usually live in single family homes withenough space to have a small front yard or backyard

• People who live in low-densely populated areas start to have to rely on cars to get around access variousgoods and services, but homes in these areas are much larger and land is cheaper and more readily avail-able

• Advances in technology, infrastructure, and transportation networks allow people to live farther and far-ther away from cities/CBDs while still having access to goods and services

• However, low-densely populated areas usually have a threshold that makes it di�cult for businesses tothrive, so these regions usually have less of a variety of goods and business than medium-densely popu-lated areas or high-densely populated areas

• Because more people are moving away from cities, businesses have started to relocate to suburban areaswith medium population densities and retailers have started to relocate to edge cities and areas with lowpopulation densities

• Businesses save money by relocating out of CBDs because land is cheaper outside of CBDs, but businessesare also starting to scale down the sizes of their stores because of recent rise in online shopping

• Malls and retail stores are quickly disappearing from cities around the world as well

7 Infrastructure

7.1 Overview

Terms to Know• infrastructure: the basic physical systems of a business, region, or nation; includes transportation

systems, communication networks, sewage, water, education, and electric systems• push factor: a flaw or distress that drives a person away from a certain place• brain drain: the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or

knowledge• pull factor: something that attracts individuals to migrate to a certain place

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7.2 Notes

• Infrastructure allows for a high standard of living and is the foundation for successful societies• As cities’ infrastructure has advanced, their spatial layouts have changed

– Large retail stores used to be mainly found in CBDs, but as transportation advancements have re-sulted in a flood of people moving to suburban areas, retail stores have moved to those locations aswell

• The current pandemic has especially contributed to these changes; many people started working fromhome, learning from home, and shopping from home through the Internet

– School systems have had to figure out how to provide Internet access to everyone in their districts,and employers have had to figure out how to shift to an online work environment

– At the beginning of the pandemic, mass surges in the usage of platforms like Zoom and Google Class-room overwhelmed those systems so much that many of them starting crashing

– Because of this new reliance on the Internet, people need better bandwidth, faster Internet speeds,and more Internet advancements in general

• Societies are going to see more and more reliance on infrastructure as time goes on, and as their infras-tructure ages, they will have to upgrade it and keep it up to date so that it can handle demands from largerpopulations

• Unfortunately, infrastructure upgrades are very expensive; this can raise problems for areas without theadequate funding to upgrade infrastructure because poor infrastructure can interrupt the daily lives of cit-izens and even lead to injuries and death

• Regional political organizations are usually given the responsibility of managing infrastructure; decisionsregarding infrastructure happen at the county, state, and even federal levels

• In addition to upgrading old infrastructure, cities are also needing to build new infrastructure in order todeal with growing populations

• If cities don’t maintain their infrastructure, they start to run into problems like overcrowded schools, hos-pitals, housing areas, tra�c, and deteriorating transportation networks

– These issues act as push factors and can cause people to move out of cities, which can result in braindrain

• Cities that have e�ective infrastructure can provide more economic and social opportunities for residents,which act as pull factors that bring more and more people to those cities

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8 Urban Sustainability

8.1 Overview

Terms to Know• urban sprawl: the expansion of urban areas, usually in the form of suburbs that are developed over

fertile agricultural land• greenbelt: a ring of land maintained as parks, agriculture, or other types of open space to limit the

sprawl of an urban area• Smart Growth: legislation and regulations to limit suburban sprawl and preserve farmland; en-

courages a mix of building types and uses, diverse housing and transportation options, developmentwithin existing neighborhoods, and community engagement

• New Urbanism: counter to urban sprawl that focuses on development, urban revitalization, andsuburban reforms that create walkable neighborhoods with a diversity of housing and jobs

• mixed-use neighborhood: encompassing area of a city or town that contains both housing andcommercial/retail spaces; mixed-use neighborhoods make it easy for pedestrians to access busi-nesses and stores, reducing the need to own a car and encouraging social connections

8.2 Notes

• Sustainable cities use urban planning to create healthy and vibrant communities, o�er a variety of eco-nomic and social opportunities, and reduce the negative environmental impacts that cities cause

• Many cities are struggling with sustainably managing their resources as their populations are growing andthey are under more pressure to provide resources to their citizens

• Because populations are growing so quickly, urban sprawl is becoming increasingly more common, andfarmland is being lost to make room for housing developments

• Governments (in Europe especially) have tried implementing greenbelts, which are areas where homes andbusinesses are not allowed to be built, in order to minimize urban sprawl and protect the environment

• Smart Growth policies are being implemented in the United States as well to minimize urban sprawl andprotect the environment; governments use these policies to encourage people to move back into urban ar-eas and prevent them from expanding outward into rural landscapes

• New Urbanism aims to reduce urban sprawl by making life in the city easier and more a�ordable– New Urbanism increases public transportation, creates mixed-use neighborhoods, and increases the

amount of goods and services available to city residents

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– New Urbanism also improves the walkability of cities so that residents can easily walk to parks, restau-rants, and stores; this increases the standard of living in the city and improves its sustainability be-cause it reduces reliance on cars

• Cities are also changing their energy policies and increasing the use of solar energy, hydroelectricity, andwind power in order to be more sustainable and reduce their use of fossil fuels

• Although Smart Growth, New Urbanism, greenbelts, and renewable energy provide a healthier standard ofliving and promote sustainability, they are very costly to maintain and increase the cost of zoning, rezoning,public transportation, etc.

– They can also result in higher taxes, which could reduce the number of economic opportunities avail-able for citizens

– Some worry that these policies may end up making the cost of living in cities so expensive that peo-ple leave the cities and move to the suburbs, increasing urban sprawl, which is exactly the opposite ofwhat the policies are trying to do

– The policies could even result in changes in cities’ population demographics and the location of busi-nesses and services

– Some worry that the infrastructure required to maintain these policies will not be profitable, and thatthe money required to fund the policies won’t be distributed equally among cities and might end upbenefiting rich communities more than poor communities

– People are also concerned that the policies might destroy cities’ cultural landscapes

9 Urban Data

9.1 Overview

Terms to Know• qualitative data: information that is based o� of opinions and seeks to describe characteristics of a

topic• quantitative data: information that provides quantifiable information, numbers, statistics, and in-

formation that is not up for debate• public sector: the part of the economy composed of both public services and public enterprises• private sector: the part of the national economy that is run by individuals and companies for profit

and is not under direct government control• census tract: small, relatively permanent statistical subdivisions of a county or equivalent entity

that sometimes coincide with the limits of cities, towns, or other administrative areas

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9.2 Notes

• Qualitative data is usually gathered through surveys, interviews, field studies, and narratives– Qualitative data is subjective and can help cities determine what residents need and want– Cities collect qualitative data on the quality of government establishments (schools, hospitals, police

stations, etc.), infrastructure, parks, tra�c, and daily life• Quantitative data is data that is represented numbers and measurements and is not subjective

– Quantitative data is usually gathered through censuses and survey data and helps cities focus on spe-cific topics like population demographics (age, gender, ethnicity), crime rates, tra�c control, etc.

– State and local governments, business owners, hospitals, schools, and other similar institutions usethis kind of data

• The private sector uses both quantitative and qualitative data• Businesses use surveys to collect qualitative data so that they can understand how to build the best rela-

tionship with their customers and maximize their profits• Businesses also use quantitative data so that they can understand the threshold of a region and look at de-

mographics in order to see where they should build their establishments• If both public sectors and private sectors make use of quantitative and qualitative data, they can figure out

how to e�ciently structure cities, use resources e�ectively, maximize productivity, and maximize profits

10 Challenges of Urban Changes

10.1 Overview

Terms to Know• redlining: a discriminatory practice that puts services (financial and otherwise) out of reach for

residents of certain areas based on race or ethnicity• blockbusting: a process by which real estate agents convinced white property owners to sell their

homes at low prices out of the fear that black families would move into their neighborhoods; thispractice took place in the 1960s and 1970s

• white flight: the large-scale migration of white people from urban areas becoming more raciallydiverse into the suburbs

• ghetto: a part of a city, especially a slum area, occupied by a minority group or groups• inner city neighborhood: lower-income residential districts in the usually older, poorer, and more

densely populated central section of a city

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• urban decay: the deterioration of part of a town or city due to aging, neglect, and a lack of financialsupport for maintenance

• food deserts: areas with little or no access to healthy and a�ordable food or limited or no access tofresh fruits and vegetables

• gentrification: when wealthy individuals and businesses move into low-income areas, usually dis-placing the occupying demographic

10.2 Notes

• Due to discriminatory policies in the past, some areas are still essentially segregated today, whether it be byrace or economic status; this can be seen in the Racial Dot Map

Figure 15: The Racial Dot Map of Detroit

• Redlining was one of these discriminatory policies, and had a huge impact on the shaping and reshaping ofour cities

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– Redlining was the practice of banks refusing to loan money to communities that they deemed as "risky",which were usually communities of minorities

– Redlining allowed white citizens in nicer parts of cities to get cheaper loans, purchase homes, andpass their wealth down to future generations, while preventing citizens in redline neighborhoods fromgetting loans and being able to move out of those regions

– This resulted in generational wealth gaps and increased segregation• Blockbusting also resulted in increased segregation

– Blockbusting was when real estate agents would convince white home owners to sell their homes at acheap rate out of the fear that minorities would be moving into their neighborhood

– Once the real estate agents bought the houses, they resold them to minorities at higher prices– This resulted in white flight

• White flight was the mass migration of white people out of communities that minorities were moving into– White flight racially and economically segregated neighborhoods even more and resulted in the cre-

ation of ghettos and inner city neighborhoods• Segregated cities often face challenges when trying to provide economic and social opportunities for all of

their residents; resources usually disproportionately favor wealthy communities, and the poorer parts ofcities usually have less access to job opportunities, higher crime rates, more pollution, less access to ser-vices like healthcare and education, and more urban decay

• Large urban areas and rural areas struggle with food deserts, which are regions in which residents havelittle or no access to healthy and a�ordable food

– People who live in food deserts are usually in low income areas and are at an increased risk of havinghealth issues like diabetes and obesity because they have to get their food from convenience storesand fast food chains

• Gentrification is when rich and middle-class residents move into low-income areas (usually near the CBD)so that they can gain access to the city’s resources

– These new residents usually renovate the area, increasing taxes, rent, and the value of land– While gentrified neighborhoods will be able to attract more businesses, goods, services, economic

opportunities, and social opportunities to the area, the increased taxes and rent they create usuallyend up pushing low-income residents out of the area, which can result in homelessness and increasedeconomic and racial segregation

• Governments also play a big role in the development, regulation, and funding of cities• Federal governments can control city planning directly, or influence it through giving funding to cities and

states for projects and adding guidelines to how funding should be used29


• On the subnational level, state governments can still influence urban planning (ex. Oregon’s governmenthas set growth boundaries for urban areas to prevent urban sprawl, which protects rural areas and in-creases city densities)

• On the local level, city governments zone and rezone areas, set budgets for projects, and influence the day-to-day life of citizens

• County governments manage the unoccupied territory between the cities in the county’s boundaries• Di�erent levels of government allow for specialization but can cause slow decision-making and cause chal-

lenges if governments at di�erent levels disagree on various elements of urban planning• Countries around the world, especially peripheral countries, are struggling with squatter settlements due

to increased population growth and not enough housing• Squatter settlements often lack basic services like electricity, water, education, medical care, etc. and are

more prone to crime and poverty– Squatter settlements can also create a great deal of pollution and/or soil erosion

11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability

11.1 Overview

Terms to Know• urban sustainability: the idea that a city can be organized without excessive reliance on the sur-

rounding countryside and be able to power itself with renewable sources of energy• brownfield: a former industrial or commercial site where future use is a�ected by environmental

contamination

11.2 Notes

• Sustainability is the idea that we can use our resources today to satisfy our wants and needs while still mak-ing sure that future generations can do the same

• Processes like urban sprawl are not sustainable and can end up destroying the natural resources that citiesdepend on

• As cities expand, they may have to provide more services to residents, resulting in higher taxes, less a�ord-able housing, and a reduced standard of living

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• If cities don’t use urban planning e�ectively, populations could start to grow at a rate that makes it impos-sible to maintain infrastructure, which could reduce the quality of transportation networks, education,healthcare, water, electricity, etc.

• A lack of infrastructure could also lead to an increased amount of squatter settlements and slums• Increased population densities can also cause tra�c, which contributes to pollution, fossil fuel consump-

tion, and resident dissatisfaction• Densely populated areas without proper infrastructure often lack public transportation, resulting in more

people driving themselves around the city, leading to even more tra�c and air pollution• Water pollution is also a concern• Smart Growth, New Urbanism, greenbelts, and renewable energy can help increase the standard of living in

cities while also increasing sustainability• Brownfields are abandoned plots of land with some form of environmental pollution from their former oc-

cupants– Cities can work to rezone and redevelop contaminated land to create new communities and better uti-

lize their land• Cities can also implement farmland protection policies and urban growth boundaries to prevent urban

sprawl

12 TL;DR

• Site factors are the climate, natural resources, and absolute location of a region, while situation factors arethe features of a region’s surrounding area like access to transportation and the region’s relative location

– These factors are important because they influence how a city grows and develops• As the population has grown, more and more people have been moving to urban areas in search of eco-

nomic opportunities (this is known as rural-to-urban migration)– This urbanization has led to problems like increased cost of living, increased taxes, and increased pol-

lution• The first cities emerged from Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley, the Indus River Valley, Mesoamerica, the

Andean Region, and the Huang He Valley; these regions are known as urban hearth areas• Improvements in transportation have made it easier for people to get from place to place, which has greatly

impacted city layouts

31


• Improvements in communication have made it easier for people to communicate and share ideas with eachother, which has increased time-space compression and allowed our entire world to become more con-nected than ever before

• Increases in urbanization have created megacities and metacities• Some less-developed cities are struggling to keep up with the rate of urbanization because they have to

provide water, electricity, transportation, and sewer systems to so many people• Urban sprawl has increased along with urbanization; transportation advancements have resulted in many

people moving to suburbs because they are less densely populated and still allow for easy access to the ser-vices o�ered in the city

• Advancements in transportation and technology are causing more people to move to boomburbs, exurbs,and edge cities as well

• Urbanization is causing many LDCs to move from Stage 2 to Stage 3 of the DTM model• Global cities are cities with a global level of influence that are connected to other large cities around the

world and house international organizations, governments, multinational companies, stock exchanges, di-verse populations, entertainment industries, and the most recent cultural trends

• Global cities allow ideas, goods, cultures, and foods to di�use worldwide through hierarchical di�usion• A primate city is a large city with twice the population of its country’s second largest city; services are cen-

tralized in these regions• Primate cities are often found in LDCs, countries that follow a unitary form of government, and countries

with an extremely strong central government• The rank-size rule states that the nth largest city in any region will be 1/n the size of the largest city; coun-

tries that follow the rank-size rule have a variety of spread-out goods and services and are often well-developed• The gravity model states that places that are larger and closer together will interact more often than places

that are smaller and farther away from each other• The central place theory uses hexagons to display the spatial layout of di�erent goods and settlements• The central place theory relies on the concepts of threshold and range; threshold is the size of a popula-

tion necessary for a service to exist and remain profitable, while range is the distance people will travel toobtain specific goods and services

• Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model was the first urban city model– In this model, older homes are located closer to the CBD, while newer homes and buildings are located

further out

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– In the United States, lower income residents are located in the closest zone to the CBD, but in Europe,wealthy individuals live in the zone closest to the CBD

• The Hoyt Sector Model uses the CBD as a center point and develops in a series of wedges/sectors based ondi�erent environmental and economic factors

• The Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model has multiple CBDs, each with their own purpose and uniqueeconomic opportunities; each CBD acts as a node that attracts certain industries, people, and organizationsbased on what it o�ers

• The Galactic (Peripheral) Model suggests that an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by largesuburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road

• In the The Latin American City Model, the CBD is located in the center of the model and has a spine thatextends to the mall; most wealthy residents live in the spine

– The model shows the division between di�erent socioeconomic classes; poorer residents live in dis-amenity zones and squatter settlements that often lack infrastructure and basic amenities like runningwater and electricity

• The Sub-Saharan African City Model has one traditional CBD, one CBD built by European colonizers withgrid-like street patterns and multi-story buildings with European architecture, and one open-market CBD;there is better infrastructure at the center of the city and poor residents live in shanty towns and squattersettlements on the outskirts of the city

• In the Southeast Asian City Model, the port zone is the center of the city and the city includes special eco-nomic zones as well as zones for Chinese merchants, government zones, and residential zones

• In the Urban Realms Model, cities are made up of small "realms", which are self-su�cient urban areas withindependent focal points

• Also know how to spot the Islamic City Model and Western European City Model• The density gradient is the change in density in an urban area from the center (CBD) to the periphery• The bid-rent theory shapes the density gradient of cities around the world because land closer to cities

is more densely populated, less available, and more expensive, while land farther away from cities is lessdensely populated, more available, and less expensive

• People who live in highly-densely populated areas are more likely to have a wide range of goods and ser-vices available, but are also more likely to not have a front yard or backyard and more likely to rely on pub-lic transportation

• Because people are moving out of cities to less-densely populated suburban areas, businesses are relocat-ing out of CBDs to these regions and retailers are relocating to edge cities and other areas with low popula-tion densities

33


• Because of online shopping, businesses are scaling down the size of their stores and malls and retail storeshave been quickly disappearing around the world

• E�ective and updated infrastructure is necessary for well-running societies; lacks of infrastructure causeissues like overcrowding, health concerns, safety concerns, tra�c, and brain drain because those issues actas push factors

• Cities need to upgrade their old infrastructure and build new infrastructure in order to support the de-mands of growing populations

• Well-maintained infrastructure provides more social and economic opportunities for residents, which actas pull factors that bring more people to cities

• The surge in online work, school, and shopping caused by the pandemic has resulted in many more peoplerelying on the Internet, so governments and districts have had to work hard to ensure that residents haveaccess to high-speed Internet

• Many cities are struggling with sustainably managing their resources as their populations are growing andthey are under more pressure to provide resources to their cities

• In order to avoid urban sprawl, cities have tried implementing greenbelts, Smart Growth, New Urbanism,mixed-use neighborhoods, and renewable energy

– Although these policies would improve the standard of living in cities, promote sustainability, andpossibly provide economic and social opportunities to citizens, some are concerned that they mightraise the cost of living in cities so much that people move out of the cities and into the suburbs, whichis exactly the opposite of what the policies are trying to achieve

• Governments and businesses use quantitative data and qualitative data to analyze demographics and atti-tudes toward urban change in order to make decisions on things like public transportation, school funding,funding for infrastructure, business locations, new products, and more

• Discriminatory practices like redlining and blockbusting resulted in cities becoming economically andracially segregated

• Segregated cities face challenges when trying to provide opportunities and resources to residents; resourcesusually disproportionately favor wealthy communities, leaving the poorer communities with less access tojob opportunities, less access to services like healthcare and education, more pollution, higher crime rates,and more urban decay

• Although gentrification can attract more businesses, goods, services, and economic opportunities to a re-gion, it usually increases taxes and rent in the region so much that low-income residents are pushed out ofthe area

• Large urban areas struggle with food deserts, which are regions in which residents have little or no accessto healthy and a�ordable food

34


• Governments play a big role in the development, regulation, and funding of cities, whether it be throughmanaging the funding for city projects, enforcing policies that prevent urban sprawl, or rezoning parts of acity

• Many parts of the world are struggling with an increase in squatter settlements due to population boomsand inadequate housing

– Squatter settlements often lack basic services like electricity, water, and health care, and are moreprone to pollution, crime, poverty, and soil erosion

• The main challenges to urban sustainability are urban sprawl, sanitation, climate change, pollution, air andwater quality, and energy use

• Cities are establishing urban growth boundaries, implementing farmland protection policies, redevelopingbrownfields, and improving infrastructure in order to respond to challenges involving urban sustainability

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Appendices

A Credits

A.1 Contributions

• Drafted by Avigail Laing

A.2 External Sources

• The Mr. Sinn Youtube Channel• AP Daily Videos

A.3 Image Credits

• Clock: Veronica Cruz• Cities in China Map: The Guardian• Global Cities Chart: Consultancy.uk• Central Place Theory Diagram: Walter Christaller’s Central Place Theory• Bid Rent Curve: Medium• Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model: ResearchGate• Hoyt Sector Model: Barcelona Field Studies Center• Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model: Wikipedia• Galactic (Peripheral) Model: Chauncey Harris’ Peripheral Model• Latin American City Model: Urban Land Use• Sub-Saharan African City Model: African City Model• Southeast Asian City Model: Urban Land Models• Racial Dot Map of Detroit: DETROITography

36

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCyI9ZKZqlfaWhGLKTVTz9cA

https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/instructional-resources/ap-daily

https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/mar/20/china-100-cities-populations-bigger-liverpool

https://www.consultancy.uk/news/12197/the-top-25-most-attractive-global-cities-london-and-new-york-lead

https://slideplayer.com/slide/7007042/

https://medium.com/analytics-vidhya/exploring-the-spatial-distribution-of-airbnb-listings-in-hong-kong-5e10e1b8fe30

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Graphic-illustration-of-Burgess-concentric-zone-model-Nb-Zones-4-and-5-Rubenstein_fig2_337863057

https://geographyfieldwork.com/UrbanModels.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_nuclei_model

https://www.slideserve.com/ricky/chauncey-harris-peripheral-model

https://sites.google.com/a/richland2.org/nicaraguafyi/urban-land-use

https://www.emaze.com/@ACZICOCL

https://slideplayer.com/slide/5269198/

https://detroitography.com/2013/08/12/detroit-racial-dot-map/


B Extra Resources

• AP Daily Videos• All resources mentioned retain the same licensing as the original creators intended. The ProcrastiNote

Team has checked every single one of these to make sure that our usage of their materials remains withinthe legal realm. If you are the owner of these materials and you believe there is a mistake in our citations,please contact us at o�[email protected]. Thanks!

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https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/instructional-resources/ap-daily

mailto:[email protected]

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