Grading SystemTests 65%Assignments 35% -Vocab Assessments -project/paper

Contact Informationjonathan.laird@cobbk12.org

678-842-6850 / 770-310-5000 FaceBook: “Laird Jonathan”

Advanced Placement Course ThemesI. Introduction to Comparative Government

5% of AP TestII. Sovereignty, Authority, Power

20% of AP TestIII. Political Institutions

35% of AP TestIV. Citizens, Society, State

15% of AP TestV. Political and Economic Change

15% of AP TestVI. Public Policy

10% of AP Test

AP Government & Politics: Comparative Coach Laird

Course Description and GoalsAP Comparative Government & Politics introduces fundamental concepts used by political scientists to study the processes and outcomes of politics in a variety of country settings. The course aims to illustrate the rich diversity of political life, to show available institutional alternatives, to explain differences in processes and policy outcomes, and to communicate the importance of global political and economic changes.   Course ThemesWe will be examining five major themes of government

1. Sovereignty, Authority and Power 2. Political Institutions 3. Citizens, Society and the State 4. Political and Economic Change 5. Public Policy

Textbook Countries and Concepts, AP Edition- Michael G. Roskin

All students are expected to read & comprehend the assigned pages in the textbooks.

Countries Covered in CourseSix countries form the core of the course: Great Britain, Russia, Mexico, Nigeria, China and Iran. These include “advanced democracies, communist and post communist countries, and newly industrialized and less developed nations (Ethel Wood). Using this diverse group, we will move beyond the abstract to concrete examples. The emphasis will be on broad trends that allow comparison, rather than on details that are unrelated to larger trends and concepts.

Course DifferentiationAP Comparative Government is an advanced academic course designed to meet the needs and challenges of gifted students and high achievers in Cobb County Schools. Students who qualify for gifted services are taught by a gifted-certified teacher during this course every day. Learning is differentiated through in-depth analysis of events, sources, and formal essay assignments. Furthermore, as an AP course, students may not “drop” this course without teacher recommendation.

AP Credit As AP Comparative Government is the equivalent of a college course, all components of the course must be completed to receive credit for the course on your transcript.

Tutoring – 7:30am every school morning

Attendance and Supplies

You are expected to attend class daily and participate in all classroom activities and discussions. Unexcused absences and tardies are discouraged. Students are expected to bring paper, pens, and pencils to class everyday.

Course StructureThis course will primarily assume a discussion/lecture format with a modified Socratic Method seminar enhancement. You would most likely find this method in law school and some college classrooms. In Socratic teaching, the instructor focuses on giving students questions, not answers. The instructor models an inquiring mind by continually probing into the subject with questions.

This method assumes that YOU HAVE READ THE MATERIAL PRIOR TO CLASS! At anytime, I will pose a question related to the material of the day and randomly select a student to answer. This will prompt further questions and discussion. During this process, you must be tolerant of one another and stay focused. You will have to state your opinions clearly and provide textual proof whenever possible. You will also need to keep an open mind and be willing to consider another person’s point of view. The goal is for you to go beyond the immediately apparent issues in a given situation to consider its broader implications, so be prepared for class with the text(s) read.

Course ExpectationsIt must be understood at the outset, that there is extensive reading, and that it must be COMPLETED IN ADVANCE of the material being covered in class. Students are expected to have a comprehensive understanding of all topics treated in the text, reader, and the classroom.

There will be 6 exams and at least 6 vocabulary quizzes and in-class free-response questions (FRQ’s). The assessments will test for understanding of the text and readings, as well as classroom discussion. Course Assessments are Subject to Change Based on Teacher Discretion.

AP Comparative Government GoalsStudents successfully completing the course will:

Know important facts pertaining to the governments and politics of China, Great Britain, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, and Russia

Understand major comparative political concepts, themes, and generalizations

Understand typical patterns of political processes and behavior and their consequences

Be able to compare and contrast political institutions and processes across countries and to derive generalizations

Be able to analyze and interpret basic data relevant to comparative government and politics

Make-up Policy – Students will have 5 class days to make-up any missed work

Homework Policy – When Homework is assigned, the due date is non-negotiable unless changed by the teacher. Failure to turn work in on time will automatically result in a 15% grade deduction for each 24 hour period late.

LEARNING TODAY FOR TOMORROW’S WORLD!

Comparative Politics Made Simpleby Jean-Germain Gros

University of Missouri-St. LouisSt. Louis, Missouri

Making Comparisons ExplicitMost people are subliminal comparativists; others make comparisons their vocation. If you made a decision this morning concerning what to eat, what to wear, and how you should get to work or school, chances are you did so by considering alternatives and choosing the one, for whatever reason, that "made sense." (Milk and cereal or eggs and toast? Jeans and T-shirt or suit? Scenic country road or freeway?) You engage in this listing of and picking among alternatives every day, sometimes consciously but more often than not, I suspect, less so. Some decisions you make quickly; others you insist on taking your time, usually to think through the consequences of each option, before choosing the one that is "best" (that is, the one that is likely to meet your goal with the least possible averse consequences and costs).

Decision making is usually the end point of comparison making. In other words, to decide is to compare, and most of us decide (and therefore compare) all the time.

Comparative politics is about classifying, comparing, and sometimes even choosing, except that the "things" that are of interest to comparative politics specialists are the really big ones: states, societies, ideologies, political systems, countries, regions, time periods, worlds, and so on. At its most basic, then, comparative politics is a method of study (by comparison) and a field of study (of macrosocial and political phenomena). Comparativists are interested in these phenomena not their own sake (that's the job of area studies specialists, who tend to stress the uniqueness, and therefore noncomparability, of their subject matter) but rather for the purpose of drawing attention to similarities and differences -- especially the latter, of understanding why things are the way they are in one locale but not another -- and of comparing and evaluating realities (for example, public policies).

Looking at Specific Country ExamplesTo take but one example among many: A comparativist observes that the United States' health-care system is funded mainly by private sources, while the United Kingdom's system is funded by government (through an organization called the National Health Service, or NHS). She further notices that in the UK health care is guaranteed to all, while in the United States more than 40 million citizens do without. But she also notes that those Americans with health insurance have an easier time receiving certain medical procedures (kidney dialysis and transplants, triple-bypass heart surgeries) than their counterparts across the Atlantic. All of the aforementioned differences between the U.S. and UK health-care systems are, in and of themselves, interesting, but you probably want to know more, such as why the two countries' health-care systems are different, and which one is "better."

Our comparativist is like you. Her inquiring mind wants to know, so she investigates. In her probe, she is not likely to confine herself to health care in the United States and the UK (her dependent variable, if I may be technical); she will focus on other issues that she thinks might have "caused" health-care systems between the two countries to be so different. These factors (independent variables) would likely include U.S. and UK history, geography, demography, economy, political institutions, interest groups, and citizen attitude toward government and the private sector.

She spends hours reading about many possible factors: the insular history of the United States and the empire-making history of the UK (which favored the formation of a healthy army and civil servants who could be dispatched around the world); the virtual absence of socialist ideology in the mainstream of American politics and the existence of Fabian socialist ideology in the UK; the division of policy making between separate, if not to say competing, branches of government in the United States and the fusion of executive and

parliamentary powers in the UK (which makes for less contention in policy making and implementation); and, above all, her own survey, which indicates that Britons "trust" government more than Americans. Our comparativist may now feel that she "knows" why Americans and Britons have different health-care systems. She may conclude that, although the health-care system differences that exist between the United States and the UK have many "causes," one seems to be stronger than all the others: Britons trust government more than Americans. (In some studies comparativists are able to measure, together and separately, the effects of each independent variable, or cause, on the dependent variable, the effect. Even when they cannot do this, they can make plausible arguments about causes and effects.)

What has our comparativist done thus far, and how? First, she observes a "problem" or "case." Second, she investigates its cause(s). In the process, she reads extensively about not only the health-care systems in the two countries but also their history, political systems, and so forth. The knowledge gained is supplied by secondary sources (for example, books, journal articles, newspapers, and the Internet). To find out about public attitude toward government and the private sector, the comparativist decides to do a survey. Information supplied by this survey may be said to have come from primary sources. The comparativist therefore uses two types of sources to gather facts, or, if I may, information. From these facts, which she has analyzed meticulously, the comparativist makes a case as to why health-care systems in the United States and the UK are different. But she may go even further than that, based on what she has learned from her study. She may conclude that, given the evidence, one country has a "better" health-care system than the other. Here, however, she would be expressing a preference; her research would thus have a normative (or value-based) dimension, not just a positive (value-neutral or empirical) one. Furthermore, she may develop a theory, which is a general statement intended to explain or account for a given phenomenon, about health-care systems that goes this way: Citizen trust in government is the reason why countries have government-funded health-care systems.

National and Global ContextsThe words above in bold are at the heart of comparative politics. The United States and the UK are countries, or, in comparative politics language, nation-states. A nation-state is a large group of people who share (a) the characteristics of history, language, religion, ethnicity, race, political and economic values, and so forth, (b) occupy the same (usually contiguous) territory, and (c) have a government that they recognize as "theirs" and that makes laws and regulations and is expected to defend them in case of an attack by another government. Few countries neatly fit this definition. The United States, for example, has many ethnic groups and religions. Perhaps a better concept than nation-state is a national state, by which a large group of people living under one authority (or state) have come together to forge a common, or national, identity, regardless of other things that may separate them. Nation-states are usually the units of analysis in comparative research, but comparativists can focus on almost anything. A unit of analysis is the main object or actor in an argument, hypothesis, or theoretical framework. It is to be distinguished from the levels of analysis, which are the primary analytical focus of the researcher, which in our example would be American and British health-care systems or policies.

Nevertheless, comparativists almost never ignore certain macrosocial factors, even when they are not their primary focus of study. These would include the economy, which is whatever arrangement people make to produce and trade the goods and services that they think they need to survive, or otherwise make money; the state, which is the centralized authority that rules over a territory thanks to its monopolistic ownership of force (armies, police, militias, and so forth); political institutions, which are the means by which state power is organized; ideology, which is a worldview by which people make sense of reality and, at the same time, serves as a guide for them to do what is "right"; culture, which is the purported collective experience, characteristics, and orientation of a large group of people (if you think that ideology and culture are closely related, you're right, but they are not the same; ideology is a cognitive road map usually produced by elites [intellectuals no less], and culture is how people actually live); civil society, which refers to nonstate organizations that people voluntarily join, usually to defend their interests against the state

or express themselves peacefully and nonpolitically (think of political parties, labor unions, your church, and Boy and Girl Scouts); and, finally, the international environment, which refers to actors external to the typical units of analysis (nation-states) of comparativists.

The international environment is composed of other nation-states or countries, multinational, government-sanctioned institutions, which are institutions created by many nation-states to address matters of common concern, for example, the United Nations; multinational, privately owned corporations, which are profit-seeking business organizations that operate in more than one country, for example, Wal-Mart; and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), which are non-profit-seeking organizations that operate on a charity basis and deliver services to the poor and needy across countries, for example, Doctors Without Borders. INGOS also serve as advocates, when they do not provide services (for example, Amnesty International).

You can pick almost any book on comparative politics and you will find at least a mention of the concepts defined above. Sometimes one is the focus of comparison in a two-country study, as when comparativists study political parties in the United States and Italy; sometimes they are bundled with others in a multicountry study, as when comparativists study democracy and economic development all over the world. The relative weight of specific concepts as explanatory variables in the analysis of comparativists largely determines the "school" to which they may be said to belong.

Schools of AnalysisThree of the most prominent schools in comparative politics in the past 50 years have been political economy, modernization theory, and dependency theory. They are chosen here only to give you an idea of the sharply different perspectives that exist in comparative politics. The political economy approach emphasizes, as its name suggests, the nexus between economy and politics. A classic case is Robert Bates' States and Markets in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policy (University of California Press, 1981), in which the author examines how state economic policy in Africa, especially in agriculture, undermines development, and why policy continues in light of failure. Political economy, in turn, is composed of subschools, among them rational choice theory, which attempts to use (neoclassical) economic reasoning to explain collective decisions.

Like political economy, modernization theory focuses on domestic forces, but its concern is more about how certain cultural aspects that retard development may be overcome. Modernization theory generally divides society between a "modern" sector and a "backward" sector. The challenge of development is how to overcome the latter. In addition, modernization theory tends to emphasize culture rather than the political economy, which it sees as a dependent variable to be acted upon. Still, the units of analysis in both schools are nation-states, and their levels of analysis, although different, are internal to the units.1

The same cannot be said of dependency theory, for which the global system, not nation-states, is the focus of analysis. In dependency theory, poverty is due to neither so-called backward culture nor deleterious state actions in the political economy but rather the global system itself, in which a relatively small number of "core" countries specialize in high-value-added manufactured goods, while a large number of "peripheral" countries specialize in primary commodity production. Thus poverty in dependency theory stems from the position countries occupy in the international division of labor or system.

In ConclusionTo conclude, comparative politics is about serious issues: war and peace, democracy and authoritarianism, market-based and state-based economies, prosperity and poverty, health-care coverage for all and health-care coverage for some, and so on. However, its raison d'être is quite simple: the world is diverse, not monolithic. Furthermore, the world is getting smaller, literally and figuratively. Given the tremendous diversity that exists on our planet, and the fact that no one country is "better" than all the others on every count, there is always room for learning. Furthermore, knowledge is a sine qua non (precondition) for success in an interdependent -- that is, less isolated, more interconnected, and therefore "smaller" -- world. How can we relate to the Chinese if we know nothing about China, its

institutions, culture, and history? The job of the comparativist researcher is to make comparisons less subliminal and random and more deliberate and systematic, especially in the things that are critical to human life.

Notes1. I am simplifying somewhat here. Allowance should be made for international political

economy, which emphasizes the role of external forces in the politics of countries. Also, modernization theory stresses the demonstration effect that "modern" countries have on their nonmodern cousins.

Jean-Germain Gros teaches in the political science department at the University of Missouri-St. Louis.

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit I Introduction to Comparative Government

Comparative Thought

Purpose and methods of comparison: 1. Why/ways to organize government2. Normative and empirical questions

Goals: The student will:A. Evaluate the purpose and methods of comparisonB. Identify government and political classificationsC. Decipher the problems created in cross-cultural analysis D. Evaluate the world’s political scene via comparative analysis

Concepts State, nation, regime and government • Process and policy

Essential Questions What is politics? What is the purpose of government? What is political science/comparative science? What are common policy challenges?

Assigned ReadingsRoskin Textbook: Chapter One O’Neill Reader: Lichbach and Zuckerman “Research Traditions and Theory

in Comparative Politics”

Unit One: Introduction to Comparative Politics

The beginning of a college comparative politics course and the beginning of most textbooks in comparative politics

introduce students to the study of politics by explaining how political scientists study politics and why it is important for students to be informed about politics abroad. It is useful to distinguish between normative, or value-related, questions and empirical or factual questions at this early stage, and to emphasize that political scientists are interested in both sorts of questions. In explaining how political scientists divide up their field of study, it is important to make clear what comparative inquiry has to offer.

We live in an interdependent world: What happens in Mexico, for example, impacts the United States. This point provides a good opportunity to introduce the theme of globalization and the general political and economic permeability of national borders. It is here that we will want to contrast the concepts of state, nation, regime, and government—a lesson inevitably leading to discussions about legitimacy, authority, and bases of political power, as well as the differences between these concepts. Thus, students will learn that the “state” is generally used to refer to the political power exercised over a defined geographic territory through a set of public institutions, in contrast to the “nation,” which is often understood as a human community with a shared culture and history. This course treats governments as collections of individuals who occupy political office or exercise state power, whereas regimes are treated as the sets of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. Regime change occurs when these rules and institutions are replaced. Students will need to grasp the conceptual differences between and similarities among types of political systems.

Despite vast differences between economies and regime types, most countries face similar and fundamental challenges, including those presented by the natural environment, social and ethnic diversity, economic performance, and the delivery of health care to citizens.

AP Comparative Government

Unit I Terms

1. Absolutism is a political theory that the power and authority of government should be invested in a single executive ruler. Any sort of legislative body would not have any check against this executive power, and in most absolutist states there was no truly active legislative body. This executive, usually a king, would often be the head of the religious aspect of the nation-state demonstrating the belief that the executive was ordained by God to rule over the people. There are varying degrees of absolutism from authoritarianism to despotism. Theoretically, the absolute power has no restrictions on its power. In reality, the monarch was obligated to uphold divine law as he was appointed by God to delegate His laws. Also, there was an understanding that the monarch did not tread on the private life of the citizens, making the nexus between the political and private sphere rough waters. However, this is also true about democracies. Absolutism is not a common form of modern government, as it served as a transition from feudalism to capitalism. The countries we study are not true absolutist nation-states. However, Iran’s Supreme Leader (the religious leader) is appointed indefinitely and has the power to deny potential presidential candidates giving him some absolutist power.

2. An authoritarian government demands complete obedience from the people. Many associate the word with totalitarianism yet they are not synonymous with each other. Also, an authoritarian government is not always absolutist because the power can rest with a group of ruling elites. Iran (theocratic republic) and China (communist) are authoritarian governments as the masses are expected to obey the party/religious elites without question.

3. Bound – As a verb, refers to the process of “bounding,” by which geography was taught in times before. Students would recite the bounds of a country in order to learn its borders – the United States, for example, is bound by Canada to the North, Mexico to the South, the Atlantic to the East and the Pacific to the West. Also: shortened form of boundary, a limit to one’s territory.

4. Causality –denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause) and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence (result) of the first. The process of cause-and-effect, difficult to demonstrate in the social sciences because several areas of measurement are qualitative.

5. Coalition – An assemblage of powers created to advance an agenda or complete a task. In 2006 Garry Kasparov was one of the prime movers behind a broad coalition of political parties that formed The Other Russia, a coalition political party held together by only one goal- removing Vladimir Putin from power. Also may refer to an alliance of parties generated to form a working government. In many nations, so many parties exist that coalitions are necessary to create any sort of consenting majority.

6. Constructed: This term refers to a nation that is deliberately created but widely accepted as natural. Since all states are constructed to a certain extent, they are somewhat artificial. A constructed nation is formed to unify the people within the state so that it is politically stable. When a state is constructed by a majority it becomes an embodiment of authority, rights, and freedom associated with the majority. This makes it hard for a majority of the minority groups to identify with the constructed nation. An example would be the creation of the Nigerian nation.

7. Core: Refers to the area where the state originated and the country’s capital is usually found. An example of a core area in Iran is Tehran. Some countries contain more than one core area which typically leads to regional tension. People living in areas farther away from the core region usually

speak a different language and resent rule by the core area. A core area’s main goal is to spread its rule, language, and culture throughout the area to national integration.

8. Democracy- A government whose power is derived from the people. Democracy plays a fundamental role in many governments (United States, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Taiwan, S. Korea, Germany…). Most nations have their own variation of a democratic government.

9. Electoral Franchise- Refers to those who can vote. In most democratic nations, the electoral franchise expands to all who are legal citizens. For example in Great Britain, all men and women regardless of race who are British may vote if they are 18 years of age or older and meet other certain requirement.

10. Elites- Class-divided societies have almost always been governed politically by a small minority. In general, this chosen few is a small group even in relation to the ‘ruling class’ itself, in the Marxist sense, the class which possesses or controls the economic wealth of society through the institutions of property, and in whose collective interests society is governed. (While China grapples with its latest tainted-food crisis, the political elite are served the choicest, safest delicacies. The “State Council Central Government Offices Special Food Supply Center” is specifically designed to avoid the problems troubling the general population.. They get hormone-free beef from the grasslands of Inner Mongolia, organic tea from the foothills of Tibet and rice watered by melted mountain snow an d it's all supplied by a special government outfit that provides all-organic goods from farms working under the strictest guidelines!!)

11. Ethnicity- ethnicity is a group that identifies with each other partly because of common ancestry. Ethnicity is known to be used in keeping others in lower and harsher economic situations, such as in many Latin American countries (Mexico) those with Spanish ancestry often control much of the wealth. Ethnicity can be the reason for terrible acts such as an attack on an ethnic group such as between the Hausas and Igbos and the during the Nigerian-Biafran Civil War 1967-1970.

12. Euro- the euro is a single currency shared by 13 countries in the European Union (EU). These countries are Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Spain, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Greece, and Slovenia. Great Britain, one of the largest economies in the EU is not part of the Euro because the Pound is currently the strongest currency in the world. The Euro provides a simple way for citizens of different countries in Europe to travel and trade across national boundaries without having to exchange currencies. The monetary policy for the Euro is controlled by the European Central Bank and the national central banks. These banks come together to discuss monetary policy but also they discuss plans to phase in the Euro into certain countries in the EU that have requested to switch to the Euro. This often takes years to occur.

13. European Union- It is a loose confederation of allied European countries. Most use a common currency called the "Euro." EU countries share a collective economic market, and citizens are free to travel from member-state to member-state. Great Britain is a part of the EU, but they maintain their own currency, the Pound Sterling. The concept of a European union started with the European Economic Community in the 1950's, but the E.U. was finally formed in 1993.

14. Failed State- Although it is a very controversial term, a failed state is any government that does not have effective control over its territory, cannot enforce its laws, and has widespread corruption that prevents the country

from developing further. Nigeria is on "alert" for a failed state status, and the term is most often used in association with the political situation in most other African countries.

15. Feudalism- An outdated hierarchical system which granted land to an elite few who then subdivided the land amongst lower levels of the hierarchy. It existed in Europe during the Middle Ages, but it was replaced by strong monarchies starting in the 1300's. It did not promote any advancement from one level of society to another, and it is almost unheard of in modern times.

16. GDP- Gross domestic product refers to the chief method of measuring the strength of a nation’s economy. There are two methods used to calculate the gross domestic product, the expenditures and the income method that produce the same result. The expenditures method involves summing all personal consumption expenditures, gross private investments in capital, construction, and inventory, government purchases, and net exports. The income method involves summing the compensation of employees, rents, interests, proprietors’ incomes, corporate profits, and taxes on production and imports. After summing these, adjustments are made for money earned outside the nation (such as from outsourced plants), statistical discrepancies, and depreciation of capital.

17. Generalization-Generalization refers to finding repeated patterns and examples. Drawing a generalization enables you to find a reason for a general trend while overlooking a minor anomaly. For example, in general South American countries are primarily Spanish-speaking.

18. Han-The name Han refers to the majority ethnic group in China. The Han people claim to be descendents of members of the Han dynasty, an early Chinese ruling family. The Han people make up 92% of the People’s Republic of China and include over 1.3 billion people worldwide. The Han ethnic group controls almost everything in China where as the more minor ethnic groups - Mongols, Muslims, etc.- have little say in the government and society as a whole.

19. Ideology-An ideology is a collection of organized ideas that acts as a comprehensive vision of looking at things. A political ideology is a large group of ideas about how policy should work; it’s a layout for social rule and order. Traditionally, the ideologies of the three main political parties in Great Britain were that Labour expressed its values in social justice, the Conservatives in the economy and the Liberal Democrats in civil rights, today those boundaries are less clear.

20. Institution-An organization that is designed to govern over individuals. Institutions contain a social purpose and must have order to survive. An institution can be either a government that sets laws and enforces them in order to create social order and purpose. The laws an institution creates do not necessarily reflect the general consensus on what is fair or not, however, when in power, an institution has the ability and responsibility to regulate its territory whether it be in an office building or covering 2,000 miles of land.

21. Interest Group- This is an association aimed at getting policies that agree with the group’s ideology.  These are sometimes correlated with political parties, such as labor unions and the Labour party in Great Britain.  However, in more "modern" countries, interest groups tend to target the bureaucracy more than the slower legislative branch.

22. Mass- (Society and the general population). This is the majority of the population, typically without much power or influence in governmental policy.  Democratic nations, such as Great Britain, tend to give more power to the masses because they elect the representatives that represent them. In authoritative nations, power is rested solely in the elites although the

masses populate the country. Elites must control these people so that they (the elites) maintain control over the state.  During industrialization many people moved from rural areas to urban areas.  When this occurred, the masses became more aware of their economic condition and demanded economic change; revolution often resulted. Today in China the government may need to appease the general population with new democratic economic structures for fear of revolution.

23. Nation- A form of political, cultural, or social identity; people residing in a nation share the same identity and similarities. In the most general of terms or of usage it can mean a political country or state, but in a stricter usage it can mean a group of people.China as a whole is a nation but the Tibetan people living there are a nation of people as well.

24. Parliament- Legislatures called parliaments operate under a parliamentary system of government in which the executive is constitutionally answerable to the parliament, such as in Great Britain. This can be contrasted with a presidential system, on the model of the United States' congressional system, which operates under a stricter separation of powers whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body.

25. Particularism- (A region’s sense of itself) Particularism is a political theory that each political group has a right to promote its own interests and especially independence without regard to the interests of larger groups. Also defined “as the policymakers’ ability to further their career by catering to narrow interests rather than broader national platforms”. The traditions of particularism have always existed in Nigeria even before British colonialism created the nation-state of Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity. It was not unusual that the nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the interwar period derived both from an older political particularism and broad pan-Africanism rather than from any sense of a common Nigerian nationality.

26. Political Culture- This is the general feeling and position on the actions of the government and the world around it. For instance, political culture for some time in America dictated that the only type of acceptable government was democracy. This caused vast cynicism for any country that did not have a democratic form of government, even if the nation was framed as an ally like the USSR during WWII. Attitude towards that is entirely dictated by political culture. After Watergate and Vietnam, political culture dictated a very negative view of the institution of government. In other countries, political culture dictates the type of government. For instance, in a religious nation like Iran, it may be appropriate based on political culture to have a government led by the religious leader, where as in Great Britain,

this would never be deemed appropriate. 27. Political Geography- The way that land is influenced by the

governments that surround it. In general, political geography generally involves actual countries and the territory in which they take up. Political geography is almost entirely man-made; in some instance borders have been drawn using some means that have little to do with physical characteristics. The initial reason for political geography stems from a need for defense for nations. Political geography is part of what led to the formation of the European Union.

28. Pragmatic- This is when a decision is made that bases nothing on political orientation and for the sole intent of making things convenient. An example of being pragmatic would be the approach that Great Britain takes on defense. In Great Britain it is not a partisan issue how much money goes towards defense because it is considered to be necessary spending. Russia claimed that it wasn’t pragmatic to be involved in Iraq so they did not send troops.

29. President- (An elected head of state) Presidents perform the same basic function in various governments that is to protect and preserve the rights and liberties of their people. Out of the six countries being considered, Russia, Nigeria, and Mexico all have presidents. Russia is the only country of these three to also have a prime minister who is first in line for the presidency. In Russia the executive power is split between the two, though the president is the head of state. Governments in Nigeria and Russia restrict the president to two four year terms. Presidents in Mexico serve one six year term and are not eligible for re-election. All except Russia require presidential candidates to have been born in the country. All have various requirements of residence before being eligible for office. Mexico only requires one year residence prior to election, but does not allow religious officials, those who have served in the military in the last six months, or former Presidents of Mexican provinces to run. Presidents of Mexico, Russia, and Nigeria have powers similar to those of American presidents.

30. Prime Minister- Chief of government in parliamentary systems; a member of parliament delegated by it to form a government. Can be ousted by a vote of no-confidence in parliament and has the power to appoint, reshuffle, or dismiss ministers; create peers; give out honors; appoint chairs of nationalized industries, make appointments, and other powers related to ministerial conduct, government business, and international relations. Great Britain’s prime minister is Gordon Brown and Russia’s is Vladimir Putin.

31. Quarrels- Refers to important, long-term political issues; “what people fight about” To understand a nation’s quarrels, an understanding of a country’s past, political institutions, how people look at their social and political system, (and how deeply they support it) and their how political views are essential to an understanding. Can also be identified by talking with people, officials, local media, and election allies. Economic quarrels include: nationalized health insurance, language rights, economy and political struggles, wages, benefits, layoffs, economic growth/decline, unemployment, distribution of income and wealth, and taxes. Non-economic quarrels include- regionalism, violence, and immigration. Three key underlying causes of current quarrels are:

1. Impact of the past 2. Key institutions 3. Political culture32. Redistribution: Redistribution is welfare, which means that the

government collects tax and distributes them to the citizens. Through this system, the government attempts to help the poor and reduce the inequality

between the poor and the wealthy by taxing the rich citizens more. The Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China are two examples of countries where, despite aggressive economic regulation, wealth was/continues to be distributed unevenly.

33. Regime: Regime is a government, either formal or informal, that controls the power of the state. Though the word is used often in negative connotation, “regime” is neutral word. A coup for a regime change in Iran was paid by the CIA in1953.

34. Reification- (also known as hypostatization or concretism) is a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it represented a concrete, real event or physical entity. (Example: "Monarchy is just"). Assuming government is a being with desires ("Government wants to take our money"). In Marxism philosophy, reification has a specific meaning, and is used to describe evolution of concepts like labor - as an economic commodity, when before it meant the everyday life of work - or capital, the objectification of desire in currency.

35. Russification- This is when Russia made/makes non-Russian nationalities learn Russian when Russia in controlling their country. Russia acquired a large amount of land in Central Asia and tried to force the people to speak Russian. These people were mostly Muslim and had little similarities with their Russian rulers. Russification proved to be impossible and only made the people resent Russia even more.

36. Secularization- The transformation of society’s standards that are closely related with religious ideology to a society that has a separated relationship between religious institutions and the government and culture. Secularization was first ushered into the political and cultural realm through the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. Most developed countries have some form of a secular society (except theocracies such as Iran), although one religious institution might dominate over others.

37. Sovereignty- The supreme, absolute, and uncontrollable power by which any independent state is governed. Through this independence, that state is able to determine its own laws, govern its own people without submitting to a foreign power, and make war or alliances with other nations.

38. State: A territorial unit that is politically organized with its own established order, laws, territory, and sovereignty. The idea of a state traces back into history. Machiavelli wrote in The Prince that the concept of a state is a territorial sovereign state. The term state in its basic form, it is the organization of people living in a territory with common interest. However, this term quickly began to evolve as civilizations became more advanced. In Great Britain, the Tudors developed what is today known as more of a modern state in the seventh century. They introduced an army, a centralized bureaucracy, a taxation system, and economic doctrine within their sovereign state. This gives the idea that state encompasses order, security, laws, law enforcement, and jurisdiction. All of these things together make a government. There is no state without an established government. Therefore, a state is simply a collection of people who are organized under their own personal legal system.

39. Symbol: Anything that stands for or represents something else beyond it that can potentially arouse emotions. A symbol is something that is typically visual or verbal and has a greater meaning behind its simple form. It is usually used to convey deep emotions or meanings to certain people. Political symbols can be used to show the particular past of a country. These types of symbols can range anywhere from flags to religion, and even anthems. In Great Britain the queen is a modern day symbol reminding the

British of their past monarch heritage and empire; she takes no physical role in the British politics. To the British even though the queen has no role in making the country run she helps to make Great Britain the country that it is and keeps the country together. Every society doesn’t have a politically symbolic queen; however, each society does have its own symbol to reflect its culture and heritage in order to communicate with the rest of the world.

40. Theory-(Firm generalization supported by evidence) In Comparative Government a theory is the end result of a study carried out by comparing different nation-states as units of analysis and researching the background on an issue in each nation-state to reason why they behave differently and which is better serving their people. In the end, some theories will show shades of personal preference in how one believes those in power should govern their people. Other theories can be firmly grounded in evidence and will still show an obvious preference. As is mentioned in “Comparative Politics Made Simple,” two people can do extensive research on how the United States and Great Britain have different health care systems and have vastly different theories on which serves its purpose better.

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit II Citizens, Society, and the State

Important Unit Concepts Cleavages and politics (ethnic, racial, class, gender, religious, regional)

Pluralism Patterns of conflict between groups (exclusion,

removal, forced assimilation, genocide) Government responses to problems from social

cleavages (extending citizenship, full participation, constitutional provisions protecting rights, federalism, devolution)

Crosscutting cleavage hypothesis and the consociational state alternative

Civil society Media roles Political participation- Forms/modes/trends), including political violence Social movements Citizenship and social representation

GOAL:The students will

A. Differentiate between types of regimes (communist, authoritarian, democratic…)

B. Evaluate the source of government activity (social and economic policy, planning and control…)

C. Identify and qualify the institutions of national governments (legislatures, executives, bureaucracies and courts.)

1. The major formal and informal institutional arrangements and powers.

2. Relations among these institutions3. Relations to sub national political units

Important Terms and Concepts- Unit II Test and FRQ’s

1. Advocacy groups2. Anti-globalization3. Chiapas revolt4. Civil society5. Consociational state6. Crosscutting cleavage7. Coinciding (cumulative)

cleavage8. Democratization9. Devolution10. Ethnicity11. Factional mobilization

12. Forced assimilation13. Fundamentalism14. Genocide15. Globalization16. Interest articulation17. Political socialization18. Polarization19. Social cleavages20. Social networks21. Tiananmen Square22. 1979 Iranian Revolution

Roskin Assigned ReadingUnit

IICitizens, Society, and the State

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

Cleavages and politics (ethnic, racial, class, gender, religious, regional

pp. 16, 60, 94, 174, 207, 268, 275

Civil society pp. 34, 144-145Media roles pp. 162, 248Political participation (forms/modes/trends), including political violence

pp. 32-33, 46, 59-60. 72-74, 131, 135, 136, 238, 239, 248

Social movements pp. 35-36, 109, 244, 245, 296Citizenship and social representation

N/A

Unit II Overview“Citizens, Society, and the State”

Ultimately, politics hinges on the interactions between state and society. Through country cases, students will learn how certain kinds of cleavages such as ethnicity, religion, or class become politically relevant. Some regimes like China and Iran have formal arrangements for representing social groups such as ethnic or religious minorities. A country’s political patterns depend largely on the characteristics and demands of its population. Institutions can blunt or exacerbate cleavages in society. The countries studied in this course provide ample evidence for pursuing questions about how states manage and respond to deeply held divisions among their citizens. Gaining an understanding of civil society both conceptually and within countries will provide useful tools that will enable students to explore the ways in which state power is mediated and the power of citizens may be enhanced.

Much of politics is affected by the extent and nature of citizen organization independent of the state. Advocacy groups, social networks, and the media all shape citizens’ political views and mobilize political forces. The interaction between type of regime and patterns in civil society is often crucial. Students will explore the range of ways that a citizenry can act politically, through both traditional means such as voting and more forceful political action such as strikes and insurgencies. Events in some of the covered countries, such as Iran’s 1979 revolution, China’s 1989 Tiananmen crisis, and Mexico’s 1994 Chiapas revolt, provide examples of extraordinary political pressures.

The emergence of global civil society, such as transnational networks of human rights and environmental groups, is also having a significant effect on government–citizen relations. The media has also played an important role, not only within countries but as a purveyor of global culture. Students will consider the relation between the media (in its various forms) and the state, as well as the ways the media influences and shapes public perceptions, beliefs, and practices. Citizens participate in politics in a variety of ways. A significant exercise of political power in most societies is political participation. Students will learn how to define the concept and be able to describe the ways in which political participation can both support and undermine a political system. Since participation can take a variety of forms and be either voluntary or coerced, students will know the different ways that citizens in China, for instance, participate and contrast those methods with methods used by citizens in other countries. In this process, students will be exposed to the continuum of participation, ranging from behavior supportive of a regime to behavior that seeks to change or overthrow it.

Participation takes both individual and group forms. In political science, group participation is often framed as social movements. Contemporary social movements—ranging from anti-globalization to environmental issues, civil rights, and enfranchisement claims—have specific forms and particular methods. Students will gain some insight into major social movements. In this process, students will understand the connection between social movements

and representation—especially since this is often the most basic claim put forward by social groups demanding the attention of their states.

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit II Terms

1. Advocacy groups– a collection of people committed to influencing policy decisions in their favor. These groups advocate interests as wide as gun use and health care. Some are business centered while others socially centered. However, these groups do not run candidates for office like political parties, so parties will try to form their policy platform to gain as many groups’ votes as possible. For example, the Conservative and Labour parties in Great Britain might form policy that is favorable to the Confederation of British Industry to gain their political support

2. Anti-globalization- The opposition to the integration, socially, economically, culturally, or politically, of the international community. As an umbrella term encompassing several movements, its goals are somewhat amorphous and very broad, but commonly include the protection of the environment from multinationals, the defense of traditional cultural practices, and the worldwide preservation of labor rights, most specifically the right to unionize. In France, the faction is referred to as Alter-Globalization, and is highly opposed to trade agreements. The People’s Global Action network is perhaps the most influential of these organizations, but it is by no means the only one. The initial inspiration for the formation of PGA came from a global meeting called in 1996 by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), which had started a grassroots uprising in the impoverished Mexican state of Chiapas on New Year’s Day 1994 when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect. Anti-globalization has roots in or ideological ties with environmentalism, anarchism, situationism, and postmodernist socialism.

3. Chiapas revolt-The Chiapas is a region in the southernmost part of Mexico. The indigenous people of Chiapas (mostly Mayan-descended Indian farmers) became one of the poorest people in all of Mexico. In 1993, the state of Chiapas attacked by a revolting Zapatista guerrilla army. (The army was founded by Emiliano Zapata, a peasant hero in the Mexican Revolt of 1914-15.) The Zapatistas took over San Cristobal de las Casas and the 5 neighboring cities of the Chiapas highlands. The army had longtime social and economic grievances against wealthy cattle ranchers and coffee growers, who were supported by police and government officials. For 12 days, there were furious gun battles with government soldiers and many police, ranchers, and others were seized. However in the end, an agreement was finally reached. It stated that all illegal landholdings would be redistributed to poor peasants, and that discrimination against Indians would be prohibited.

4. Civil society- In short, a modern civil society is a group or organization that’s purpose is to enhance the well being of the general society through voluntary civics. Traditional and almost all countries have a government which supports and backs everything from motor vehicles to environment and social security. Other civil societies may oppose government-backed programs and believes that social institutions and organizations should be supported through voluntary civilians. In Great Britain an example of a civil society would be the Charity Commission.

5. Consociational- this is where a government can not create a majority government because of vast divides in the nation along either ethnic, religious, or language divides. Instead of these governments being controlled by one party, a coalition between similar ideological based parties come together to form a coalition government or coalition cabinet. These nations often have a

federal government with powerful state governments, proportional representation, and a rigid well thought out constitution. An example is Nigeria.

6. Democratization-Simply, the process of developing democratic systems and allowing free speech and expression. This is mostly advanced through voting. Democratization is marked by peaceful debate, uncorrupted voting system, and the decision of the people being respected. It can be a fast process such as in Russia where in two year they had a representative government. Or it can be slow like in Great Britain where small advancements in representational government were made over time. Democratization is influenced by various factors, including economic development, history, and civil society.

7. Devolution- The central government turning over some of their central power to other more local regions. These regions are still under their control, but they have more freedom to rule at a local level. Great Britain is currently undergoing devolution as Scotland and Wales have been offered their own parliament system by the Labour Party. In a way this devolution is causing Great Britain to become more along the federal lines in respect to government, but they still are effectively a unitary system.

8. Ethnicities-Refers to a group of people who have a common culture, language, religion, and ancestry. For example:oChina: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu,

Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1%oGreat Britain: White (of which English 83.6%, Scottish 8.6%, Welsh 4.9%,

Northern Irish 2.9%) 92.1%, black 2%, Indian 1.8%, Pakistani 1.3%o Iran: Persian 51%, Azeri 24%, Gilaki and Mazandarani 8%, Kurd 7%, Arab 3%,

Lur 2%, Baloch 2%, Turkmen 2%, other 1%oMexico: Mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 60%, Amerindian or predominantly

Amerindian 30%, white 9%oNigeria is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups; the following are the

most populous and politically influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%

oRussians make up 79.8% of the people in Russia9. Factional mobilization- Occurs when voters pick a first place only in a primary

or other election (first-past-the post) which negates the need for putting together several factions/groups together for a purpose. Factional mobilization is the opposite of coalition building. Factions were needed to win elections or political power prior to the use of primaries in the United States. Primaries did away with the need for coalition building because the voters themselves picked the first place winner in the states. Factional mobilization can result in ideological extreme candidates. Ordinary Nigerians respond to calls for factional mobilization because in many ways they see their status as vulnerable. A participatory constitution- making process is not a guarantee against that vulnerability, but it provides people with an opportunity to “own” the process to determine their future and to agree on the fundamental terms of such a continued existence.

10.Forced assimilation-By definition, this is the process where a minority or conquered group is forced to adopt the customs of the conquerors. Often, the minority group is able to strike back by placing some aspects of the dying culture into the new culture. For instance, when the Russia began expanding into the Soviet Union, it forced many of the peoples in the various regions to assimilate to U.S.S.R. culture, most importantly communism.

11.Fundamentalism- Fundamentalism is relative to the culture and religion it exists within.  Initially used to describe American Christians in the early 20th century whose beliefs reflected a hardline and literal interpretation of the Bible, the term now encompasses all religious denominations that refuse to modernize

their beliefs and maintain a strict literal interpretation of sacred texts as well as the texts’ inerrancy.  Many fundamentalists believe that the law should incorporate these beliefs.  Currently, fundamentalism is most often associated with evangelical Christians of the West and militant Muslims of the Middle East including Iran. Christian fundamentalists of the West advocate prayer in schools, whereas Islamic fundamentalists advocate Sharia (“Islamists”).  

12.Genocide- The direct and purposeful act to murder a group of people based on their religion, race, ethnicity, or ideals. Genocide is more typical and apparent in less-developed countries though Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan both committed acts of genocide in the 1930s and 1940s. Though disputed one can see some traces of repression if not killings based off of ethnicity in Nigeria and China.

13.Globalization- Is the theory that the world is becoming one large capitalist economy over time. What is important to realize is that many nations are not involved in globalization, as they have few exports that are needed by other nations in trade. With the exception of oil, there is very little global trade occurs in the Middle East. Growth in Latin American Countries is viewed by many to be stagnant, putting some holes in the idea of the global trade market being positive for the whole world. An example is NAFTA which is a hot topic Mexican political parties. The PDR is in favor of either ending NAFTA or making major changes to NAFTA policy. PAN is a staunch supporter of NAFTA, especially with Vicente Fox as a major leader of the party who has background with global giant Coca-Cola.

14.Interest articulation- As a type of political communication, interest articulation is a way for members of a society to express their needs, policy preferences to a system of government, and demands for action. This can include personal contact with government officials and formation of interest groups who act in the interest of larger groups of people. It can have different effects in different types of government, both legal (i.e.: lobbying, lawful protest, phone calls and letters to policymakers) and illegal (i.e. riots) activities. Interest articulation leads to interest aggregation Depending on how the public views the government in control will determine what sort of interest articulation will form. In China, interest articulation among youth is declining, because studies show that they have less and less interest in politics each year, resulting in waning party power.

15.Political socialization- It is the process of acquiring one’s political orientation throughout his life. The factors that affect political orientation are: family, media, friends, teachers, religion, race, gender, geography, etc. These influence a person’s voting behavior and political beliefs, which are shaped in his childhood, and family is the strongest influence. Political socialization relates to cleavages, since it forms people’s political orientation. Different processes of political socialization and the political values lead to diverse values and cleavages. For example, in Nigeria, the diverse race and religion caused many different political values to form and led to political cleavage.

16.Polarization- Polarization is when a party’s view or the public’s view on a candidate goes in different directions. It can be the electorate’s response to a political figure or party. When a party or the electorate becomes polarized on an issue, it usually means that the party’s or the electorate’s views are not cohesive and go in opposite directions. Popular polarization is when opinions move away towards poles of intensity or distribution. Partisan polarization is when support for a candidate distinguishes itself along party lines. Politics in Nigeria are polarized along religious lines. The Muslims and the Christians formed their own political parties and often have very different views on the issues in the country. Polarization can also occur along the lines of social classes, geographic regions, and rural-urban.

17.Social cleavages- Defined, social cleavages are the spatial division of society into distinct groups. These groups typically form into separate parties, sometimes extremely hostile towards one another because of its peoples’ ethnic or religious tensions. Modern social cleavages are led by groupings of class, religion, and ethnic background. Of our countries, Nigeria certainly has the most amounts of social cleavages, with the Christian south and Muslim north and hundreds of ethnic groups as well, which makes for an extremely difficult unification for political and economic purposes.

18.Social networks- A group (may be based on family, religious, economic factors…) that influences persons in positive or negative way. Similar to a faction. Advocacy groups, social networks, and the media all shape citizens’ political views and mobilize political forces. The interaction between type of regime and patterns in civil society is often crucial. Conflict itself begets conflict, which can generate into violent conflict. It is clear that social networks associated with armed intrastate conflict are quite dynamic. Understanding how social networks change before and after civil war initiation allows. Few researchers have questioned the consequences of the reliance of immigrants on social networks during resettlement. The debate, in developed countries like Great Britain, has centered on the positive or negative effects of networks on immigrant adaptation, without considering circumstances under which the role of networks has been mitigated, overridden, or even reversed by factors in the receiving context. The underlying assumption that networks always provide a haven of support for immigrants has been left unquestioned. In urban Latin America, the role of social networks in protecting vulnerable populations has been much debated. In Mexico, social networks are critical to the development of a sense of community and well-being in all classes. For example a "culture of poverty" among the urban poor in which mutual support networks played an important role in how the Mexican-poor use family and other close relationships to mobilize resources in their struggles to overcome some of the vicissitudes inherent in poverty and political disenfranchisement. For Russians in the former USSR, social networks became very important. Under a totalitarian state like the former Soviet Union, formal organizations were systematically discouraged and suppressed for fear that they may challenge state authority. Graphically, state policy was aimed at severing the edges connecting nodes. This policy succeeded in ended formal organizations but it created an extensive informal social network. The social networks in Russia had to be extensive because the population did not trust the state’s media so they turned to their friends and neighbors for any news and information which was passed by word of mouth

19.Tiananmen Square– A period of protests lead by students and intellectuals that spoke out against the political and economic policy of the Chinese Communist Party. The protests took place between April 15 and June 4, 1989. The Communist Party reacted by sending in military forces to end the protests. Death tolls reported by the party range from 200-300, however, it is generally accepted that between 2,000-3,000 people were murdered. The Chinese government suppressed the media and played down the scale of the violence that took place. Many governments condemned the actions although this had little effect.

20.1979 Iranian Revolution- Public policy decisions of the Shah led to an astronomical number of human rights violations. Over the years, the Shah had grown in power. He was allied with the U.S. for many years even with tyrannical policy. President Nixon was a strong ally of the Shah because of a belief that the Shah had the ability to keep order in the Middle East that so often had been an unstable region. In 1973, the Shah’s started to become a big spender as OPEC was able to negotiate after the Arab-Israeli war leading to oil prices quadrupling.

This seems as though it should have been beneficial, with increased revenue flowing into the economy, but the problem was there was very little trickle down. The people were also very upset at how armed forces were using 17% of Iran’s GDP. As a promoter of education, the Shah in some ways took himself out of power. Greater education of the people led for more and more citizens to realize the corruption of the nation’s leader. He also alienated the most important part of Iran’s culture, Islam. Mullah began to dread the emergence of American culture and alcohol in the nation as it was against the value system of Islam. Ayatollah Khomeini, the future Supreme Leader had been banished by the Shah for his beliefs. Khomeini believed in an extremist form of Islam in order to control behavior and actions of the people. In 1964 when Khomeini was banished from Iran, he spent a short time in Turkey before leaving to teach in various holy sites in Iraq. Through pressure from Iran and the U.S. government Saddam Hussein banished Khomeini from Iraq. He was later welcomed to stay in France. In France Khomeini began a campaign with claims that he planned to bring democracy to Iran. Through networks in Iran with mullahs, interconnected mosque networks and over the telephone tape recordings that taught the true ideology of Khomeini, he was able to export his extremist ideals. These ideas are based of velayat-e faqih. What is important to consider is that Khomeini’s students’ movement was not the only movement that was going on at this time. SAVAK for a long time had persecuted many of the other groups, but did little in putting down Khomeini’s group. SAVAK was able to especially put down the student groups such as MEK (People’s Mujahedin of Iran), Tudeh Party of Iran, Organization of Iranian People’s Fedai Guerillas, Iranian People’s Fedai Guerrillas, Freedom Movement of Iran (Khomeini’s party), as well as a number of other numerous minority groups. After protests led to the Shah leaving, Khomeini put Mehdi Bazargan into power. This usurped the Shah’s final Prime Ministered Shapour Bakhtiar. After the Shah left, all political prisoners of the Shah were released and SAVAK was disbanded. Eventually, it was replaced by the IRGC and Qods force. On March 30th-31st 1979, 98.2% of voters in Iran voted in favor of Iran becoming an Islamic Republic.

AP Comparative Government Unit III: Sovereignty, Authority,

and PowerEssential Question: What is power and how is it gained and retained?Goals: The student will:

Understand the concept of power Comprehend and distinguish between the constitutions of

the studied countries Understand that power and authority is exercised within the context of

economic systems Understand that belief systems can serve as the ultimate basis for

legitimacy Study the concept of political culture. Ideology, and socialization and

understand how these influence power Explore the differences between political value and beliefs

Essential Concepts

Political culture, communication, and socialization

Nations and states Supranational governance (EU…) Sources of power Constitutions (Forms, purposes,

applications) Regime types

Types of economic systems State building, legitimacy, and

stability Belief systems as sources of

legitimacy:o Religiono Ideologies

Governance and accountability

Assigned ReadingsRoskin and O’Neill: See attached for chapters and pages.

Important Terms and Concepts for Unit III Test and FRQ- Connect to Political Power in Research!

1. Authoritarian2. Authority3. Brinton’s theory of revolution4. Capitalism5. Command economy6. Confederal7. Coups8. Democratization9. Democratization10.Devolution11.Evolution12.Federal13.Illiberal democracy14.Legitimacy 15.Liberal democracy16.Market economy

17.Mixed economy18.Mixed economy19.Nationalization20.Political culture21.Power22.Privatization23.Regime24.Rentier state25.Revolution26.Socialism27.Sovereignty28.Stability and instability29.Supernational organizations30.Unitary

Roskin Assignments

Review Political culture, communication, and socialization

Chapter 1 p. 12-15

Review Nations and states Chapter 1 p. 1-3Review Supranational governance (EU…) Chapter 1 p. 18Review Sources of power Chapter 1 p. 11, 13Review Constitutions (Forms, purposes,

applications)Chapter 1 p. 10-12

Regime types Chapter 10

p. 154,155

Types of economic systems Chapter 6 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15

p. 85-89 (Great Britain)p. 168-175, and p. 180 (Russia)p. 213 (China)p. 251 (Mexico)p. 281 (Nigeria)p. 313 (Iran)

Review State building, legitimacy, and stability Chapter 1 p. 5-7, 13Review Belief systems as sources of legitimacy:

1. Religion2. Ideologies

Chapter 1 Chapter 6 Chapter 11Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 15

p. 8, 13, 14, 16 p. 28-29, 35 (Great Britain)p. 143 (Russia)p. 203-206 (China)p. 244-245 (Mexico)p. 303-304 (Iran)

Governance and accountability Chapter 14

p. 282-284 (Nigeria)

Unit III OverviewSovereignty, Authority, and Power

The study of politics requires an understanding of power. Comparative politics recognizes that power is territorially organized into states, or countries, that more or less control what happens within their borders, which is to say that they exercise sovereignty. At the same time, it is important that students recognize that there has not always been a system of states. This system, in fact, is relatively recent and first emerged in Europe. There are now increasing pressures to move beyond this system to more supranational systems of governance, such as the emerging European Union (EU). It is also important to emphasize that sovereignty can be affected by internal divisions over power and its distribution. Across national borders, the sources of power that are the foundation for politics vary, and these different sources have an effect on the construction of the rules of politics. These rules—which generally take the form of constitutions—need to be understood in this context. Constitutions define both the role and constituent parts of a government and the limits and obligations of government with respect to the rights of citizens. Studying different types of political regimes, from forms of democracy to the various nondemocratic forms, enables students to gain a clearer picture of how states strike a balance between citizen rights and government power.

The exercise of power requires justification, and political scientists use the concept of legitimacy to refer to the popularly accepted use of power by a government. Students will conceptualize the different ways in which political legitimacy is expressed in states, as well as recognizing when legitimacy has been lost. State power is exercised within the context of specific economic systems. The course will introduce students to the scope and role of government in the economy. Students will be familiar with belief systems that might form the foundation for claims to legitimacy. Ultimately both the belief systems that strengthen the legitimacy of the political system and the structures of the economy will have an impact on governmental effectiveness, capacity, and control over state resources. Students will understand the basics of the relationship between sources of authority, political power, and governance.

Political scientists are interested in political culture, core values, and beliefs, and how these values are fostered and disseminated through the process of political socialization. Such values are often organized in specific ideologies that influence the direction of the exercise of power. Students will explore the differences in political values and beliefs. For instance, in some countries religious belief systems play this important political role. In other countries more overt political agendas and ideologies perform this role.

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit IV Political Institutions

Essential Concepts

Part 1 Levels of government:

o Super-national/nationalo Regional/localo Unitary/federalo Centralization/

decentralization Executives (heads of state and

government, cabinets)o Single or dualo Presidento Prime Ministero Legislatures

Unicameral/bicameralo Organizationo Membership

(representation)o Parliamentary and

presidential systems; Institutional relations Elections

o Presidentialo Parliamentary

o Referendumso Noncompetitive

Electoral Systemso Proportional

representationo Single-member districto Plurality, majority runoff

Judiciaries o Degree of autonomyo Judicial review o Types of Law

Political partieso Organizationo Membershipo Institutionalizationo ideological position

Party Organization Leadership groups and elite

recruitment Interest groups and interest

group systems Bureaucracies Military and other coercive

institutions

Goals:The student will:

A. Describe the formal and informal structures of authority and policy making systems in the countries studied.

B. Identify the parts of government and fusion of power with government in the countries studied.

C. Understand the role of executive, legislative, judicial, and bureaucratic institutions

D. Describe the systems for selection and recruitment of power elite.

Roskin Assigned Readings Unit IV – Part 1Levels of government:1.Supernational governments2.National/regional/local govs3.Unitary/federal govs4.Centralization/decentralization

Chapters 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15

p. 94, 95 (Great Britain)p. 124, 126-127, 133 (Russia)p. 197 (China)p. 240-241 (Mexico)p. 268, 270-271 (Nigeria)p. 325

Executives (heads of state and government, cabinets)

1. Single or dual2. President3. Prime Minister

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 8, 12, 13, 15

p. 11 (Intro)p. 32, 41-47(Great Britain)p. 131-1339 (Russia)p. 198, 202 (China)p. 236-238 (Nigeria) p. 325

Legislatures1. Unicameral/bicameral2. Organization3. Membership

(representation)

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15

p. 11 (Intro)p. 27, 29-30, 32-34 (GB)p. 136 (Russia) p. 197 (China)p. 237-239 (Mexico) p. 269-271 (Nigeria)p. 298-299 (Iran) p. 325

Parliamentary and presidential systems;Institutional relations

Chapter 3 pp. 40-47 (Great Britain)

Elections1. Presidential2. Parliamentary3. Referendums4. Noncompetitive

Chapters 3, 8, 13, 14, 15

p. 45 (Great Britain)p. 131, 135 (Russia)p. 238,-239 (Mexico)p. 270-271 (Nigeria) p. 298 (Iran)

Electoral Systems1. Proportional representation2. Single-member district

(Plurality, majority runoff)

Chapters 1, 3

p.12 (Intro)p. 53 (Great Britain)

Judiciaries 1. Degree of autonomy2. Judicial review (including

EU in relation to states and citizens

3. Types of Law

Chapters 2, 3

pp. 28, 52 (Great Britain)

Important Terms and Concepts for Unit IV – Part 1

1. Assembly of Experts2. Bicameral3. Cabinet 4. Coalition government5. Common law/Sharia law6. Constitutional democracy7. Council of Ministers (The EU)8. Democratic centralism9. Extralegal 10. Head of State11. Minority government12. Parliamentarism13. Plurality14. Presidentialism15. Prime Minister16. Rational-legal leadership17. Representative democracy18. Single-member district19. Sovereignty 20. Unitary21. Vertical division of powers Great Britain22. Backbenchers (GB) 23. Fusion of Powers (GB)24. House of Commons (GB)25. House of Lords (GB) 26. Motion of censure (GB)27. Shadow Cabinet (GB)28. Westminster Model (GB)29. Whitehall (GB)

China 30. Central Committee (China)31. General Secretary (China)32. National People’s Congress

(China)33. Politburo (China)34. Premier (China)35. State Council (China)Mexico36. Caciques (Mexico)37. Camarilla (Mexico)38. Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)39. Congress of MexicoNigeria40. National Assembly (Nigeria)41. Patron-Client System (Nigeria)42. 1999 Constitution Iran43. Council of Guardians (Iran)44. Expediency Council (Iran)45. Majlis (Iran)Russia46. Comrades courts (Russia)47. Congress of Peoples’ Deputies

(Russia)48. Duma (Russia)49. Federal Assembly (Russia)50. Federation Council (Russia)51. Komsomol (Russia)52. Nomenklatura (Russia)53. Patron Client Relations (Russia)

54. Supreme Soviet (Russia) 55. Zampolit (Russia)

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit IV Political Institutions Part 2

Roskin Assigned Readings Unit IV Part 2Political parties (Organization, membership, institutionalization, ideological position)

Chapters 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

p. 33, 52-54, 74-77 (GB)p. 131, 135-136 (Russia)p. 199-201 (China)p. 239-240, (Mexico) p. 271 (Nigeria)p. 299-300 (Iran) p. 326

Party Organization Chapters 5, 8, 12, 13

p. 72 (GB) p. 122 (Russia)p. 199 (Ch) p. 239-240 (Mexico)

Leadership groups and elite recruitment

Chapters 4, 12, 13

p. 57-59 (GB)p. 200, (Ch) p. 236-238 (Mexico)

Interest groups and interest group systems

Chapters 1, 5, 13

p. 17, 77-78 (GB)p. 245-247 (Mexico)

Bureaucracies Chapters 1, 5, 8, 11, 12, 16

p. 17, 80-82 (GB)p. 125(Russia)p.189, 205(China) p.325

Military and other coercive institutions

Chapters 8, 10, 12

p. 123, 163-165 (Russia)p. 201 (China)

Important Terms and Concepts for Unit IV Part Two

1. Rentier state2. Institutional groups3. Associational groups4. Pluralist system5. Non-associational groups6. Corporatist interest group7. Controlled interest group8. DevolutionSuper-National

9. GATT10. WTO11. NAFTA12. CIS13. European Union14. G-815. UN Security CouncilChina16. National Party

Congress17. Central Committee18. People’s Liberation

Army19. NomenklaturaGreat Britain20. New Labour21. The “Third Way”22. Conservatives (Tories)23. Thatcherites24. Liberal Democrats25. Scottish National Party26. Plaid Cymru27. Sinn Fein28. Democratic Unionist

Party29. Trade Union Council

(TUC)30. Coalition of Business

and Industry (CBI)31. BBCMexico32. PRI33. PRD34. PAN35. EZLN36. Patron-client system37. Corporatist system38. Caudillo39. Camerilla40. Tollagate41. CFE42. Campaign Finance

Restriction43. International Watch

Teams

Nigeria44. Patron-client45. Prebendelism46. Hausa-Fulani47. Igbo48. Kumari49. INEC50. PDP51. ANPP52. AD53. ECOWASIran54. Iranianian Militant

Clerics Society55. Islamic Iran

Participation Front56. Executive of

Construction Party57. Tudeh58. Islamic Society of

Engineers59. Kordad Front60. Liberation Movement61. Islamic Association of

Women62. IRIBRussia63. United Russia64. Yabloko65. CPRF66. Union of Right Forces67. Liberal Democratic

Party68. Women of Russia69. Oligarchy70. Russian mafia

Unit IVOverviewPolitical Institutions

The study of political institutions includes the formal structure and workings of states and governments. In this introductory course, this means that students will master knowledge about different authority systems and government structures. A deep level of detail is not expected; rather, students will become familiar with the more general descriptions of major political institutions. Thus, for example, every state has multiple levels of authority, though the powers that correspond to each vary widely. Some countries keep most policymaking at the national level, while others distribute powers more widely to regions and localities. Depending on the country, some authority is now passing to supranational organizations such as the European Union (EU) as well. It is important that students know the branches of government in the countries they study and understand how these branches relate

to one another. Students will understand different arrangements of executive power, different legislative structures, and the different models of executive–legislative relations. Beyond basic concepts such as parliamentary and presidential systems, or separation and fusion of power, students will be able to characterize the advantages and drawbacks of different institutional arrangements and understand how executive and legislative policymakers interact with other branches of the state apparatus. Some countries, such as Britain, have independent court systems, while China and others do not. Often, these judicial features depend on the roots of the legal system—whether the system uses code or civil law, ideology, custom and traditional authority, or religious codes. Students will understand the implications of whether a country has judicial review and whether it operates through an independent national court system, theocratic oversight, or supranational courts.

The course curriculum will take students beyond constitutional arrangements. Since politics is both formal and informal, students will understand formal constitutional patterns as well as procedures that are more informal. In this context, comparing institutions in different political and country settings will be very helpful. For instance, students will understand how political elites are recruited and how political preferences are aggregated. The core countries offer examples of the major electoral systems, as well as cases of single-party systems (China; Mexico under the PRI), two-party systems (Great Britain), and multiparty systems (Russia, contemporary Mexico, Nigeria). Each system embodies particular perspectives on the purposes elections and parties serve. The number of parties in a particular country is usually connected to the country’s ideological spectrum as well as the electoral system. Students will explore how interest groups exercise political influence in pluralist, corporatist, and single-party systems. The six countries covered in the AP course provide good examples of how the exercise of real political power often does not correspond to the model implied by formal political structures. For China, Nigeria, and Mexico before the PRI’s decline, revealing contrasts can be drawn between written constitutions and informal political realities. The composition and recruitment of political elites and how they are linked to other elites in society reveals much about informal political power. The bureaucracy is a crucial part of the political system. Technical experts advise and administer policy that, in principle, is fashioned by political leaders. The ideological sympathies and traditions (e.g., professionalism) of the bureaucracy and its channels of recruitment influence its political role. The military also affects politics in many countries through informal pressure, as in China and Russia, or through periodic seizures of power, as in Nigeria. The professional or political role of the armed forces and the nature of civilian control over them varies across countries and time. The intelligence community or secret police can be an additional locus of coercion. Similarly, the judiciary plays a variety of roles in the six countries; in some places it exhibits important levels of autonomy, and in other countries it is used to establish religious or ideological domination.

Students will become familiar with the ways in which the judiciary does or does not exercise independent power and how it shapes public policies and political practices of citizens as well as of the state.

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit V Political and Economic Change

Important Concepts Revolution, coups, and war Trends and types of political change (including

democratization)o Componentso Promoting or inhibiting factorso Consequences

Trends and types of economic change (including privatization)o Componentso Promoting or inhibiting factorso Consequences

Relationship between political and economic change Globalization and fragmentation; interlinked economies, global culture,

reactions against globalization, regionalism

GOALS:The students will:

a. Distinguish between the internal and external sources of political change (e.g. political upheaval, industrialization, urbanization, economic crisis, international economy, foreign invasion, diffusion of new ideas and ideologies, and revolution.)b. Assess the nature of political change by:

1. Identifying the differences between regime continuity and change (revolutionary and evolutionary, violent and nonviolent regime change.)

2. Formulate ideas related to the changing basis of regime legitimacy.

3. Recognize the changing scope of governmental activity.4. Analyze the five revolutions that established the base for

the five contemporary political systems.c. Evaluate the consequences of political change (e.g. redistribution of land, change in ownership of means of production, circulation of elites, changing nation of citizen participation, changing party systems, the acquisition and/or loss of citizen rights.)d. Determine the basis of social cleavages and analyze the depth and consequences of such cleavages.e. Describe the translation of social cleavages into political conflict.

Important Terms and Concepts Unit V Test and FRQ: Connect to Political Change

1. Revolution2. Conflictual political culture3. Consensual political culture4. Parochial5. Xenophobia6. Redistribution7. Reactionary8. Radical9. ThermidorChina10.The Mass Line11.The Long March12.Great Leap Forward13.Cultural Revolution14.The Gang of Four15.BiaotaiRussia16.Narodniki17.Bolshevik Revolution18.Five-Year Plans19.The Great Purge20.Gosplan21.Perestroika 22.Glasnost23.Coup of 1991 and 199324.Red-Brown CoalitionMexico25.Ejido26.Viva Cristo Rey!27.Plutarco Elias Calles28.Priismo29.Effective Suffrage30.Francisco Indalécio Madero

31.Venustiano Carranza32.Pancho Villa 33.Emiliano Zapata34.Narcotraficante Great Britain35.Glorious Revolution36.Whig democracy37.Reform Act of 183238.Jacobites39.Welfare state40.The Troubles41.Privatization in the 1980’s42.Deregulation 43.Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)44.Scottish ParliamentIran45. Jihad46.Toleration Act47.Shah Reza Pahlavi48.Savak49.Revolutionary Council50.Ayatollah Khomeini51.Islamic Republic52.Chador53.Bonyads54.Westoxication /GharbzadegiNigeria55.Cleft country56.Biafran Civil War57.Republic of Biafra58.Olusegun Obasanjol59.Internal War60.419 Men

Roskin AssignmentsPolitical and Economic Change Chapter 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14,

15, 16Revolution, coups, and war p. 5, 31, 109-115, 195-196, 230-

231, 278-279, 295-296, 312Trends and types of political change (including democratization)

1. Components2. Promoting or inhibiting factors3. Consequences

pp. 90-96, 171-176, 216-219, 251-255, 281-285, 313-320

Trends and types of economic change (including privatization)

1. Components2. Promoting or inhibiting factors3. Consequences

pp. 19, 84-89, 148, 168-169, 171-174, 213-220, 251-253, 313-319, 324, 327

Relationship between political and economic change

N/A

Globalization and fragmentation; interlinked economies, global culture, reactions against globalization, regionalism

pp. 246, 253-254

Unit V OverviewPolitical and Economic Change

Much of the cross-case coverage will inevitably deal with processes of change, since this has been the primary theme of politics in the recent past. One way to introduce the notion of change is to explore the interaction between political and economic trends. The countries studied will provide illustrative examples of this interaction, which can take the form of political and economic reform, coups d’état, and revolutions. Students will be able to distinguish among these types of political and economic change. Since the end of the Cold War, a wave of democratization has occurred throughout much of the developing world and in the former Communist bloc. Comparing Russia, Mexico, and Nigeria in light of their democratic transitions offers an interesting study in contrasts.

The study of democratization will include examination of the preconditions, processes, and outcomes of these transitions. The success of democratization can be compared across countries, just as contrasts can be drawn with countries like China in which democratization has barely begun or has foundered. Democratic consolidation often requires new elite pacts, constitutional arrangements to minimize conflict, and acceptance of democracy by key social groups. The economic preconditions and effects of stable democracy will provide a useful counterpoint to studies of countries facing the upheavals of political change. In addition to democratization, students will know the conditions that lead to breakdowns of authoritarianism. Cleavages within a regime, breakdowns in state capacity, international pressure, and a substantial degree of mobilization by opponents are all frequently associated with regime change. All six countries studied in the AP course have undergone significant economic policy shifts over the past two decades. Students will investigate the consequences of economic reform packages. Not only will students understand the basic economic policies, but they will also understand the interaction between domestic economic reforms

and their political effects. For instance, countries such as China and Mexico have revised fundamental national “bargains,” changing the relationship between capital and labor that dates back half a century or more. Students will trace outcomes such as income gaps, rising standards of living, or differential access to social services and education to economic policies and their impact. Within the context of economic change, the course will address issues such as corruption and economic inequality.

Globalization has become an increasingly important theme over the last two decades, especially as national policymaking has been affected by interdependence. Certain previously domestic economic policy responsibilities have been pooled by participating states in supranational organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the EU. How do global and domestic forces interact in such a context? The cultural aspects of globalization also must be examined. Emergence of a worldwide consumer culture and ideological convergence among elites of different countries, on the one hand, is balanced by new ethnic fragmentation and widening classbased cultural cleavages within countries, on the other. Additionally, some attention should be given to the backlashes against globalization. Students will evaluate how these backlashes bear on themes such as sovereignty and the ideal of the nation-state. Some responses to globalization reaffirm the sovereignty of the modern state, while others also transcend it by taking religious or ethnic identities as a reference point.

AP Comparative GovernmentUnit VI Creating Public Policy

Citizens + The State =Policy

Important Unit Concepts Common policy issues:

o Economic performanceo Social welfare (education, health, poverty)o Civil liberties, rights, freedomso Environmento Population and migrationo Economic development

Factors influencing public policy-making and implementationo Domestico International

Data analysis and interpretation of:o current GDP, inflation, and unemployment for the six countries

using a table from the Economisto current trade, exchange rate, budget balance, and interest

rates for the six countries o poverty in the six countries using information from the World

Bank Economic performance (nationalization, privatization, command

economy, capitalism, mixed economy) Social welfare (education, health, population, migration,

environment) Green Revolution

GOAL:The student will:

A. Explain the beliefs that citizens hold about their governments and its leaders.

B. Evaluate the processes by which citizens learn about politics.C. Analyze the way in which citizens’ vote and otherwise

participate in political life.D. Differentiate between the variety of factors that influence

citizens from one another in terms of their political beliefs and behavior.

E. Determine the impact of the political culture on current economic systems.

Assigned ReadingsRoskin: Selected Sections fromPublic Policy Chapters 2, 7, 8, 10, and 11Common policy issues:

1. Economic performance2. Social welfare (education,

health, poverty)3. Civil liberties, rights, freedoms4. Environment5. Population and migration6. Economic development

pp. 19, 84-89, 148, 168-169, 171-174, 178, 213-220, 251-253, 281-282, 313-319, 324, 327

Factors influencing public policy-making and implementation

1. Domestic2. International

pp. 17, 77-78, 85, 96, 173-174, 214-216, 220, 245-247, 253-254, 285

Important Terms and Concepts Unit VI Test and FRQ: Connect to Public Policy!!

1. Command Economy2. Direct taxes3. Distributive policies 4. Extractive policies5. Feedback 6. Indirect taxes7. Neotraditional political system8. Strategic variable9. Opportunity cost10. Outputs and outcomes11. Political performance12. Progressive taxes13. Public policies 14. Regressive taxes15. Regulative policies16. Symbolic policies17. Technocratic

18. Tradeoff19. Welfare state20. Political efficacy21. Keynesian22. NAFTA23. OPEC24. Command Socialism25. Corruption Perception Index26. Market economy27. GOSPLAN28. GOSBANK29. Centralized30. Decentralized31. Welfare state32. European Union33. Economic and Monetary Union

Unit VI OverviewPublic Policy

Public policy will require analysis within each country as well as comparatively. Policy issues need to be approached both as domestic and as global policy matters, since there are broad and enduring policy areas common to most countries: How to ensure successful economic performance where poverty is widespread? How to provide for social welfare needs for citizens? How to extend and protect individual liberties and freedoms? In every state, the approach to these problems will be different, but in all states, these recurring puzzles demand the attention of the state’s policymakers.

Policymaking is influenced by a broad range of factors. First, consideration must be given to formal and informal institutional influences on policymaking. Interest groups, political parties, and executive, judicial, and legislative branches all participate in the creation of policy. For many of the systems studied, changes in the economic substructure have been the result of policy changes as well as causal factors in policy development. For example, privatization in Mexico has resulted in changing policy needs. Often, conservative economic trends that move away from the traditional social welfare state and its benefits also have an impact on liberal/left party politics, as has happened in the Labour Party of Great Britain. Interest groups make different demands on government, with different consequences for public policy. Second, development itself results in numerous shifts and alterations in policy requirements. Thus, as the Chinese economy has transformed to a market socialist system, policymakers in noneconomic areas have had considerable pressures placed on them. Likewise, the Russian economic structural changes since 1990 have caused a wide range

of policy challenges in the areas of civil rights, environmental concerns, and so on. Third, global pressures are exerted on policymakers in both developed and developing systems. International agreements and organizations such as the WTO, the World Bank, the EU, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) push for policy changes in all six of the systems studied.

Many of the countries have witnessed considerable policy debates over such issues as sovereignty and the conflicting interests of world and domestic policy needs. Globalization creates considerable tension in areas such as environmental policy, income distribution, taxation policy, and the like. Very often, global considerations have produced a divergence among different interest groups within the system itself. Policy concerns are broad and may differ from country to country. Issues may include social welfare policy (including education, pension policy, poverty issues); civil liberties, rights, and freedoms; the environment; control and management of natural resources; economic performance (including employment, inflation, monetary policy in general, income distribution); and population and migration policies. Gender and ethnicity are also critical concerns to policymakers in all systems. Students will know and analyze policy differences in a comparative context, exploring how different systems create different solutions to domestic and global problems. Throughout the course, students will develop the ability to move back and forth between conceptualizing political problems and the practice of politics in the different countries