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1Second Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development

Institute of Science and Technolo

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March 29 and 30, 2015Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

MoSTE / GoN

First Graduate Conference onEnvironment and Sustainable Development

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Organized byTribhuvan University Institute of Science and Technology with the cooperation of Government of Nepal (MoSTE)

Initiative Partners:TU-CDES, RHF, ISET-N

Supporters:NAST, NTNC, TU-GGIC, MU-MICD, KU-NCHE, PU-SchEMS, YAE

Second Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development

April 04 and 05, 2016 (Chaitra 22 and 23, 2072)

Lalitpur, Nepal

Organized byInstitute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University with collaboration from Ministry of Population and Environment Government of Nepal

Initiative Partners

SupportersNational College, Golden Gate International College, Kathmandu Forestry College and School of Environmental Science and Management

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April 04 and 05, 2016 (Chaitra 22 and 23, 2072)

Lalitpur, Nepal

ABSTRACTS

Organized byInstitute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University with collaboration from Ministry of Population and Environment Government of Nepal

SupportersNational College, Golden Gate International College, Kathmandu Forestry College and School of Environmental Science and Management

Initiative PartnersCentral Department of Environmental Science, TUInstitute for Social and Environmental Transition in NepalResources Himalaya Foundation

@2016 Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development

Published by:Central Department of Environment Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal, Kathmandu Resources Himalayan Foundation, Lalitpur

Conference at a Glance

BackgroundNepali society needs creative thinkers to better understand the changing social, political, cultural and economic climate. In particular young graduates need to play a definitive and creative role in sharing their ideas and findings among their peers and other groups within society. Graduates from Nepali universities need to engage with each other and wider society to promote economic development, social welfare and environmental stewardship. The Central Department of Environmental Science (TU-CDES), Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISET-N) and Resources Himalaya Foundation (RHF) came together to organize the annual Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development (GCESD) known as Himalayan Knowledge Conclave. Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development will be organized every year on the first week of April.

The conference aims to bring together Post Masters level graduates to present their research and review each other's work. The first graduate conference was successfully organized on 29-30 March 2015. The Government of Nepal and other organizations working in the field of environment and disaster risk reduction provides backstopping. The conference aims to develop leadership skills of participating graduates as well as involve them in conference processes. The conference will also provide an opportunity for networking among thematic group members and experts.

GoalEstablish an interdisciplinary knowledge-sharing platform for young researchers, with a particular focus on environment, resource conservation, management, economic development and natural science.

Conference Theme for 2016Rupture, Recovery, Rebuilding and Resilience

ModalityAn advisory board will guide the conference. A coordinating committee will support the board to fulfill management tasks and develop content for the conference. ISET-Nepal will work as the conference secretariat. TU-CDES will coordinate scientific aspects of the conference and RHF will lead the programing aspects. The Secretariat will take care of logistics and management.

Thematic Areas• Agriculture/Livelihood

• Food security• Livelihood diversification• Agriculture and technology

• Climate and Non-climate Hazards • Earthquake and landslide • Climate change, extreme event and floods• Data challenges and solutions

• Vulnerability, Risk and Resilience• Social protection and vulnerability • Role of governments, development organizations and international agencies • Development practices and disaster risk reduction• Local capacities and disaster risk reduction • Economics of disaster risk reduction

• Energy for Development• Energy, livelihood and infrastructure development • Energy supply and demand • Alternative energy, constraints and opportunities

• Water, Ecosystem and Management• Ecosystem services • Natural resource conservation and management • Water and gender

• Epidemics, Health, Hygiene and Education• Health and hygiene for building resilience• Education and shared learning

ParticipantsGCESD is open to all interested graduates and young researchers in the areas of environment, sustainable development and related disciplines mentioned above.

Advisory Board• Er. Ganesh Shah, Former Minister, MoEST• Prof. Dr. Pitamber Sharma, Former Vice Chair, National Planning Commission• Dr. Ganesh Gurung, Former Member, National Planning Commission• Mr. Kamal Raj Pande, Chairperson ISET-Nepal

Coordinating Committee• Prof. Chirika Shova Tamrakar, Dean, IOST, TU- Conference Chair• Prof. Dr. Kedar Rijal, HOD, Central Department of Environmental Science, TU• Mr. Ajaya Dixit, Executive Director, ISET-Nepal • Dr. Dinesh Raj Bhuju, Academician, NAST

Scientific Committee• Prof. Dr. Kedar Rijal, HOD, Central Department of Environmental Science, TU,

Coordinator • Prof. Dr. Parthibeshwor Timilsina, Former Registrar, TU • Prof. Ashutosh Shukla, Senior Research Faculty, ISET-Nepal • Prof. Dr. Ram B. Khadka, SchEMS College, Pokhara University• Prof. Dr. Subodh Sharma, Kathmandu University• Prof. Dr. Bharat Shrestha, CDS, Purvanchal University• Prof. Dr. Sangeeta Rajbhandary, Central Department of Botany, TU• Prof. Dr. Madan Koirala, TU-CDES• Dr. Rasila Deshar, TU-CDES• Dr. Deep Narayan Sah, NAMI

Management Sub-committee• Mr. Jayendra Rimal, Chief Operating Officer, ISET-Nepal • Mr. Kanchan Mani Dixit, Conference Coordinator, ISET-Nepal • Mr. Yubaraj Satyal, Conference Secretary, ISET-Nepal• Dr. Ramji Bogati, RHF• Mr. Narayan Babu Dhital, TU-CDES

Message from Conference Chair

It is the privilege of Tribhuvan University-Institute of Science and Technology (TU-IOST) to organize the Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development (GCESD) as Himalayan Knowledge Conclave (HKC) on April 04 and 05, 2016 in Kathmandu, with the cooperation of Ministry of Population and Environment, Government of Nepal. The initiating partners of the Conference are: Central Department of Environmental Science–TU, Institute for Social and Environmental Transition- Nepal and Resources Himalaya Foundation. The Conference is backed by academic institutions, civil society and like-minded organizations working in the field of environment and sustainable development.

The HKC aims to develop leadership skills of participating graduates as well as involve them in conference processes. The conference will also provide an opportunity for networking among thematic group members and experts. It envisions institutionalizing the platform as an annual event. In the second conference of HKC, we are accommodating some 50 oral presentations including presentations by young doctorate researchers. The Conference also contains exhibition, poster and publication displays. I hope that the Conference will inspire our young graduates to know each other’s’ work and develop professional linkages.

On behalf of the organizing team, I extend my heart-felt thanks are to all institutions and individuals for their support and cooperation in convening the Conference.

____________________Chirika Shova TamrakarDean, TU-IOSTConference Chair-HKC-2016

Contents

Conference at a Glance Message from Conference Chair

Agriculture and Livelihood 13Perception of Western Nepal's Rural Communities onThe Effects of Climate Change in the Agriculture Sector 14B.R. Chaudhary, S.R. Barsila, S. Bhatta, P. Kashyap, S.R. Khadka

Epidemiology of Mycoplasma Infection in Different Swine Production Systems 15K. Bhatt , M. Prajapati , S. R. Barsila

Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Practices in Indigenous Chepang Communityof Korak VDC, Chitwan, Nepal 16Newton Maharjan, Dinesh Raj Bhuju

Study of Effectiveness of Farmers Led Experiments on Small Scale Farm Technology Generation and Dissemination 17S.R. Barsila, S. Bhatta, B. K. Bishwakarma, S.K. Shrestha, A. Shrestha

Stresses on Water Availability and Agricultural Production Resulting from Climatic Variability in Eastern Tarai: A Case Study of Gauradaha VDC in Jhapa District 18Tara Prasad Kharel, Ashutosh Shukla

Climate Change Impact on Agriculture: A Case of Shankharapur Municipality, Kathmandu 19Rabin Bhattarai, Bhupendra Sharma

Climate and Non-Climate Hazards 21Upward Shifting and Regeneration of Abies spectabilisin Manaslu Conservation Area, Western Himalaya of Nepal 22Arbindra Shrestha, Dinesh Raj Bhuju, Narayan Prasad Gaire

Climate Change and Treeline Dyanamics of Himalayan Birch in Kanchanjunga Conservation Area 23Bimal Sharma, Dinesh Raj Bhuju, Narayan Prasad Gaire

Site and Species-Specific Treeline Responses to Climatic Variability in Eastern Nepal Himalaya 24Narayan Prasad Gaire, Madan Koirala, Dinesh Raj Bhuju, Marco Carrer

Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Practices in Water Use in Salyantar, Central Nepal 25Reshu Bashyal, Subodh Dhakal

Flow Estimation Using TRMM V7 Satellite Rainfall Data and Grid Based Distributed Hydrological Model in Bagmati Basin 26Saraswati Thapa, Narendra Man Shakya

Energy for Development 27 Identifying Suitable Areas for Urban Developmentin Rampur Municipality of Palpa District 28Ashim Babu Shrestha, Shash Nawaz, Bhagwat Rimal

Role of Biotechnology for Sustainable Development 29Mitesh Shrestha, Hemanta Kumari Chaudhary, Sandesh Maharjan, Sujan Bishwakarma, Tribikram Bhattarai

Comparative Study on Energy Consumption Pattern ofBrick and Light Weight Cement Based Sandwich Panel 30Sandhya Thapa, Krishna Bhakta Duwal

Role of Biogas Plants in Minimization of Firewood Consumption 31Lalita Devi Dahal, Sadhana Pradhanang

Energy Efficiency of Charcoal from Feedstocks of Padali Community Forest, Lalitpur District, Nepal 32Ronish Shakya, Rejina Maskey Byanju, Ramesh Sapkota

Epidemics, Health, Hygiene and Education 33 Potential of Vetiver Grass for Wastewater Treatment 34Alina Maharjan, Sadhana Pradhanang

Vector-Borne Diseases Influenced by Climatic Factors and Interventions Measures for Prevention and Control in Jhapa District 35Bimala DhimaL, Bhupendra Devkota

Status of Threatened Medicinal Plant Allium Wallichii Kunthin Annapurna Conservation Area, Central, Nepal 36Deep Jyoti Chapagain, Suresh Kumar Ghimire

Impacts of Blockade in Indoor Carbon Footprint of Semi Urban Households of Kathmandu Valley 37Regan Sapkota, Man Kumar Dhamala

Status of Noise Pollution in Educational Institutions of Kathmandu Valley 38Raju Chauhan, Rejina Maskey, Dinesh Raj Bhuju

Vulnerability, Risk and Resilience 39 A Review of Flood hazard, Vulnerability and Risk and Collective Efficacy for Resiliencein Mountainous Region of Pakistan 40 Karamat Ali, Roshan M. Bajracharya, Hriday Lal Koirala

Preparing for the Uncertain Water Future: Mapping Springs in the Hilly Regions of Nepal 41Rabin Raj Niraula, Subodh Sharma ,Uttam Paudel, Bikram Rana

Pre Earthquake Nationwide Landslide Inventory of Nepal 2015 42Prakash Pokhrel, Shanta Banstola, DR Bhuju, Kedar Rijal, Motilal Ghimire, Binod Pyakurel, Ashok Maharjan, Bharat Ghimire, Kishor Maharjan, Kumod Lekhak, Parmila Paudyal, Rabina Sipai, Salina Bajracharya, Subin Kalu

Landslide Susceptibility Mapping of Kamala Watershed, Sindhuli 43Muna Khatiwada, Subodh Dhakal

Flood Vulnerability Assessment in Context to Changing Climate in Rupauliya VDC, Nawalparasi 44Subash Gyawali, Khadga Bahadur Thapa, Amrit Prasad Sharma

Preparation of Landslide Distribution Map of Jharlang VDC 45Kapil Silwal, Subodh Dhakal

Efficacy of Ecosystem based Disaster Risk Reduction Measure: A Study of Gharelu Village, Panchase Area 46Monica Pandey, Chakra Bhadur Khadka

Effect of April 2015 Earthquake on Ecotourism and Recovery Measures: A Case Study of Langtang Trekking Route, Langtang National Park 47Rashmi Tachamo and Yogendra Yadav

Water Ecosystem and Management 49Wild Fire Densities of Fire Occurrences and Burnt Areas in Nepal 50Krishna Bahadur Bhujel, Rejina Maskey, Ambika P. Gautam

Rarity and Commonness in Himalayan Poppies: Variation in Pollen Attributes, Seed Output and Germination Traits in Meconopsis napaulensis and M. paniculata 51Mukti Ram Poudeyal, Suresh Kumar Ghimire

Habitat Suitability of Common Leopard in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park 52Bishnu Maharjan, Purna Man Shreshta

Status and Distribution of Gaur in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Nepal 53Gita Bhushal, Jhamak B. Karki, Ramesh Raj Panta

Assessing Impact of River Bed Excavation on Malekhu River using Physical and Morphological Criteria 54Jharana Khanal, Naresh Kazi Tamrakar

Water Quality Assessment of Spring Sources in Badigad Catchment, Western Nepal 55Jivan Bhusal, Krishna Prasad Upadhyay

Effects of Land Use and Land Cover on occurrence of Barn Owl in Kathmandu valley, Nepal 56Sabita Gurung, Tej Bahadur Thapa

Water Quality Assessment and Mapping of Rati River andSprings, Panchase Area, Western Nepal 57Sujita Karki, Deep Narayan Shah and Kedar Rijal

Field-based Study of Building Stones in the Malekhu River Area Applying Rapid Discontinuity Analysis and Geological Input 58Sunita Bhattarai, Naresh Kazi Tamrakar

Study of Macrofungi in Community Forest of Dhawa, Gorkha 59Uttam Osti, Sanjaya Kumar Jha

Aplectana sp., Nematode Parasite of Bufo stomaticus from Kirtipur, Nepal 60Shyam Kumar Pun and Mahendra Maharjan

Derivation of Forest Inventory Parameters for Carbon Estimation using Terrestrial Lidar Data 61Om Prakash Kalwar, Yousif A. Hussin, Michael J.C. Weir

Phosphorus Distribution in Sediment from Varying Depths of Phewa Lake, Pokhara Valley, Western Nepal 62Srijana Adhikari, Udhab Raj Khadka

Analysis of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) Mechanism in Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) 63Sunil Tamang, Arati Khadgi, Bikram Tamang

Parasitic Burden in Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825) of Illam District Community Forest, Nepal 64Sajan Shrestha, Mahendra Maharjan

Status and Ecology of Ziziphus Buddhensis: A Case Study from Pokhari Narayansthan Vdc, Timal, Kavrepalanchowk 65Furbe Lama, Madan Koirala

Interaction between Free Roaming Dogs and Blackbuck in Khairapur, Bardiya, Nepal 66Suresh Thapa, Man Kumar Dhamala

Carcasses availability in Jatayu Restaurant, Nawalparasi District 67Ramesh Basel, Rashila Deshar

Cultural Practices for Wild Honey Bee (Apis laboriosa) Conservation 68Tilak Babu Chapagai, Dinesh Raj Bhuju

Human Monkey Conflict 69 Ajad Dhungana, Sadhana Pradhananga

Distribution of Choerospondias axillaris in the Himalayan region 70Ishu Sireng, Regina Maskey, Sailesh Ranjitkar

Cross Cutting 71 Prospects of Eco-tourism in Ghatalsthan 72 Mukesh Kumar Sharma, Chandra Lal Shrestha

An Assessment of Impact of Microfinance on Living Standard of Women and Small Farmers in Rural Community of Nepal 73Sagar Pratap Buddha, Mahendra Kumar Singh

Development of Rural Transport and Environmental Safeguards in Nepal: A Case Study of World Bank Financed Rural Transport Development Project 74Sita Ram Kandel, Ananta Kumar Karki

Eco-tourism in Betana wetland 75Neeta Khanal, Rashila Deshar


Agriculture and Livelihood

14 Second Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development

Perception of Western Nepal's Rural Communities on The Effects of Climate Change in the Agriculture Sector

B.R. CHAUDHARY1, S.R. BARSILA2, *S. BHATTA3, P. KASHYAP1, S.R. KHADKA1

1Food-First Information and Action Network (FIAN-Nepal), Kupondole, Lalitpur2Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Animal Science, Veterinary Science and Fisheries,

Department of Animal Nutrition and Fodder Production, Rampur Chitwan3Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and

Agri-engineering, Rampur, ChitwanE-mail:[email protected]

Climate change has emerged as a critical threat to sustainable production of food in the developing countries where food production is climate dependent. This study aggregates the climate change perception of the farmers and the impacts on food production in Betahani and Sonpur VDCs of Banke District in western Tarai region of Nepal. 319 households were surveyed and the data further validated through key informant interviews, focus group discussions and physical observation in the study area. The climatic records of the study area and data on crop yield trends were close to the respondents' perceptions of increasing temperature, changing precipitation patterns, depletion of natural resources and frequent droughts. Diseases and pests in livestock and crops, deficiency in moisture, and increased incidences of flooding were ranked as the most important climatic hazards that stressed food production in the study areas. Though access to food was noted to have increased over past decade due to improving agronomic practices - use of high yielding crop cultivars, and increased use of irrigation- the cost of production has also been increasing. Costs are expected to increase further with the growing risks of climate change. The findings of the study identify the need for intensifying investments in scaling adaptive practices of local communities.

Keywords: agriculture techniques, food security, community perception


Epidemiology of Mycoplasma Infection in Different Swine Production Systems

*K. BHATT1, M. PRAJAPATI2, S. R. BARSILA1

1Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur2Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Animal Science,

Veterinary Science and Fisheries, Rampur, ChitwanE-mail: [email protected]

Respiratory and Reproductive problems are major constraints of health management in the pig farming is at its developing phase. Thus a pilot study was conducted to assess the risk factors contributing spread of Mycoplasma hyopneumonia infection, causative agent for enzootic pneumonia and one of the primary contributor to Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex (PRDC) at Kailali and Kanchanpur districts of Nepal. A total of 184 porcine serum samples were collected randomly. Information on the herd level was captured with structural and standardized questionnaire. Samples were tested by ELISA for the detection of the antibodies against the M hyopneumonia. Forty two samples were found positive to infection, indicating presence of disease. Pigs rearing under confinement (modern and semi conventional) were found significant (P<0.05) in causing disease. Continuous production system was found to be major contributing factor in spread of disease. Pigs rearing in semisolid partition had shown higher infection rates. Improved breeds (27.46%) found to be more susceptible to the mycoplasma infection compared to Local breeds (7.14%). Age wise prevalence showed highest rate of infection during growing period (36.36%). Research results suggest that environmental stress and management factors contribute a major role in introduction and spread of infections in swine.

Keywords: infection, mycoplasma hyopneumonia, risk factors, ELISA


Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Practices in Indigenous Chepang Community

of Korak VDC, Chitwan, Nepal

*NEWTON MAHARJAN1, DINESH RAJ BHUJU2

1College of Applied Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu2Nepal Academy of Sciences and Technology, Lalitpur

E-mail: [email protected]

The impact of climate change can be disproportionately greater for indigenous communities living in the remote and ecologically fragile zones of Nepal who depend directly on their immediate environment for subsistence and livelihood. The study assessed climate change induced impacts on the livelihood of Chepangs, indigenous people living in upper hills of central Nepal, as well as documented their adaptation strategies. Korak village of Chitwan District was selected for the study. Community Based Vulnerability Assessment (CBVA) tools were used to understand the risks, hazards, vulnerabilities and adaptations associated with climate change. People’s perception of climate change impacts, through questionnaire surveys and Participatory Rural Appraisals, and analysis from meteorological data were compared. . With a medium adaptive capacity and high exposure and sensitivity, the VDC is considered highly vulnerable. The Chepangs, however, have witnessed changes and are adapting to changing water supply by installing pipelines, constructing reserve tanks and plastic ponds for vegetable farming, and shifting agricultural practice to tomato farming. Paradoxically, total annual precipitation of Rampur station was observed to be increasing at the rate of 7.1 mm per year. Analysis of temperature data of last 32 years (1982-2013) from the Rampur station revealed decreasing trend at the rate of 0.019˚C in the maximum temperature and increasing trend at the rate of 0.003˚C per year in minimum temperature. Enhancing the understanding of climate change and the communities' endogenous capacity to undertake adaptive measures towards sustainable practices is both a challenge and an opportunity.

Keywords: hazard exposure, perception, indigenous knowledge, autonomous adaptation, indigenous development


Study of Effectiveness of Farmers Led Experiments on Small Scale Farm Technology Generation

and Dissemination

*S.R. BARSILA1, S. BHATTA1, B. K. BISHWAKARMA2, S.K. SHRESTHA2, A. SHRESTHA2

1Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan2Helvetas-Swiss Intercooperation, Lalitpur


The Farmers Led Experiments (FLEs) have evolved into systematic tool for farmers and scientists to test, produce, and disseminate agricultural technology and practices. HELVETAS Nepal conducted interviews and surveys in its sites of Dailekh and Ramecchap, Nepal to focus on sustainable farmer practices of production of major food crops. Twenty farmers in each district were interviewed on practices adopted by SSMP Helvetas project since last fifteen years, as were district level stakeholders such as DADO, DLSO, NARC, NARDF and agriculture faculties from institutions outside the districts. Stakeholders claimed that clearly identifying technological options that needed to be tested was important. Stakeholders also claimed that greater participation–among farmers, scientists from academia and research, and extension workers - were needed in the safeguarding of knowledge of diverse farming systems and in the testing of impacts. Particularly, new evaluation methods and their results need to effectively feed back into research institutions. Findings here can shape efforts to improve dialogue among agricultural researchers, teachers and extension workers for a more need based approach.

Keywords: agricultural knowledge, social systems, local participation, agricultural technologies, farmer experiment


Stresses on Water Availability and Agricultural Production Resulting from Climatic Variability in Eastern Tarai:

A Case Study of Gauradaha VDC in Jhapa District

*TARA PRASAD KHAREL1, ASHUTOSH SHUKLA 1

1 Nepal Engineering College, Center for Post Graduate StudiesE-mail: [email protected]

This study analyzed stresses on water availability for agriculture due to climatic variability. Climatic variability in the study area was analyzed using climate data from two meteorological stations, Gaide and Damak, which are close to the study area. Similarly, climate change perceptions of the people of different socio-economic strata were collected through focused group discussions and surveys of 108 households belonging to three landholding sizes- small, medium and large. The study identified strong correlation between climatic variability obtained from the analysis of observed climatic records and those perceived by the farmers in the study area. The analysis of climate data showed a warming trend both in summer and winter seasons with increase in mean temperature by 0.0650C and 0.0290C respectively, and an increased frequency of occurrence of extreme temperature (≥280C) with increasing trend of extreme hot days by 2.155 days per annum. Furthermore, the study showed that the reducing trend in monsoon rainfall is higher than in winter rainfall. However, people’s perception of reduction in the number of rainy days did not match the analysis of climatic data. The result showed that there have been decreasing trends in the amount of annual and monsoon rainfall together with the increasing trend of warming and reduction in relative humidity. These set the conditions for increased water stress on the agricultural system and increased losses of stored soil moisture. The farmers have successfully invested in groundwater irrigation to address the constraints of water availability in crop production. In spite of the access to dependable groundwater, the cropping system in practice by the farmers was found to be cereal crop based, which creates less financial incentive for farmers when compared to vegetables and other cash crops.

Keywords: agriculture, climate change, food security, irrigation


Climate Change Impact on Agriculture: A Case of Shankharapur Municipality, Kathmandu

*RABIN BHATTARAI1, BHUPENDRA SHARMA1

1School of Environmental Science and Management (SchEMS), Pokhara University, Kathmandu

It is crucial to increase our understanding of the impacts of climate change on people relying on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihoods and where adaptive capacity is low such as in marginalized communities.. A survey was carried out in three wards of Shankharapur Municipality to assess this. Household surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and field observations were used to examine how local people's perception of climate change corresponded to recorded data. Data on climatic parameters and productivity of major cereals crops was collected from DHM and Ministry of Agricultural Development respectively. Majority of the respondents reported erratic changes in rainfall pattern, temperature variation, and increase in pest and diseases that constrained farming. Many farmers believed that crop failure and damage, degradation of pasture, low quality fodders are also due to increase in temperature, erratic rainfall and wind/hailstorms. Analysis of climatic data showed 0.048oC increase in average maximum temperature and 0.054oC in minimum temperature per year in past 30 years, while patterns for precipitation showed a decreasing trend (-1.606 mm per year) along with more irregularity. The correlation between temperature and productivity of maize, millet and wheat was significant. Locals though have autonomously started adaptation measures. Adoption of improved seed varieties, re-sowing, and cultivation of cash crops were some of the major adaptations. The existing local institutions and strategies are not sufficient to cope with current and future climatic vagaries. Better defined and implemented institutional support is needed from a longer-term policy perspective.

Keywords: Climate change, autonomous adaptation, temperature, precipitation, agricultural adaptions



Climate and Non-Climate Hazards


Upward Shifting and Regeneration of Abies spectabilis in Manaslu Conservation Area, Western Himalaya of Nepal

*ARBINDRA SHRESTHA1, DINESH RAJ BHUJU 2, NARAYAN PRASAD GAIRE1,2

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu 2Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Lalitpur

Email: [email protected]

There are substantial changes in the growth and regeneration capacity of trees with changes in average annual temperature. This study was carried out in Betula-Abies mixed forest of Kaal Taal, Prok VDC of Nepal's Manaslu Conservation Area to test the impact of temperature variation on the local tree population. Two transects (Transect I & II) were established in the northern area, which had a uniform tree ecotone and that started from the upper species limit of Abies spectabilis reaching at the treeline towards Kaal Taal. Measurements of 252 individuals of Abies spectabilis (180 from Transect I and 72 from Transect II) including 136 seedling, 56 sapling and 60 trees were recorded. The species was found up to 3984 masl in Transect I and 3955 masl in Transect II. These individuals at uppermost limit were found to have established in 2000 AD at Transect I and 2003 at Transect II. The species expanded towards higher elevation with total shifts of 220 m in 149 years, at an average rate of 14.8 m per decade. The age-class distribution curve showed a reverse J-shaped structure, indicating sustainable regeneration. However, in Transect II, the curve was slightly deviated from reverse J-shaped to bell shaped indicating lack of recent regeneration. This might be due to the influence of the water body of Kaal Taal while dispersing the seeds from downhill seed sources. A significant correlation was found between precipitation of the area and average internodes’ height. Long term monitoring of regeneration and shifting rates of Abies spectabilis in the Manaslu Conservation Area are needed to understand the sustainability of the forest in the future.

Keywords: species limit expansion, vertical height growth, climate change


Climate Change and Treeline Dyanamics of Himalayan Birch in Kanchanjunga Conservation Area

*BIMAL SHARMA1, DINESH RAJ BHUJU2, NARAYAN PRASAD GAIRE2,3

1Golden Gate International College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu 2Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Lalitpur

3Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, KirtipurE-mail: [email protected]

This study analysed the climate change and treeline dynamics of Betula utilis D. Don in the treeline area of Kanchanjunga Conservation Area using dendro-ecological tools. Two belt transect plots of 20 m x 100 m were laid in the north east and south slopes of the conservation area. Every seedling and sapling was counted, and 40 tree cores from 20 dominant trees and 5 saplings cut stumps were collected from of the two transects. Diameter at Brest Height (DBH), height, basal diameter and Geographical Position System (GPS) position of each sample were recorded. Among the 160 individuals recorded, 26% were seedlings, 29% saplings and 45% trees. A higher percentage of seedling and sapling (55%) than tree (45%) indicated that the species was regenerating. J-shaped curves of age-class distribution also indicate regeneration. Furthermore, decreases in age, height and basal diameter was observed with increasing elevation, which can be attributed to growth limiting factors such as temperature, precipitation, and geomorphologic conditions. A life table analysis showed that the mortality rate was 50% for early age (0-10 year) group. Likewise, Type-III survival curve was obtained which indicated peak mortality in the early age groups. On average, shifting was found to be 4.295 m per decade. Recruitment numbers showed significant positive correlations with pre-winter and winter mean monthly temperature. Similarly, significant positive correlation was found between temperature and recruitment number for April. No significant correlation was found with precipitation and recruitment number. Positive correlation of recruitments with temperatures supports the hypothesis that an upward shifting response is driven by recent global warming trends.

Keywords: belt transects, regeneration, upward shift, recruitment, global warming


Site and Species-Specific Treeline Responses to Climatic Variability in Eastern Nepal Himalaya

*NARAYAN PRASAD GAIRE1, MADAN KOIRALA2,

DINESH RAJ BHUJU1,2, MARCO CARRER3

1Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal

2 Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Department of Land and Agro-forest Environments, University of Padova, Padova, Italy


Alpine tree lines act as bio-indicators and bio-monitors of impacts from environmental change in high elevation forests. This dendro-ecological study carried out in treeline ecotones in the Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) in eastern section of Nepal's Himalayas assesses treeline dynamics to understand the response of treeline forming Abies spectabilis (D. Don, Mirb) and Betula utilis (D. Don) to environmental change. At three treeline sites we placed two to four belt transects (20 m wide and of variable lengths) which bisected the treeline as well as the tree species limit. The results revealed spatio-temporally heterogeneous regeneration with a higher regeneration of A. spectabilis compared to B. utilis. Warm temperatures during summer (JJA) growing seasons and sufficient moisture favored the growth of A. spectabilis, while low moisture during spring seasons (MAM) limited the growth of B. utilis. The regeneration of A. spectabilis was favored because of high temperatures and sufficient moisture throughout the year. The climatic response of the regeneration of B. utilis was spatio-temporally different and variable. Results predict a changing community structure in the treeline in response to future environmental change. During the past 200 years, A. spectabilis shifted upward by about 0.93 m/year and B. utilis by 0.42 m/year, with stabilization during the second half of the 20th century at the majority of the sites. The recent stability in treeline position of both species at most sites indicates that in addition to favorable climate, species-specific competitive abilities during the recruitment phase, recruitment suppression in the Krummholz and dwarf scrub belts, and grazing determine regeneration success and treeline position in the region.

Keywords: treeline dynamics, climate change, dendroecology, sagarmatha national park


Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Practices in Water Use in Salyantar, Central Nepal

*RESHU BASHYAL1, SUBODH DHAKAL2

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University2 School of Environmental Engineering, Kathmandu University


This study assessed the extent of impacts of climate change on water resource use and explored adaptation strategies of local communities of Salyantar village, Dhading. People’s perception on impact of climate change was studied using Participatory Rural Appraisal tool, and meteorological data was analyzed to generate trends. Discharge and water level measurements were also made, and three decades landsat images analyzed. Similarly, temperature vegetation dryness index (TVDI) and soil samples were used to identify soil moisture. The result showed that the maximum temperature was increasing at the rate of 0.039 oC per year and annual precipitation was decreasing at the rate of 22.99 mm per year. The perception was fully justified by the analysis of landsat images, discharge of Haping River, soil moisture level, and field assessments. The fact that water coverage decreased from 28.93% to 6.47% and TVDI range was between 0.01-0.7 in last three decades clearly showed that the region's water resources have become affected. The community has identified new sources and other adaptation measures to cope with change water availability, however, they are insufficient.

Keywords: adaptive capacity, climate change, impacts, water resource, participatory rural appraisal


Flow Estimation Using TRMM V7 Satellite Rainfall Data and Grid Based Distributed Hydrological Model

in Bagmati Basin

*SARASWATI THAPA1, NARENDRA MAN SHAKYA1

1Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, LalitpurE-mail: [email protected]

The prediction of runoff from a catchment is crucial for every stage of planning and management of water resources. Rainfall is one of the major factors determining the runoff process and time distribution of magnitude, but the data required to analyze these factors at various stage of water resource management in Nepal are either unavailable or insufficient. A comprehensive setup of rain gauge network in a mountainous topography is difficult and expensive. An alternative is the use of satellite precipitation data with high spatial and temporal resolution. This study predicts stream flow using satellite based Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) rainfall data and adjusts it by comparing with the gauge-based DHM rainfall data. Findings from this study have been able to establish the general trend of TRMM rainfall data in Nepal, both spatially and temporally. TRMM 3B42 V7 was used in this study, which provides a calibration-based sequential scheme for combining precipitation estimates from multiple satellites at fine spatial and temporal scales (0.25degree*0.25degree and 3 hourly). Precipitation data are evaluated using ground based precipitation stations over Nepal and fed in a rainfall-runoff model to estimate daily discharge of Bagmati basin. BTOPMC (block-wise use of top model with muskingum-cunge) model was used for measuring the daily discharge. A YHyM/BTOPMC method simulates river runoff, and was developed incorporating key hydrological responses of a basin. The method has been applied successfully in generating rainfall-runoff relationship in several basins catchments around the world, as well as in some Nepalese basins.

Keywords: TRMM V7, DHM, Bias correction BTOPMC, river catchment, runoff



Energy for Development


Identifying Suitable Areas for Urban Development in Rampur Municipality of Palpa District

*ASHIM BABU SHRESTHA1,2, SHASH NAWAZ1, BHAGWAT RIMAL2

1University of Salzburg, Austria2Kathmandu Forestry College, Kathmandu


Urbanization creates high demand for residential, commercial and industrial land, and tends to encroach upon ecologically valuable lands. Identifying suitable areas for urban development is one of the most critical issues of urban planning in hilly areas of Palpa, Nepal. Often, problems arise from lack of suitable land and lack of infrastructure such as transportation, water and electricity. This research identifies suitable areas for urban development in Rampur Municipality that lies on two major fault zone along with Kaligandaki River. Spatial maps were prepared from high resolution satellite images and suitability criteria identified using five parameters - geology, elevation, slope, aspect, and LU/LC. Urban planners and developers can use the findings from this research to allocate residential, commercial and industrial and build urban areas that use natural resources efficiently and have minimum impact on the environment.

Keywords: site suitability, LU/LC, suitability criteria, weighted overlay analysis, urban planning, sustainable land use


Role of Biotechnology for Sustainable Development

*MITESH SHRESTHA 1, HEMANTA KUMARI CHAUDHARY1, SANDESH MAHARJAN1,

SUJAN BISHWAKARMA1 ,TRIBIKRAM BHATTARAI1

1Central Department of Biotechnology, Tribhuvan University, KathmanduE-mail: [email protected]

Continuous dependency on non-renewable sources of energy has led to the discrepancy between humanity's pattern of resource use and nature’s capacity to replenish. Biotechnology is a discipline that has the potential to respond to threats created by human beings, even that of limited non renewable energy sources. For instance, production of bioethanol can be a potential substitute for fossil fuel to reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Similarly, genetic engineering of small microbes as efficient production units, introduction of transgenic plants with high stress resistance to replace toxic chemicals and increase crop yield are other examples. Biotechnology also has benefits in the field of human health. Production of drugs through high efficiency screening systems can lead to the design of new drugs to fight currently incurable diseases. Proper implementation of biotechnological tools could even help an underdeveloped nation like Nepal to develop environmentally friendly sustainable development strategies.

Keywords: bioethanol, renewable energy, transgenic organisms, Nepal, biotechnology


Comparative Study on Energy Consumption Pattern of Brick and Light Weight Cement Based Sandwich Panel

*SANDHYA THAPA1, KRISHNA BHAKTA DUWAL1

1Department of Environment Science, Khwopa College, TUE-mail: [email protected]

Bricks are the key construction material widely used in the construction of buildings and services. Brick manufacturing however involves huge energy consumption, involving the use of coal, diesel, electricity and fuelwood based energy sources which are known for their high gaseous and particulate emission rates upon burning. According to Federation of Nepal Brick Association there are 750 brick kilns in the country with average production is 60 lakhs bricks per kiln per annum. Considering the huge energy demand and high risk of air pollution resulting from emission from the brick factories, an alternative to brick for use in the construction of buildings and other infrastructures and services must be thought of. This study makes a comparison of energy consumption pattern and pollutant emission of brick and light weight cement based sandwich panel manufacturing units. The study was carried out through key informants interview of the two brick kilns and one Cement-Based Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Panel factory in Bhaktapur District. The total energy consumption data of both brick and Cement-Based EPS panel was collected and compared. One square feet area of brick which contains 7 bricks consumes 44.305MJ energy whereas similar area of cement based EPS panel consumes only 1.874MJ energy during manufacturing process. Similarly, the carbondioxide emission during production of 1 square feet area of bricks is 838.241gm and cement based EPS panel is 81gm. The pollutant load was noted to be significantly lower in the making of EPS panel than in the brick kiln.

Keywords: cement based EPS panel, brick kiln, emission, pollutant load, energy efficiency


Role of Biogas Plants in Minimization of Firewood Consumption

*LALITA DEVI DAHAL1, SADHANA PRADHANANG1

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, KathmanduE-mail: [email protected]

Livestock rearing is a vital source of livelihood among Nepal's farmers. . According to BSP-Nepal, total livestock population in Nepal is about 10.4 million, XX% of the faming population, which implies that total biogas production can theoretically be close to 4.35x106 m3 per day. Biogas plants in livestock rearing households can reduce firewood consumption, help in forest conservation, and can reduce emissions of Green House Gas. In Nepal, more than 280,000 bio gas plants, mainly in Mid Hills and Terai, have been helping Nepali farmers economically and environmentally. 30 households of ward no. 1 in Ichangu Narayan VDC, District were surveyed to assess the role of biogas plants in minimizing firewood consumption and promoting forest protection. . 19 of the sampled households did not have biogas plants, and relied on firewood for energy. Poor biogas yield during winter meant even biogas plant users had to use firewood. Most users were satisfied with their plants in that they saved time and money, protected forests and improved household health.

Keywords: firewood use, biogas plants, forest protection, livestock rearing, forest conservation


Energy Efficiency of Charcoal from Feedstocks of Padali Community Forest, Lalitpur District, Nepal

*RONISH SHAKYA1, REJINA MASKEY BYANJU1, RAMESH SAPKOTA1

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University

Charcoal is a carbonaceous solid fuel manufactured from dense biomass by pyrolysis and its energy efficiency determines its economic value. Nepal currently depends on neighboring countries for charcoal, therefore,a detailed study on charcoal produced at different ecological regions is expected to benefit businesses that produce and use charcoal. Charcoal production can be made efficient with the use of good quality feedstock. To identify such, quality comparison tests and proximate analysis were conducted of six species of trees and one invasive species from the Padali community forest, along with 4 varieties of coal from local market. Fixed Carbon (FC) content and calorific value were the main parameters used. Charcoal was prepared at the carbonization temperature of 450°C within proximate composition and calorific value. The better species within Lalitpur's sub-tropical region were that of Betula alnoides and Pinus roxburghii with a FC content of 62.37% and 55.78% and calorific values of 7108cal/gm and 7122cal/gm. Eupatorium adenophorum has the lowest FC of 39.43% and calorific value of 6599cal/gm. The quality of coal is poorer the lower the calorific values and FC content, and higher the ash content. Mass yield and Energy Conversion Efficiency (ECE) of better quality charcoal, i.e. Betula alnoides, were found lesser about 23.78% and 35.66% respectively. The low quality charcoal of Eupatorium adenophorum has higher mass yield of 31.86% and ECE of 49.87%. The higher the calorific value of charcoal, lower was the mass yield and ECE and vice versa.

Keywords: calorific value, energy efficiency, ECE, mass yield, proximate composition, charcoal, alternative fuel



Epidemics, Health, Hygiene and Education


Potential of Vetiver Grass for Wastewater Treatment

*ALINA MAHARJAN1, SADHANA PRADHANANG1

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan UniversityE-mail: [email protected]

Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) is a perennial bunch grass of the poaceae family popularly known as Kush, and which has highly absorbent characteristics suitable for the disposal of leachate and effluents generated from landfill and wastewater treatment. This experimental study was carried out to assess the efficiency of Vetiver plant in the waters of the Bagmati River, close to Kirtipur's Laboratory school. Data for design parameters -pH, Temperature, Conductivity, BOD5, Chloride, Nitrate, Phosphate, Hardness and Alkalinity– were collected regularly for a month. Vetiver plants were planted in three buckets with 7.5 liters of sampled water while another bucket was kept as a control. In each of the three buckets nine vetiver plants were planted and physico-chemical parameters analyzed for one month at 10 day intervals. The result showed that on the one month the overall concentration of BOD5, Chloride, Nitrate, Phosphate, and the hardness and alkalinity reduced by 71.0%, 42.9%, 93.9%, 88.4%, 46.4% and 22.2% respectively. pH and temperature of wastewater showed slight change while electronic conductivity lowered to normal levels after treatment in the bucket. Vetiver plant seems very effective in treating polluted water having high phosphate and nitrate levels.

Keywords: Bagmati, chrysopogon zizanioides, wastewater treatment, vetiver plants,


Vector-Borne Diseases Influenced by Climatic Factors and Interventions Measures for Prevention

and Control in Jhapa District

*BIMALA DHIMAL1, BHUPENDRA DEVKOTA1

1College of Applied Science, Tribhuvan UniversityEmail: [email protected]

Malaria and Kala-azar are climate sensitive diseases that are endemic to Jhapa District of eastern Nepal, and climate change may be increasing the spread of these diseases. This retrospective study assessed vector-borne diseases -malaria and visceral leishmaniasis, also known as ‘kala-azar’- and vector-control intervention measures -indoor residual spray and insecticidal nets- for their prevention and control in Jhapa. Secondary data on monthly malaria and kala-azar incidence and vector-control interventions from 2004-2012 were collected from Epidemiology and Disease Control Division (EDCD), Department of Health Services (DOHS) and Population Service International (PSI), while climatic data on monthly minimum, maximum and mean temperature, monthly total annual rainfall, and monthly relative humidity were collected from Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM). Central level data were also collected from District Public Health Office (DPHO) Jhapa. Generalized additive mixed models (GAMM) were used to assess the effects of climatic variables on malaria and kala-azar incidence using the district-level monthly aggregated data. Rainfall was found positively associated with both the diseases. 1 millimeter (mm) increase in rainfall increased, on average, malaria incidence by 0.08% .Climatic factors such as minimum, maximum and mean temperature and relative humidity were not significant predictors of malaria. In the context of kala-azar, 1 mm increase in rainfall increased, on average kala-azar incidence by 0.18%, while a 1% increase in relative humidity decreased, on average, kala-azar incidence by 4%. Analyzing distribution of LLINs and IRS from 2006 to 2012 with incidences showed significant decreases in malaria and kala-azar case only with the introduction of LLINs.

Keywords: malaria, kala-azar, LLINs, IRS, climate change


Status of Threatened Medicinal Plant Allium Wallichii Kunth in Annapurna Conservation Area, Central, Nepal

*DEEP JYOTI CHAPAGAIN1, SURESH KUMAR GHIMIRE1

1Central Department of Botany, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur Kathmandu


Allium wallichii Kunth is a threatened medicinal plant occurring in the high Himalayan region, ranging in elevation from 2000 to 4000 masl. Populations of this species have been greatly reduced in the natural habitat mainly due to overharvesting. The present study was carried out to assess its current status and identify variations in life history traits along Annapurna Conservation Area's (ACA) elevation gradient. Stratified random sampling method, in plots of the size 1m x 1m with n = 36, was used covering three populations from different elevations. Plant density was found to be 16.0, 21.3 and 35.2 individuals m-2 in Deurali (3250 masl), Bagar (3400 masl) and Machhapuchhre Base Camp (MBC, 3900 masl) respectively. In all populations, there was a high density of adult individuals at vegetative state (9.08, 8.67 and 22.50 individuals m-2 in Deurali, Bagar and MBC), and the lowest density was exhibited by seedlings. Individuals from the three populations exhibited insignificant variations in plant height, stem girth, reproductive output (number of flowers), and flower color. All populations were affected by livestock grazing, and over harvesting for local use and trade. Allium wallichii is threatened in ACA and is in verge of extinction if the prevailing anthropogenic disturbances continue. As ACA receives increasing tourist movement, effective ecotourism and plant conservation can protect valuable plant resources.

Keywords: anthropogenic factors, conservation area, life history trait, population density, overharvesting, allium wallichii


Impacts of Blockade in Indoor Carbon Footprint of Semi Urban Households of Kathmandu Valley

*REGAN SAPKOTA1, MAN KUMAR DHAMALA1

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, KirtipurE-mail: [email protected]

During the 2015-2016 Indian border blockade Nepal's import of fossils fuels and Liquefied Petroleum Gas was sharply curtailed, which led to increased consumption of firewood. This study assessed the carbon footprint of the people at semi urban areas of Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts. To calculate Green House Gas emissions, the IPCC (1996) and Smith et.al (1999) guidelines were used. 59 households were surveyed in Kathmandu's Tarkeshwor Municipality and Lalitpur's Karyabinayak Municipality to compare carbon dioxide emissions before and after the blockade. Results showed that carbon dioxide emissions drastically increased after the blockade. Emissions from firewood consumption increased, on average, from 32.33 Kg of CO2 per household a day to 241.83Kg of CO2 per household a day in Kavresthali. In Khokana it increased from 68.19Kg of CO2 per household a day to 247.45Kg of CO2 household a day. CO2 emission from LPG consumption decreased, on average, from 15.34 Kg of CO2 per household a day to 2.59 Kg of CO2 per household a day in Kavresthali, while in Khokana it decreased, on average, from 24.34Kg of CO2 per household a day to 5.02Kg of CO2 per household a day. Moreover, CO2 emission from the usage of crop residues and kerosene also increased in both areas.

Keywords: carbon footprint, carbon emission, energy, forest use


Status of Noise Pollution in Educational Institutions of Kathmandu Valley

*RAJU CHAUHAN1, REJINA MASKEY1, DINESH RAJ BHUJU2

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University2National Academy of Science and Technology

E-mail:[email protected]

Noise pollution is an emerging threat to the inhabitants of Kathmandu Valley, and though the adverse impacts of traffic and industrial noise on human health have been studied, noise levels in educational institutions have not been. This study monitored noise pollution in educational institutions located at high traffic (HT), low traffic (LT), commercial (C) and residential (R) areas using sound level meters and questionnaires administered to both teachers and students of 12 institutions in Kathmandu Valley. More than 90% of the studied educational institutions have problem with noise pollution, exceeding both the national and WHO standards. Institutions located at HT areas are most exposed. The six hour average noise level for educational institutions located at different area follows the order HT (70.1 dbA) > C (66.2 dbA) > LT (65.7 dbA) > R (55.0 dbA). Noise from students and vehicular traffic are the major sources of noise in educational institutions of Kathmandu. Excessive noise disturbs studying/teaching environment and causes irritation and headache among teachers and students. Due to the lack of proper legislation in regulating educational institutions in Nepal, more educational institution in urban area are being established that do not consider creating student and teacher friendly environments. The study recommends the government to outline–safe environmental criteria for educational institution of Nepal, particularly, adoption of noise control and mitigation measures.

Keywords: noise level, noise pollution, Kathmandu pollution



Vulnerability, Risk and Resilience


A Review of Flood hazard, Vulnerability and Risk and Collective Efficacy for Resilience

in Mountainous Region of Pakistan

*KARAMAT ALI1, 2, ROSHAN M. BAJRACHARYA1, HRIDAY LAL KOIRALA3

1 Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering and Aquatic Ecology Center, Kathmandu University, Nepal

2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Karakoram International University, Gilgit, Pakistan3 Central Department of Geography, Tribhuvan University, Nepal

Email: [email protected]

Mountain communities in Pakistan are particularly vulnerable due to diverse terrain and climatic conditions. The region is at high risk of earthquakes, river flooding, flash flooding, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF), landslides and landslide induced lake outbursts. This paper reviews the flood hazard, vulnerability and risk assessment, and appraises the collective efficacy in disaster resilience in mountainous regions of Pakistan. Collective efficacy refers to the capacity of a group of people to work together for shared goals, which has been linked to producing a variety of collective outcomes, including disaster recovery. Perceptions of collective efficacy against disaster risks obtained from individual residents and organizational representatives helped assessing the strength of individual traits, such as friendliness and neighborliness. Findings from this study suggests that there is a strong need of developing evidence based knowledge on flood hazard vulnerability and risk assessment in the mountainous regions of Pakistan, as well as collective efficacy for disaster resilience.

Keywords: flood, hazard, vulnerability, disaster risk, resilience, collective efficiency, mountain communities


Preparing for the Uncertain Water Future: Mapping Springs in the Hilly Regions of Nepal

*RABIN RAJ NIRAULA1,3, SUBODH SHARMA1, UTTAM PAUDEL2, BIKRAM RANA3

1Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University2 Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo

3HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation NepalE-mail: [email protected]

Poor mountain communities in Nepal rely on springs to meet their domestic as well as agricultural water demand, and the condition of springs provides an estimate of water poverty and vulnerability for communities residing in the highlands. In this study, Geographic Positioning System (GPS) and discharge measurements were used to determine the distribution and condition of spring sources in the mountainous areas of the Sindhupalchok District. Distribution of springs seems to be dependent on topography. Though soil content has vital role in groundwater behavior, lack of high resolution soil data limited the exploration this relationship. Data collected during this study comprises of several thematic layers - topographic factors and indices derived from DEM, land cover, soil type, geology - and GPS locations of the 621 springs, along with the springs' one time discharge measured during March – May 2014, the driest period of the year. The relationship between spring location and its discharge with elevation, slope, aspect, drainage and land use was significant helped establishing water availability to build adaptation for water uncertainties in the future that are likely to emerge from climatic and other stressors.

Keywords: natural springs, vulnerability mapping, GIS, water uncertainty, adaptation, community resilience


Pre Earthquake Nationwide Landslide Inventory of Nepal 2015

*PRAKASH POKHREL1, SHANTA BANSTOLA1, DR BHUJU1, KEDAR RIJAL1,MOTILAL GHIMIRE2, BINOD PYAKUREL1, ASHOK MAHARJAN1, BHARAT GHIMIRE1,

KISHOR MAHARJAN1, KUMOD LEKHAK1, PARMILA PAUDYAL1, RABINA SIPAI1, SALINA BAJRACHARYA1, SUBIN KALU1

1 Central Department of Environmental Science, TU2 Central Department of Geography, TU


Landslide is a common hazard in Nepal because of high relief mountains, relatively steep river gradient with an active geology, and intense monsoon rainfalls. Google Image 2014 was used to identify all the landslide patches of Nepal before the 2015 earthquakes (2013-2014). Images were digitized and analyzed using ArcGIS. For the study, landslide patches greater than a square kilometer located in 72 out of 75 districts were identified. Landslides were classified on the basis of mass wasting type, pre-existing land use and land cover, aspect of the slope, topographic position of landslide, human disturbance and risk. 5,003 landslides were identified, which made a total surface area of 126,343,776 m2 (12,634 km2). Rolpa District experienced the most landslides (258), followed by Bajhang (212), Baitadi (176) and Jumla (175), while Jhapa, Rautahat and Siraha experienced the lowest (8). No landslides could be identified in the districts of Parsa and Sarlahi in the Tarai plain. South facing slopes contained highest number/area (43%) of the total landslide. Regarding land use and land cover, the highest numbers of landslides were in shrub-land (782) and dense forests (779). The highest occurrences of landslides were in forest and shrub-land with 1844 landslides, followed by agriculture land with 1125 landslides. Road construction contributed to 603 landslides.

Keywords: ArcGIS, Google image, hazard, land use , landslides, high relief mountains


Landslide Susceptibility Mapping of Kamala Watershed, Sindhuli

*MUNA KHATIWADA1, SUBODH DHAKAL2

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Tri Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University2


This study has mapped the landslide susceptibility of Kamala watershed in Sindhuli District, Nepal. The study area includes 7 VDC’s and 2 municipalities with a total area of 520.16 sq. km that surrounds the kamala river and its tributaries. Field visits and Google earth imagery were used to map 189 landslides. The weight of evidence method was also used for susceptibility mapping. Different factors such as elevation, slope aspect, slope gradient, curvature, and land cover/use were considered in the susceptibility analysis. ArcGIS and Digital Elevation Model were used for preparation and analysis of susceptibility. Kamal Municipality, which has experienced more landslides among all studied VDC’s and municipalities, was found to be highly susceptible to landslides. Proper measures for prevention and control of landslide should be initiated in Kamal Municipality as well as to mechanisms to mitigate ecological, economic, physical and social impacts.

Keywords: slope, curvature, social impacts, river, vulnerability


Flood Vulnerability Assessment in Context to Changing Climate in Rupauliya VDC, Nawalparasi

*SUBASH GYAWALI1, KHADGA BAHADUR THAPA2, AMRIT PRASAD SHARMA3

1Tibhuvan University, Department of Environmental Science, Khwopa College2Tibhuvan University, Central Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

3Central Department of Environmental Science* E-mail: [email protected]

This study was conducted in Rupauliya VDC to assess the vulnerability of people to floods in the context of a changing climate. 60 households of Rupauliya VDC were randomly selected and surveyed for human, natural, social, financial and social variables to calculate a livelihood vulnerability index. Hazard and vulnerability mapping was also done to identify flood prone areas and vulnerable settlements. The VDC had a vulnerability index of 0.022 with exposure index 0.431, an adaptive index of 0.38 and sensitivity index of 0.44. Rise in summer temperature and locals' experiences frequent and extended overcasts in past years have been supported by the analyses of temperature data. Perceptions of rising monsoon rainfall and falling winter rainfall have also been reasonably justified with the analyses of official rainfall data. Indigenous people, mostly illiterate Tharu and Musahar tribes living close to the river, are the most vulnerable to flood hazards. Many in the VDC were using traditional technology such as sand bags, vegetation plantation, and jute netting to combat flood hazards, but they need more knowledge and better strategies for resilience, which can come from government or other organizational support. Lack of regional flood forecast, communication, and delays in the rescue and relief operations have caused large casualties in the past. An under populated work force with female majority, inadequate river training and knowledge, and lack of community preparedness and resilience are areas to be addressed for mitigating impacts of future floods.

Keywords: exposure, autonomous adaptation, sensitivity, community preparedness, local technology


Preparation of Landslide Distribution Map of Jharlang VDC

*KAPIL SILWAL1, SUBODH DHAKAL2

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University2Department of Geology, Tri-Chanda Campus Tribhuvan University


Landslide regularly causes huge loss of lives and property in Nepal each year. Jharlang VDC in Dhading , Nepal is located in mid hill region and faces grave landslide risks. This study prepared a Landslide Distribution Map (LDM) of Jharlang VDC that will be useful for mapping landslides, hazards, and vulnerability. The LDM was prepared through information obtained from field visits and through satellite imagery. Sixteen landslides are listed on the map; all on gentle east-facing slopes. West-facing slopes, though steeper, had no landslides, which might be due to a stronger bed rock. The east-facing slope appears to have remnant of historical landslides, since the landmass was unconsolidated. Even in the landslide-prone east slopes, land conservation schemes are yet to be initiated. Farming activities continue to destabilize slopes, further weaken the landmass, and accelerate mass wasting. There is an immediate need of a detailed geological study to explore causes of recurrent landslides, while an integrated watershed conservation strategy and soil conservation strategy is equally vital.

Keywords: landslide distribution map, jharlang, satellite image, gully erosion, hazard, recurrent landslides


Efficacy of Ecosystem based Disaster Risk Reduction Measure: A Study of Gharelu Village, Panchase Area

*MONICA PANDEY1, CHAKRA BHADUR KHADKA1

1 School of Environmental Science and Management, Pokhara University, KathmanduE-mail: [email protected]

In Nepal, haphazard infrastructural development like rural roads have significantly contributed in exacerbating landslide hazards that affect rural communities. Though efforts have been made to review such practices from an engineering and ecological lens, a systematic assessment of these landslides from ecosystem perspective is missing. Balanced ecosystems reduce human and infrastructure risk exposure as well as the socio-economic vulnerability of hazards. This study examines the effectiveness of Ecosystem based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) measures and their impact on ecosystem services, and explore socio-economic benefits and local preference of Eco-DRR measures in Gharelu village of the Panchase area. Purposive non-random sampling method was used to select households of the village to surveyI Interviews with key informants were also conducted. Findings from the study revealed that communities and local institutions of Gharelu village think both haphazard rural road construction and existing hazard risks were the major causes of landslides in the study area. Soil bio-engineering and plantation of locally available grass species was the Eco-DRR measure initiated in the village. Integrated with local and expert knowledge, this Eco-DRR measure enhanced the provision and regulation of ecosystem services, i.e. locals had better resource access and a reduction of landslide risk in the study area. Economically, Eco-DRR measures were found to be five times cheaper than construction of a gabion wall, while locals also generated income through plants such as Amriso. Furthermore, the voluntary replication of plantation by locals in their private land and increased awareness and capacity building can be attributed to create a multiplier effect of the Eco-DRR approach.

Keywords: ecosystem services, bio-engineering, landslides, livelihood


Effect of April 2015 Earthquake on Ecotourism and Recovery Measures: A Case Study of

Langtang Trekking Route, Langtang National Park

*RASHMI TACHAMO1, YOGENDRA YADAV1

1Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Hetauda Campus, HetaudaE-mail: [email protected]

The Langtang National Park (LNP) with mountain topography experienced the worst landslide during the April 2015 earthquake, which swept away many trekking trails and completely buried the beautiful Langtang valley. Such disturbing news frightened many potential tourists, resulting in a 70-80% decrease in the number of international tourists as compared to the same period in previous year. This has directly affected local employment and the park’s total revenue. In order to assess the effect of earthquake in tourism sector and to discover recovery measures, focus group discussions, key informant survey, questionnaire survey was conducted as part of this study. It was observed that reconstruction work of hotels and trekking trails is at pace with an aim of boosting tourism for the next season. Result of the study shows that there still is potential for ecotourism despite such devastation. To revitalize this dramatic decline in tourist inflow, the Tourism Board of Nepal, DNPWC, WWF Nepal, Hariyo Ban program, Himalayan Climate, Restless Development, LACCoS have been implementing a series of swift countermeasures. Kishori group, Suryodaya Youth club, Buffer zone group, Gossaikunda Area Development Committee, Eco-club, Snow leopard Conservation Group formed at local level are promoting ecotourism by conserving biodiversity. National Tourism Promotion Committee (NTPC) has unveiled a new promotional logo and slogan ‘to convey the message that Nepal, including LNP, is safe to visit. Both the public and private sector should set up a leadership organization that embraces and considers tourism management for efficient recovery.

Keywords: gorkha earthquake, ecotourism, trail rehabilitation, tourism recovery, langtang national park



Water, Ecosystem and Management


Wild Fire Densities of Fire Occurrences and Burnt Areas in Nepal

*KRISHNA BAHADUR BHUJEL1, REJINA MASKEY1, AMBIKA P. GAUTAM2

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu2Kathmandu Forestry College, Koteshwor, Kathmandu


This study examined the magnitude of wildfire density and fire frequency of burnt areas in Nepal over a 15 years (2000-2014). Information of fire occurrences and of the burnt areas was extracted from product of MODIS observation and was analyzed by using average nearest neighbor function in ArcGIS. Analysis shows that, on average, the density of fire occurrences in Nepal per year is 0.04 ha per km2 and that of burnt area is 1.7 hectares per km2. The largest number of fire occurrence (0.58/km2/year) and burnt area (16.92 hectares) were found to be in the High Mountain region followed by Siwalik region (0.05/km2/year fire occurrence and 2.33 hectares burnt area/km2/year), primarily due to higher composition of fire combustible materials in the forests. The lowest number of fire occurrence (0.01/km2/year and burnt area 0.37 hectare/km2/year) was in the Hilly region. Mountain and Tarai regions were found to have similar fire occurrences (0.03/km2/year) but the Tarai experienced higher burnt area (2.01 ha/km2/year) than in the Mountain region (0.84 hectare km2/year). The findings can be useful in the preparation of wildfire management strategies, land-use planning, forest fire management in Nepal and other developing countries with similar ecological and socio-economic conditions.

Keywords: fire density, burnt area, fire occurrences, fire magnitudes, combustion factors, fire susceptible


Rarity and Commonness in Himalayan Poppies: Variation in Pollen Attributes, Seed Output and Germination

Traits in Meconopsis napaulensis and M. paniculata

*MUKTI RAM POUDEYAL1, SURESH KUMAR GHIMIRE1

1Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, KathmanduE-mail: [email protected]

Reproductive traits between two monocarpic species, rare Meconopsis napaulensis DC and a comparatively widespread congener M. paniculata (D. Don) Prain, were compared to identify the most important traits accountable for the rarity of the former species. The study was carried out in Lantang National Park, Nepal, the native locality of endemic M. napaulensis, covering its six populations (elevation between 3500 –4600 masl) and compared their major reproductive attributes with four populations (3500- 4000 masl.) of M. paniculata around the tree line eco-tone region. The population parameters were collected during monsoon, the peak growing period, while seed output, was studied in the post monsoon season. Entire area of each population was extensively surveyed and subjectively sampled to record their detailed reproductive output. The common M. paniculata showed marked potential to turn out higher percentage of pollen, more intact capsules, higher number of viable seeds, and seed germination capacity per plant in comparison to the rare M. napaulensis. Significantly lesser investment on overall reproductive performance in M. napaulensis greatly explains the causes underlying rarity in contrast to M. paniculata. Also, M. napaulensis populations in high alpine areas (>4000 m)face environmental constraints such as limited resource supply, short growing season and high UV radiation, which limits viable pollen production and seed maturation. Based on reproductive yield of this two species, it can be concluded that considerably reduced viable seed set, poor germination capacity, possibly limitation of secure site for germination and seedling establishment are the driving factors underlying rarity of M. napaulensis. The mature plants should be strictly protected from flower and fruit harvesting to boost and ensure the reproductive stability. Moreover, extensive demographic study is recommended to provide information on the long-term viability of populations and assess the critical life stage or demographic process affecting population growth rates.

Keywords: gosainkunda, pollen viability, interspecies reproduction, reproductive performance


Habitat Suitability of Common Leopard in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park

*BISHNU MAHARJAN1 , PURNA MAN SHRESHTA2

1Uniervsity of Salzburg, Austria, 2Kathmandu Foresty College, Tribhuvan UniversityE-mail: [email protected]

Existence of predators like the common leopard (Panthera pardus) in a region is associated with its high biodiversity, therefore, the protecting leopard habitats can be a very effective way of conserving biodiversity. That is exactly the issue facing leopard habitat today. The distribution of the species has not yet been identified, and the known habitats are separated by roads and settlements. This research predicted and mapped the possible habitats for the leopard in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park by using remote sensing and GIS approach. Species Distribution Modeling (MaxEnt) was used to predict distribution and was applied to identify suitable habitat area in the park. By using presence data of leopard occurrences and 138 observation points, alongside several environmental variables such as distance from settlement area, the MaxEnt program was developed. Remotely sensed imagery of Resource Sat II was used for Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), land use and land cover. The use of the MaxEnt model resulted in a larger than expected area to be classified as suitable for leopards. How far an area was from a settlement made had the highest impact on the model (52.5%). Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) plots and Jackknife tests were used to assess model performance. The Area under Training data (ROC) curve (RUC) 0.828 and that of Test data ROC curve was 0.678, which is more acceptable than the Random Prediction Model (AUC) of 0.5. Therefore, there is enough evidence to suggest that the MaxEnt approach is useful when modeling a specie's geographic locations and assessing habitat suitability of the target wildlife.

Keywords: species distribution modeling, vegetation index and habitat factors


Status and Distribution of Gaur in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Nepal

*GITA BHUSHAL1, JHAMAK B. KARKI2, RAMESH RAJ PANTA1,3

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University2Kathmandu Forestry College, Tribhuvam University

3Institute of Tibetan Research Plateau, Chinese Academy of Sciences


Gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus), whose population was declining in 2010 (Smith, 1827), is now included in the list of protected animal species under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 and appendix I (threatened with extinction) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This study assessed the current status of gaurs and mapped their distribution in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Population and distribution of gaur was estimated through reconnaissance survey, waterhole count and transect survey. Except in the Chure slope and a small part of south west portion, 377.58 km2 of the Reserve's 499 km2 area was selected for the study. Date collection was done for 3 days in two blocks. Altogether, 3 waterhole sites within block A (111.8 km2) and 5 waterhole sites within block B (145.7 km2) were selected for counting gaur. Locations of sighting were recorded using GPS, and a digitized map created using ArcGIS. Of the total 47 gaur counted, 13 were sighted from Devkidaha to Simarkholsi area in Block A, and remaining in Block B. 14 were male, 18 female, 2 juvenile, 12 calves and 1 unclassified following the classification by Ahrestani et al. (2011). Gaurs were sighted in flat terrain in and around the waterhole in herds of 10 to 13 individuals. Cooking leftovers of poachers were also observed, which indicates shows that poaching is a major threat to the gaurs. Regular monitoring on Gaur number and location is needed, as is site specific conservation strategies.

Keywords: protected species, waterhole count, wildlife census


Assessing Impact of River Bed Excavation on Malekhu River using Physical and Morphological Criteria

*JHARANA KHANAL1, NARESH KAZI TAMRAKAR1

1Central Department of Geography, Tribhuvan UniversityE-mail:[email protected]

River bed excavation and indiscriminate mining from a river and its basin area, as a source of construction aggregate, may impose many harmful effects on the riverine environment. To investigate the impact of river excavation this study conducted an Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) based on Qualitative Habitat Evaluation Index (QHEI) and Habit Quality Index (HQI) to find substrate type, in stream cover, channel morphology, bank erosion and riparian zone, pool glide and riffle/run quality, and the gradient of drainage area of Malekhu River, Nepal. Three reaches of 500 m each and six to eight transects were selected for study. The study found that the average pH of the related study area was 7.7 and EC (electrical conductivity) was 290µS/cm. The average velocity of the Malekhu river in the transect was 1.19 m/s. Water at the mining site was physically more contaminated than the non-mining site, while chemical properties were almost same. The river's channel had been altered in the mining sites. A significant impact of mining was seen on the river's morphology and aquatic habitat.

Keywords: habitat quality index, qualitative habitat evaluation index, river mining


Water Quality Assessment of Spring Sources in Badigad Catchment, Western Nepal

*JIVAN BHUSAL1, KRISHNA PRASAD UPADHYAY 2

1Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University2Department of Irrigation, Jawalakhel, Lalitpur


Water quality analysis of 30 springs from Badigad catchment area of Gulmi and Baglung districts in Nepal was performed with the objective of investigating the suitability of spring waters for irrigation and drinking purposes. Average value for pH of the samples was 7.8 with conductivity ranging from 630 to 1500 µS/cm. The bicarbonate alkalinity ranged from 140-350 Mg/L, indicating a medium salinity hazard in the catchment area. The water was found to be moderately hard with an average of 75Mg/L CaCo3 hardness. Nitrate, Sulphate, Ammonia, Chloride, Fluoride and Sodium absorption ratio were found to be <0.1Mg/L, <1Mg/L, <1.5Mg/L, 3Mg/L, 1Mg/L and <2 respectively in all samples. Iron content in the water was also below the permissible limits in some samples while it was not detected in some samples.

Keywords: drinking water; irrigation; physiochemical parameters; drinking purpose


Effects of Land Use and Land Cover on Occurrence of Barn Owl in Kathmandu valley, Nepal

*SABITA GURUNG 1, TEJ BAHADUR THAPA 1

1 Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, KathmanduE-mail: [email protected]

Barn Owl (Tyto alba), a flagship species of healthy grassland and is closely associated with farmlands, is threatened in Nepal. This study conducted in 2014/15 mapped the Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) patterns of Kathmandu Valley, determined the occurrences of barn owls and assessed the effects of the LULC patterns on the species occurrence. A walk through survey was done. LULC mapping was done on IKONOS image in ArcGIS. The effects of LULC on the species were determined by comparing broad plot-level attributes with species occurrence. Site-level attributes were modeled to determine their influence. A one-way ANOVA revealed that the occurrence of Barn Owls was significantly affected by built-up level. Occupancy modeling in program PRESENCE revealed that tree cover had greater weight in determining species occupancy at the plot-level. Occupancy was positively correlated with temple. Built-up has strong positive association with occupancy of Barn Owl at both plot-level and sub-plot level. The April 2015 earthquake also heavily impacted potential sites the species could occupy. Current trends of urbanization will affect sites of Barn Owls in Kathmandu valley, including the availability of prey, and more thorough investigation is needed to ensure survival of the species.

Keywords: species mapping; occupancy modeling, urbanization, barn owl


Water Quality Assessment and Mapping of Rati River and Springs, Panchase Area, Western Nepal

*SUJITA KARKI1, DEEP NARAYAN SHAH2 AND KEDAR RIJAL1

1Tribhuvan University, Central Department of Environmental Science, Kirtipur, Kathmandu2Himalayan Biodiversity and Climate Change Center, Bhaktapur

*E-mail: [email protected]

Macro invertebrates and selected physio-chemical parameters were considered as primary indicators in this study for assessing the river health and water quality of the Rati river, one of the tributaries of the river Modi in the Panchase region.. 10 sites among rivers and springs were selected for water quality assessment at Chitre, Panchase Area, during autumn of 2015. Physico-chemical parameters such as dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, hardness, conductivity, and content of Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonia, and Phosphate were measured. Macro invertebrates were sampled in the field and processed in the laboratory. Bach Water Quality Index and GRSbios index were also used to determine the water quality and river health respectively. 27 families of macro invertebrates were recorded. Relatively sensitive EPT taxa (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) were found to be higher compared to other orders in all sites, indicating a good ecological status of the river. Application of GRS bios indicated good ecological status in the upstream section, which decreased gradually the more one moved downstream. The springs were all in good ecological condition with all measured parameters within recommended range of National Drinking Water Quality Standards for Nepal.

Keywords: macro invertebrate, bach water quality index, GRSbios, ecological status


Field-based Study of Building Stones in the Malekhu River Area Applying

Rapid Discontinuity Analysis and Geological Input

*SUNITA BHATTARAI1, NARESH KAZI TAMRAKAR1

1Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, KathmanduE-mail: [email protected]

The Malekhu River area is very promising in terms of sourcing various types of rocks suitable for use in construction. A rapid assessment was done by obtaining data on discontinuity, weathering grade, and rock mass condition to explore opportunities in the area. Nine locations were selected and divided into seven stratigraphic units. Field-based data was analyzed to identify block size and geometry, and rock mass quality. The block types that could be extracted are long, flat, and compact. The study shows that the condition of the rock outcrop is faint to slightly weathered, strongly indurated and the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) ranges from poor to very good rocks. The major rock types appropriate as building stone in the area are limestone, quartzite, amphibolite, augen gneiss, marble, granite and metasandstone. Based on the results, the deposits were localized to those areas where different geological characteristics were appropriate.

Keywords: building stone, joint volume, discontinuity, spacing, malekhu river


Study of Macrofungi in Community Forest of Dhawa, Gorkha

*UTTAMOSTI1, SANJAYA KUMAR JHA1

1Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, KirtipurE-mail: [email protected]

The study of macro fungi in the community forest of Dhawa VDC was assessed and the nutritional value selected wild macro fungi determined. Specimen were collected and preserved during the monsoon, post monsoon and winter season from the varying habitats. 84 species of mushrooms belonging to 74 different genera and 26 different families were collected. Amanitaceae and Rusullaceae were the largest family in records with 10 and 9 species respectively. Edibility tests showed that 17 out the 84 species were edible. Highly valued medicinal macro fungi such as the Ganoderma aplanatum and Ganoderma lucidum were also identified. Seven dominant macro fungi - Termitomyce sheimii, Lactarius volemus, Amanita chepangiana, Amanita hemibapha, Pleurotuso streatus, Astraeushy grometricus and Ramaria botrytis - were found to be highly preferred by the locals. The conservation of these edible macrofungi needs proper management while their harvests need to be more sustainable. Some species could play an important role in addressing the nutrient requirement of the locals and be considered for domestication and commercialization.

Keywords: Macrofungi, edible mushroom, community forests, sustainable harvest


Aplectana sp., Nematode Parasite of Bufo stomaticus from Kirtipur, Nepal

*SHYAM KUMAR PUN1, MAHENDRA MAHARJAN1

1Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu*E-mail: [email protected]

Aplectana sp. is a parasite that is usually found in the alimentary canal of amphibians and reptiles. During the period of April to June 2013, 20 Bufo stomaticus were collected from Kirtipur, Nepal. All the live toads were anaesthetized, dissected in saline water, and had their alimentary canals examined thoroughly for nematode parasites. The nematode parasites collected were taxonomically studied and identified as Aplectana sp. Distinguishing characters were a short oesophagus, and a narrow and pointed tail. All infected hosts were found to be infected by 60% of Aplectana male nematode parasite and female parasite with equal intensity i.e. 8.67. This nematode parasite is the new record from B.stomaticus from Kirtipur, Nepal.

Keywords: aplectana sp., bufo stomaticus, kirtipur wildlife, nematode, amphibian parasites


Derivation of Forest Inventory Parameters for Carbon Estimation using Terrestrial Lidar Data

*OM PRAKASH KALWAR1, YOUSIF A. HUSSIN1, MICHAEL J.C. WEIR1

1University of Twente, Netherlands E-mail: [email protected]

This study explored the potential of T-LiDAR technology to derive forest inventory parameters in primary tropical rainforests and estimate carbon stocks that can facilitate the implementation of REDD+. The study was conducted in Royal Belum State Park of Malaysia. Forest sample plot inventory parameters (species, position, Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), tree height) were collected from field observations. T-LiDAR data of the sample plot was acquired using a Reigl VZ-400 scanner. Pre-processing and registration of multiple scans were done in RSCAN PRO software. The inventory parameters derived from T-LiDAR data were compared with field measurements. The average plot values of R2 and RMSE for manual measurement and automatic derivation of tree height were 0.77, 2.96 m and 0.04 and 5.35 m, respectively. The average stocks of AGB and AGC estimated from field measured DBH and tree height were 286 Mg ha-1 and 134 Mg ha-1, respectively. Similarly, the average stocks of AGB and AGC estimated from manually measured DBH and tree height from T-LiDAR data were 278 Mg ha-1 and 130 Mg ha-1, respectively. The R2 values for the estimated AGB and AGC from manually measured DBH and tree height from T-LiDAR data were both 0.93 and corresponding RMSE values were 42.4 Mg ha-1 and 19.9 Mg ha-1. Forest plot inventory parameters were measured with reasonable accuracy from T-LiDAR data. Automatic derivation of these parameters was not very successful. There is a need to develop robust algorithms for automatic derivation of forest inventory parameters, yet results from this study do suggest the T-LiDAR technology has good potential

Keywords: Remote sensing, T-LiDAR technology, forest inventory, carbon stock, REDD+


Phosphorus Distribution in Sediment from Varying Depths of Phewa Lake, Pokhara Valley,

Western Nepal

*SRIJANA ADHIKARI1, UDHAB RAJ KHADKA1,2

1Central Department of Environment Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu2Amrit Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu


Phosphorus, essential for plant growth, binds to the sediments in lake-water and gets deposited at the bottom, and may be re-released, changing the physicochemical properties of water and even causing algal bloom called eutrophication. Even though the lake sediment acts as a sink for phosphorus, it also becomes a source Preceding research on distribution of phosphorus in sediment from various depths of Phewa Lake are inadequate. This study determines three forms of phosphorus- total phosphorus (TP), inorganic phosphorus (IP) and organic phosphorus (OP)- in sediment extracted from different depths of Phewa Lake. Duplicate samples from 16 points of varying lake-depths were collected using grab samples and were analyzed for TP, IP and OP by colorimetric method. TP was found to be in higher concentration (5.2 g/kg dry weight) in sediment from the deeper parts of the lake, and OP was found to be higher (4.8 g/kg dry weight) in sediment from shallower parts. A low oxygen level in eutrophic water also causes increased release of phosphorus from lake sediments, thus making the lake even more eutrophic. OP, on average, accounted for greater than 80% of TPs at all sites, indicating higher amount of decaying organic matter in the lake. IP, on average, accounted to about 10% of total phosphorus (0.85 g/kg dry weight) explaining that higher availability of phosphorus in lake sediments may be due to extensive use of chemical fertilizers in the catchment are.

Keywords: eutrophication, nutrient release, inorganic, lake sediments


Analysis of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) Mechanism in Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and

Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL)

*SUNIL TAMANG1ARATI KHADGI1, BIKRAM TAMANG1,2

1 School of Environmental Science and Management (SchEMS), Pokhara University 2 Eco-envy Nepal

*E-mail: [email protected]

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is developing as a popular market-based mechanism in many countries for payment to service providers in order to maintain or enhance the provision of ecosystem services. Nepal itself has significantly improved ecosystems and services from them through a number of community-based management approaches and donor funded projects. However, information on the status of such practices for natural resource management is minimal. This study identifies whether existing PES or PES like mechanisms follow five principles proposed by Wunder (2005), and assesses the status of ecosystem services that are maintained by such mechanisms. Four existing PES and PES like mechanisms in Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) were assessed. The five principles in each site were qualitatively analyzed based on data obtained from questionnaire surveys and key informant interviews. The status of ecosystem services has been analyzed based on secondary quantitative data. Results from the study show that REDD+ pilot project in Kayarkhola watershed are the only one that followed all five principles of Wunder (2005). In contrast, the remaining three PES mechanisms (Community managed eco-tourism in Bagmara Buffer zone community forest, rewarding upstream in Kulekhani watershed, and conservation of Rupa Lake) followed more than one principle but not all five. Thus, the three mechanisms reflect application of PES like mechanism but not actual PES. Although existing PES mechanisms have been successful at establishing payment mechanism to service providers, the service providers were found to be less familiar with PES terminology and its application. Moreover, payments to service providers have not significantly contributed in enhancing or maintaining the provision of ecosystem services. PES is relatively new concept in Nepal for sustainable natural resource management, however, it is found that PES like mechanisms, such as in Baghamara, existed in Nepal before PES was introduced.

Keywords: REDD+, hydropower, eco-tourism, fisheries, ecosystem service payments


Parasitic Burden in Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825)

of Illam District Community Forest, Nepal

*SAJAN SHRESTHA1, MAHENDRA MAHARJAN1

1Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu


Parasitic diseases pose significant threats to Red Pandas. To assess the parasitic burden on Red Pandas of Illam District, Nepal, 14 fecal samples were aseptically collected from community forest using a line transect method. The samples were examined using standard concentration techniques. All the collected samples were found to be positive for both protozoan and helminth parasites. The recorded protozoan parasites include Eimeria sp., Entamoeba sp., and Balantidium sp. with 64.28%, 57.14% and 14.28% proportion. Similarly, the proportion of seven helminthes parasites revealed Oxyuris (100%), Baylisascaris (57.14%), Trichostrongylus (50%), Strongyloides (50%), Trichuris (42.8%), Crenosoma (42.85%) and Hookworm (35.7%). Most of the samples (78.52%) revealed either multiple parasitic infection or triple infection (21.42%) with low to moderate intensity of infection. In conclusion, the parasitic burden in Red Pandas of Illam's community forest is very high and there is an urgent need to address these threats.

Keywords: parasites, parasite prevalence, red panda, livestock, eimeria sp, conservation


Status and Ecology of Ziziphus Buddhensis: A Case Study from Pokhari Narayansthan Vdc, Timal,

Kavrepalanchowk

*FURBE LAMA1, MADAN KOIRALA1


This study on the status and ecology of the newly identified Ziziphus buddhensis species of the Rhamnaceae family was carried out in Pokhari Narayansthan VDC of Kavrepalanchowk, Nepal. The Ziziphus buddhensis is a sacred tree that has significance in Buddhist traditions. The tree and seed both are commonly known as bodhichitta or buddhachitta mala. The seeds, used by Buddhists in the form of garlands for worship, are highly valued and a major source of income for inhabitants of Pokhari Narayansthan. There were 353 Ziziphus buddhensis trees in the Pokhari Narayansthan VDC between 15 to 100 years of age. The deciduous tree is found growing in subtropical region, is cultivatable, spiny, averaging 10-17 m in height, flowering from March-April, fruiting from May-July, and maturing in August-September. The tree was found from 945 to 2001 m altitude with soil of temperature varying from 9oC to 20oC and electrical conductivity of 204µs to 496µs. The trees were found in slope of 20o to 50o, with species density decreasing with higher slope. The tree favors slightly acidic soil of pH 5 to 6.32, while moisture content between 3.48% and 9.46% at 30cm depth is preferred for plant growth.

Keywords: ecology, highly value plant, Nepal, timal, buddhist plants


Interaction between Free Roaming Dogs and Blackbuck in Khairapur, Bardiya, Nepal

*SURESH THAPA1, MAN KUMAR DHAMALA1


Interactions between domestic animals and wildlife pose a significant threat to wildlife, particularly to endangered species, due to direct conflict, conflict over resources, and risk of infectious diseases. Increasing abundance of free roaming domestic dogs around the boundaries of the protected Bardiya wildlife reserve is one growing concern among conservationists in the Krishnasha area. Several studies have shown that dogs have multiple negative impacts on native wildlife population, as predators, as resource competitors, and being vectors and reservoirs of transmissible pathogens. This study estimated some of the potential threats that the free roaming dogs pose to the native wildlife. Field observation and questionnaire survey was used to collect data. No significant effect of the number of dogs on the Blackbuck population was observed. However, dogs interact with the native wildlife at several levels, and therefore, to minimize dog-Blackbuck interaction a multipronged approach - combination of vaccinations, lethal control, restriction of free roaming behaviors is suggested.

Keywords: domestic animals, wildlife reserve, blackbuck, conservation


Carcasses availability in Jatayu Restaurant, Nawalparasi District

*RAMESH BASEL1 RASHILA DESHAR1

1Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University E-mail: [email protected]

The study assessed the availability of carcasses in Nepal’s first vulture feeding site located within Pithouli and Kawasoti VDCs, Nawalparasi. The study estimated the nearby cattle population and the threats on vultures of the Jatayu restaurant. The study relied on surveys with key informants and observations during field visits. The result showed that carcass availability is decreasing, although the threat to vultures is minimized, as they also travel long distances in search of food when local supply is insufficient. The veterinarians surveyed claimed they have begun prescribing meloxicam as painkillers for cattle, which is less lethal for vultures than previously prescribed diclofenac. However, a new drug called Nimesulide that has the potential of causing visceral gout and death in vultures was found in 17% of the sample surveyed. There is also a threat of scavengers feeding on carcasses that has a potential of spreading various harmful diseases in nearby community.

Keywords: nimesulide, diclofenac, meloxican, scavangers, vulture conservation


Cultural Practices for Wild Honey Bee (Apis laboriosa) Conservation

*TILAK BABU CHAPAGAI1, DINESH RAJ BHUJU1

1Centeral Department of Environment Science, Tribhuvan University, KirtipurE-mail: [email protected]

There are at least five different honeybee species in Nepal. A large quantity of honey and beeswax is produced by indigenous honeybees (mainly Apis dorsata and Apis laboriosa). These bee species play a vital role in pollinating mountain crops and wild flora. However, there is a lack of information about the population status of indigenous honeybees, and their relationship and role in regulating honey-hunting traditions, livelihoods, and biodiversity conservation. The main aim of this study was to assess the present condition of wild honey bee (Apis laboriosa) at Chote Khola community forest of Dhodeni-8, Lamjung, the methods of honey hunting tradition, livelihood issues, and threats to wild honey bees and conservation measures. The study was done by surveying 25 respondents, five key informant interviews and field visits. The traditional honey hunting method in practice is a major threat to wild honey bees. The main gap is that local people take honey bees as part of their culture rather than as a resource. Local's livelihoods have still not improved because of their lack of marketing skills and ability to sustainably manage the bees.

Keywords: biodiversity, indigenous, livelihood ,bee conservation


Human Monkey Conflict

*AJAD DHUNGANA1, SADHANA PRADHANANGA1


A conflict between humans and wildlife is becoming a significant problem across the world and even in Dandagaun village of Khalte VDC, Dhading, Nepal. Using primary data collected through surveys with local farmers, the study aimed to identify what major foods monkeys preferred and what crops they damaged., Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and Hanuman Langur (Semnopithecus entellus) were the two species most prevalent in the area. More than half of the locals that responded reported that the Rhesus monkeys damaged crops, preferring maize. Personal guarding (32%) and patrolling the field (32%) was the common method for deterrent. 56% of the respondents aid that food scarcity caused conflicts between monkey and farmers of Khaltlle-4 Dandagaun. Worth compensation (48%) in Khaltlle-4 can be an effective measure to reduce human-monkey conflict.

Keywords: inter-species conflict, patrolling, crop damage, agriculture compensation, rhesus


Distribution of Choerospondias axillaris in the Himalayan region

*ISHU SIRENG1, REGINA MASKEY1, SAILESH RANJITKAR2

1Central Department of Environment Science, Tribhuvan University, Nepal2World Agroforestry Centre East and Central Asia,

Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, Yunnan, ChinaE-mail: [email protected]

Choerospondias axillaris, commonly called lapsi in Nepali, has economic, ecological and cultural importance to Nepali people. The focus of this research is to identify climatically suitable zones for lapsi plantation across Nepal in the context of climate change risks. Maxtent method was applied to predict the suitability zone of lapsi in Nepal, based on 206 randomly distributed location points that represented the occurrence of the tree. The bioclimatic, topographic and environmental variables of the location points were extracted from secondary sources. Least correlated bio climatic variables were selected by the Principal Component Analysis. The environmental variables that best explain the current distribution were identified and used to project the climatically suitable zone under three RCP scenario of IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. Our model indicates that Eastern and Central Region of Nepal as climatically suitable zone for Cheorospondias axillaris. In future, suitability of lapsi plantation will expand in Eastern Mid Hills and decrease in Central and Mid-West. Overall suitability will decrease across the country. Temperature is an important environmental factor contributing to the survival of lapsi, while elevation plays an important role for the growth. The total area suitable for the Lapsi plantation at present was found to be 21682km2.. The unchanged stable areas of Mid Hills regions are probable sites for planting the Cheorospondias axillaris.

Keywords: cultural importance, survival, climatic stability



Cross Cutting


Prospects of Eco-tourism in Ghatalsthan

*MUKESH KUMAR SHARMA1, CHANDRA LAL SHRESTHA1

1Central Department of Rural Development, Tribhuvan UniversityE-mail: [email protected]

This research explores possibilities of promoting Ghatalsthan, Dadeldhura District for eco-tourism. It assessed existing condition of ecotourism in Ghatalathan, which is a living natural museum for the diverse flora and fauna in the region. The research explored prospects, problems, and provided recommendations to promote eco-tourism as a source of income for the local community. Primary data were collected through field surveys, observations, focus group discussions, questionnaires, key informants interviews, organizational visits, while secondary data was collected from published and unpublished books and articles. Ghatalsthan does indeed have high potential for eco-tourism development., but requires support from both the government and the local people to manage drinking water, sanitation and solid-waste, electricity, reliable roads, and other infrastructure. Local media, community based organizations, schools and youth clubs should participate to promote ecotourism. Establishment of tourist information centre in Ghatalsthan is also essential. Developing brochures, booklets, trekking route maps will provide visitors with information to services from skilled human resources. This research provides Nepal Tourism Board with prospects in order to develop tourism in more rural communities across Nepal.

Keywords: ecotourism, community, tourism information center, rural tourism


An Assessment of Impact of Microfinance on Living Standard of Women and Small Farmers

in Rural Community of Nepal

*SAGAR PRATAP BUDDHA1, MAHENDRA KUMAR SINGH1

1 Lord Buddha Academy, Sikkim Manipal UniversityE-mail: [email protected]

Financial inclusion through microfinance has been a powerful instrument in improving the living standard of poor people in Nepal, but knowledge about their impacts at local level is still threadbare. This paper assesses the impact of microfinance on women and small farmers of rural community. Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were conducted with beneficiaries and structured questionnaires were administrated to households to collect primary data. Empirical analysis of collected data shows that vulnerability of relatively mature members declines significantly. There has been a significant increase in the capacity of women, particularly, from economic perspective. Greater autonomy and changes in social attitude also lead to the female empowerment. It has positive impacts on allocation of household resources on various components such as household consumption, health, education, and income generating activities (or investment cycle) because of part of training on financial education. Microfinance programs and institutions in Nepal have become an increasingly important component of strategies to promote micro and small enterprise development.

Keywords: microfinance, economic impact, livelihood improvement, women empowerment


Development of Rural Transport and Environmental Safeguards in Nepal: A Case Study of World Bank Financed

Rural Transport Development Project

*SITA RAM KANDEL1,2, ANANTA KUMAR KARKI2,3

1School of Environmental Management, Pokhara University2Project for Strengthening the National Rural Transport Program, Government of Nepal

3Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, Mongkut’s University of Technology, ThailandE-mail: [email protected]

Rural roads have contributed to improved access to physical facilities and social services in previously unconnected areas of Nepal. Demand for more rural roads are expanding, which require more capital investments. The review and observation divulges that the substantial environmental and social costs incurred due to the impacts induced by the rural road development process have created challenges, and which can only be addressed with properly designed safeguard management framework. The study concluded that the planning, implementation, monitoring and supervision of environmental safeguards under development of rural roads needs to be effectively enforced in line with the project cycle. No or minimal blasting approaches, application of bioengineering techniques, labor-based, environmentally friendly, and Participatory Approaches (LEP) need to be applied in the design and construction of rural roads. Empowerment of local beneficiary as well as the people at implementation is essential for effective management of safeguards. The development of green rural road networks through safeguard friendly planning is a current need in the rural transport sector.

Keywords: social services, road development, participatory approaches, green planning


Eco-tourism in Betana wetland

*NEETA KHANAL1, RASHILA DESHAR1


This study was carried out in Betana wetland, District to explore possibilities of ecotourism in the area and the sustainability of current practices. Field visits, key information interviews, informal interviews and data analysis were carried out to observe management services provided to visitors, and review policy, future work plans and current tourism practices in the Betana wetland. 3500 people with 52 picnic groups were recorded in 18th of Poush, which was the maximum number or tourists for year 2072 B.S. The wetland is close to the roadside, rich in biodiversity, and quite a suitable place for nature lovers. The greenery of Sal trees, boating services, and fishes in nearby ponds fascinate people, who end up coming there repeatedly. Some visitors are unsatisfied because there is no children's park, garden, or gaming. Financial support is needed from government and non-government organizations to develop the areas as a tourism destination. If the management committee of the Betana watershed area works according to their 5-year work plan, there are good possibilities of increases in incoming tourists.

Keywords: wetland conservation, sustainable tourism, biodiversity, watershed tourism, ecotourism


I nstitute of Science and Technology

2045


MoSTE / GoN


Himalayan Kno

wledge Concla

ve

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