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CRITICAL SURVEYOF . ~ ) - 'DRAMA (ro \QJ

Foreign Language SeriesAuthorsSch-Z

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Edited byFRANK N. MAGILL

SALEMPRESS


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1722 Sophocles 1723which probably had its origins m a choral song to which one, two. and ,finally, three actors were added. With the use of three actors. Sophocleswas able to concentrate dramatic attentIon upon the actors a nd upon t he).poken dialogues and agons or "debates" for which his plays are noted .

~ ~ o p h o c l e s ' mastery of dialOgue IS es ec ' \ t In his ralaQUes. \\hlehI \ o ~ e . : a most a w ays egm no WIth the static, expository monologues of Euripi-:,6\"" des, but with dramatIC, plot-advancmg dIalogues, such as the bItter e ) ~ -! change between AntIgone and Ismene at the begInnmg of Antwone. /In general, Sophocles accomplishes tills development of the actor'S rolein tragedy without neglecting the chora! portions of the pIa\'. Sophocles'

interest in the chorus is suggested not only by the t radi tI on tha t he wro te aprose treat ise on the chorus and increased Its s ize, but also by the extantplays themselves. While the choruses of Sophocles ' t ragedies do not havethe central Impor tance of such Aeschyl ean cho ru se s as t ho se in Hiketides(463 B.c.7: The Suppliants) and Eumenides (a part of the Oresteia. alongwithAgamernnon, Libation Bearers. and Prometheus Bound), nevertheless,several Sophoclean odes, such as the "Ode to man" in Antigone and theColonus ode in Oedipus at Colonus, are among the most beauti ful inGreek t ragedy . Sophocles also shows himself able to manipulate dramaticmood t hr ough th e tone of his odes, as m Ajax, when he places a joyfulsong just before disaster. Only In Philoctetes, which has only one t rue choral ode, does a work of Sophocl es exhibi t the diminshed choral role com-mon in Greek tragedy of the last decades of the fifth century B.C.Two other innovations attributed in ant iqui ty to Sophocles suggest thatthe playwright was interested in the visual as well as tne verbal effects ofdrama. The ancient biography on the life of Sophocles states that hedesigned boots and staffs for both actors and the chams, and. In The Poet-ICS (334-323 B.C.) Aristotle says that Sophocles invented scene-panning. Ingeneral, however, the extant plays show little of the spectacular stagecraftfound m both Aeschylus and Euripides. The closest Sophocles comes toAeschylus ' use of ghost s is the supernatural disappearance of Oedipus inOedipus at Colonus, and he employs the favonte Eunpidean technique ofthe deus ex machina only once, in Philoctetes,Modern scholars often s ta te that Sophocles was responsible for the aban

donment of connected t ragic tri logies in favor of thematically independentplays , a conclus ion based upon the t enuous assumption that all mid-fifthcentury productions of three tragedies and one satyr play were connectedin theme. Another possible mterpretation of the scanty ancient evidence ontrilogies IS that connected t ri logies were an Aeschylean experunent whichfew. if any, later tragedians repeated. Sophocles' composition Telepneia,usually considered to be his only connected trilogy, may not have been aconnected group at all. Not even the names of the plays which made upTelepheia are known, and there is no evidence that the eia ending signifies

SOPHOCLESBorn: Colonus, Greece; c. 496 B.C.Died: Athens, Greece; 406 B.C.Principal drama

Aias, early 440's B.C. (Ajax); Antigone. 441 B.C. (Amlgone); Trachinai.435-429 B.C. (The Wsmlell of Trachisy: Oidipous Tyrannos, c. 429 B.C. (Oedipus Tyrannusv: Elektra 418-410 B.C. (Electra); Philoktetes, 409 B.C.(Philoctetes); Oidipous epl Kolonoi, 401 B.C. (Oedipus at Colonusi.Other literary formsIn add it ion to his pl ay s. Sophocl es also wro te paeans and elegies. Frag

ments exist of a paean to the god Asc lepius , of an ode to the histori;nHerodotus, and of an elegy to the philosopher Archelaus. AIl apparentlycomplete epigram addressed to the poet Euripides also survives. Accordingto ancient tradition, Sophocl es wrote a literary treat ise in prose . On theChorus. Unfortunately, thIS work. which may have discussed the tragedian'smcrease In the size of the chorus, IS lost.AChievements

S,ophocles' dramatic career, which intersects both Aeschylus' and Euripides periods of production, was noted in ant iqui ty for several importanttheatrical mnovations, and his plays have experienced a remarkably con-stant populari ty beginning in his own l ifet ime and continuing Into the \'(,'0present. Perhaps no other p l a v ~ v r i g h t has had as great an mfluence upon ':s,'i- "]both anClent and modern concepts of the dramatic art --- of( !

Like Aeschylus. Sophocles acted In his own plays. His performances a s ;ball-piaymg Nausicaa and as a lyre-play ing Thamyras in lost plays werewell-known In the fifth century. Sophocles IS said by ancient sources . however. to have b een t he first playwright to have abandoned the practice ofacting II I his 0\\10 works. It is now impossible to determine whether thischange. which became the norm among later Greek tragedians. was a trueSophoclean innovation, the r esul t of. as the sources state. Sophocles' ownweakening VOIce. or was rather the result of a general trend toward increasmg specialization in later fifth century tragedies.Sophocles is also said to have increased the size of the t ragic chorus fromtwelve to fif teen members and to have added a thi rd acto r. I f Aeschylus'

Oresteia. produced in 458 B.C., can be used as chronological evidence. theformer innovation had not yet become the rule by 458. bu t the latterchange had most certainly been introduced bv tha t date All the survivinz- ' 0plays of Sophocles make use of three actors, but t he size of the cho ru s in agiven play IS rarely easy to document. The Int roduct ion of the thi rd actorwas the final evolutIonary stage in the development of Greek tragedy.


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1725ophoclesGeorg Wilhelm Friednch Hegel in the nineteenth century and upon thepsychological t heones o f Sigmund Freud in the twentieth century. In hISAsthetik (1835: The Philosophy of Fine Art, 1920), Hegel praised Antigonefor _Its ideal tragic form-that IS, Its dramatic reconciliation of conflictingPOSItIons. which conformed well with the Hegelian concept of dialectics. ofthesis-antithesis-synthesis. In The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), FreudCIted Oedipus Tyrannus as an express ion of a chi ld 's love of oue parent andh atred of th e other, the psychic Impulse which Freud came to call the"Oedipus complex."

D e s p i t ~ such influence outside the theater, It is upon Sophocles' tragicart. and In particular upon his skil led use of character development, dialogue. and dramatic irony, that his reputation has Justly rested for morethan t\\'O thousand years.

}BiograPhv!The main events of Sophocles ' life are known from several anc ient

sources, including inscriptions and especially an Alexandrian biographywhich survives In the manuscript t radition. While it IS difficult at t imes todistinguish fact from anecdote in these sources, even the f ict ion is a usefulgauge of Sophocles' image and reputation in antiquity.Sophocles ) l ifet ime coinc ides with the glorious rise of Athenian dcrnocracy and Athens' naval empire and WIth the horrors of the Peloponnesian\Var.-Born a generation later than Aeschylus and a generation earlier thanEuripides, Sophocles won dramatic victories over both of these p.aywnghts.He was born c. 496 B.C, to Sophilus, a wealthy industrialist and slave ownerfrom the Athenian deme of COlonus. While Sophocles generally avoids personal references In hIS play's, his love for hIS natrve Colonus IS evident Inhis l as t wo rk , Oedipus at Colonus, and especially 10 the famous ColoTIUSode of that play.

Sophocles received a good education. According to anc ient sources , as ayouth he won competitions in \ v ~ n g and in music. His music teacher ,Lamprus, was known for his epic and conservative compositions, for whichhe was ranked in hIS day WIth the great lyric poet Pindar. Sophocles himselfIS said to have been chosen to lead the vic tory song WIth lyre after theAthenian sea Victory at Salamis in 480 B.C.The patriotism of Sophocles was wel l-known in ant iqui ty . In the anc ientbi og raphy , he is ca ll ed philathcnaiotatos, "a very gr ea t lover of Athens, "

and. unlike both Aeschylus and Euripides. he is said never to have left hISnat ive city for t he cou rt of a foreign king. Sophocles was also unl ike hISfellow dramatists in that he held public office several t imes: In 443/442. liewas Hellenotamias, a financial overseer of the Delian League In Athens; m441/440. he was general along with Pencles in the Samian Revolt. Sophocles may have been general again. around 427, this t ime ','lith Nicias: and 1Il

Cntical Survey of Dramaa connected t ri logy m fifth century ternunology, despite the -eia ending inOresteia.While It is unlikely, then. that Sophocles was an innovator in the produc

tion of unconnected trilogies. several of Ius individual plays do possessanother distinctive structural feature. diptych composition; composed oftwo nearly independent parts or with two separate main characters. Ajax,Antigone, and The Women o f Trachis all d iv ide nea tly into two parts. withthe departures or deaths of Ajax. Antigone. and Deramra, respectively.Only Euripides' Alkestis (438 B.C.: Alcestis) approaches the two-part struc-ture of these Sophoclean plays. the "disunity" of which has been noted byboth ancient and modern cri tics. Yet dipytch form appears to have been anintentional feature of these tragedies, perhaps even a Sophoclean experi-ment made In response to the Aeschylean connected trilogy. TIllS Sopho-clean form is based not on structural disunity! but rather al l structural flexi-bility and demonstrates a general deemphasis on the need for single centralcharacters that is notable not only in Sophocles but also in extant Greektragedy in general. Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus, with its nearly exclusiveattention to the f at e of a single cha ract er . is rather the exception t han therule in this respect .

The esteem in WhICh Sophocles' work was held in the fifth century is en dent from such contemporary evidence as Anstophanes' Batrachoi (405B.C.: The Frogs), in WhICh praise of the l ate Sophocles as "good-naturedwhile alive and good-natured In Hades, " is c learly comic understatement. ( .and Phrynichus' Muses, produced in the same year. in which Sophocles IS , - - 1 \ ~ Sd e S C r i b ~ as "a prosperous and clever man who wrote many good t raa- (\ .("\I,t. nr::."se.edies." Ilus fifth century respect for Sophocles was intensified in the fourth ,- -century, under the influence of Anstotle, whose high praIse of Sophoclean t,,tragedy In The Poetics has shaped all subsequent critical approaches. not rJ>0.-'>only to Sophocles but also to tragedy in general)Aristotle, f or whom " ~ " "Sophoclean tragedy, and specifically Oedipus Tyrannus. was an ideal t rag- Iedy, _particular.lY adm.ire.d SOPhO.cles' dramatI.c .developnlent of cha rac t e )and quo ted the playwright as saying that "he [Sophocles] made men asthey ought to be; Euripides as they are."Along WIth the works of Aeschylus and Euripides. Sophocles' plays werevwidely adapted by Roman tragedians in the second and first centunes B.C.,

bu t Seneca's Oedipus (c. A.D. 45-55) IS the only extant Roman imitation ofSophocles. Seneca follows closely the plot of Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus,but with a typically Roman overemphasis upon Teiresias' ntes of prophecyand with a compressed version of Oedipus' discovery of his true identitywhich pales beside its Sophoclean source. Seneca's play also lacks the greatmood of Irony for which Sophocles IS Justly famous.The r ol e of Sophoclean t ragedy in the his tory of ideas would be mccrn

plete WIthout mention of Sophocl es ' i nf luence upon the phi lo sophy of

1724


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1726 Critical Survey of Drama Sophocles 1727413. he was e lected proboulos. a member of a special executive committeef ormed a ft er t he Sicilian disaster. No clear conclusions concernmg thedramatist's political sentiments can be denved from Sophocles ' politicalcareer, especially since fifth century Athenian democracy often survived onnoncareer appointments from among its citizens. There are several hints inSophocles' biography, however. of links with t he pro-Spartan and aristocratic circle of the Athenian statesman Cimon: In hIS Life of Oman. Plutarch says that Sophocles won his first dramatic vic tory in 468 B.C .. when.at the request of the yeararchon, Cimon and his nine fel low generals tookthe place of judges chosen by lot for the tragic competition: Sophocles. asgeneral in 441/440 , is said to have vis it ed the poe t I on of Chios, a closefriend of Cimon; Sophocles wrote an elegy, of which fragments survive. toanother member of Cimon's c ir cl e. the philosopher Archelaus of Miletus:finally, Sophocles is also connected wah Polygnotus, the famous painterand friend of Comon who is said to have made a well-known portrait ofSophocles holding a l yr e. On the other hand . Sophocles may have a lsobeen a friend of Pericles. the great Athenian statesman and Cirnon's political riva] , with whom Sophocles was general in 441/440 B.C. SO. it may bethat Sophocles attempted to separate his probable friendship wa h Cimon

\" . from his CiVIC duty and patnotic sent iments . (At the least. this evidenceC:;:F? shows that Sophocles was not politically detached. but ra ther. very much1 : J invo lved in the political and inte llec tual l ife of his day)The ancient biog. ,,,'> raphy mentions that Sophocles establ ished a thiasos , or r el ig ious gui ld . m; } honor of the Muses. Other members of this intellectual group are unkown,

'' ( bu t it may have included Sophocles' good f nend , t he Illstorian Herodotus.whom the dramat ist occasiona lly used as a source and to whom he wrotean ode ,

Sophocles won his first dramatic v ictory m 468 B.C. by defeatmg Aeschy lu s, probably with a group whi ch inc luded a Triptoiemus, now los t.Whether this was Sophocles' first dramatic competition is not known. but itis recorded that the playwright went on to win twenty-three more victories.to earn s e c o n ~ place, many times,


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1728 Critical Survey of Drama Sophocles 1729s trata and Ari ston by the Sicyonian woman Theoris. lophon was a d ramatist in his own right and even competed against his father at least once.Less is known about Ari ston , except that hIS son, Sophocles . was so favored by the grandfa ther tha t lophon brought a lawsuit to have the oldman made a legal ward of his son on the ground s of senility. Sophoc le s,s peaking in his own def ence at the trial. is said to have stated: "I f I amSophocles , I am not insane: if I am Insane. I am not Sophocles." WhenSophocles concluded by reciting lines from Oedipus at COIOlHiS. his work inprogress, the case was dismissed.In March of 406. at the proagon; or preview to the Greater Dionysia,Sophocles dressed a chorus in mourn ing for the recen t death of Eunpides.This appearance at the proagon is evidence for a Sophoclean production inthat year, but Sophocles must have died shortly after the dramatic festival,because in Anstophanes' The Frogs, produced in early 405, Sophocles ISmentioned as a lready dead. Despite Sophocles advanced age, the anc ient ,sources still sought to embellish his death WIth several spurious causes: thathe choked on a gr ape (like Anacreon); that he became overexerted whilerecitmg Antigone; or that he died for JOy a fter a dramatic VIctory. More ()reliable is the report that Sophocles' family was granted special permissionfrom the Spartan general Lysander to bury the dramatist in hIS family ploton the road to Dccclea. where the Spartans maintained a garnson. Deaththus spared Sophocles from wrtnessing the complete collapse of the Athe-nian empire and the subrrnssion of Athens to Sparta in 405 to 404 B.C.Analysis

The textual transmission of Sophocles is remarkably SImilar to that ofAeschylus. WIth a first complet e ancient e di ti on by the Athenian oratorLycurgus In the late fourth century and a definitive Alexandnan edition byAristophanes of Byzantium In the second century B.C. A school selection ofthe seven extan t t ragedies was made somet ime after the second cen tu ryA.D. and was reedited by the late fourth century rhetorician Salustius. Theplays may have survived the medieval period in only one manuscnpt,although this has been debated . The present text was extensively revised inthe fourteenth century by several Byzantine scholars. including Planudes,Thomas Magister, and Triclinius. The plays reached the West in the fifotcenth century. and the first printed edition of Sophocles was the Aldineedition of Venice (1502).

The Life of Sophocles devotes a lengthy paragraph to describing theplaywright's links with the epic poetry of Homer. and scholars of all penodshave con tinued to note Sophoclean nnitatron of Homeric subject matterand language. It is in the ar t of character development. and especially 105he depiction of t he hero. whe re Sophocles achieved hIS greatest success.that he owes hIS major deb t to Homer . Many Sophoclean characters.,

including nearly all the dramatis personae of Ajax and the Odysseus ofPhiloctetes, are derived from Homeric sources at least in par t, but evenwhere Sophocles treats a subject no t directly handled by Homer . such asthe stones of Oedipus and Antigone, the poetic techniques of Homer andSophocles intersect in their methods of character development. in the typesof characters depicted, and especially in their focus upon the heroic qualities of particular individuals.

Even Aristotle recogruzed the importance of character development tof"Sophoclean s tudies: in his Poetics, he frequently cited Sophocles' Oedipusas the ideal t ragic character and stated that "Sophocles is the same kind ofimitator as Horner . for both imi ta te characters of a h igher type." Muchmodern scholarship. too, has been devoted to a study of Sophocles; teCh.>mque of character development and of the "Sophoc lean hero." In parncular, the works of C. H. Whitman and of B. M. W. Knox have both helpedto clarify the characteristics of the Sophoclean hero and to show his affini ties with the Homenc hero. It IS Impossible to analyze a Sophoclean playwithout studying S o p h o e i e s ~ character cleve-lownent and w i t h o ~ t taking intoaccount the Aristotelian and tater mterpretanons of the Sophoclean herowhich have molded a modern understanding of this dramatist and his work.At the same t ime, such an analysis must not lose SIght of Sophocles' otherdramatic skil ls, such as his maste ry of d ialogue and his use of the cho rus .both of which complement the development of Sophocles' main characters.Sophocles' so-called Theban plays have always been considered the cente r of his corpus. While AnUgone, Oedipus Tyrannus, and Oediupus atColonus do not form a connected tri logy and. indeed. represent prcductions spanning a penod of forty year s. t hese plays p ro jec t many consis-tencies of style and character development which suggest some continurtyIII Sophoclean dramatic art. The s tory of the unfor tuna te house of LalUS..&. was a popular theme of fifth century Greek tragedy. but. except for Aes-"oi-OS chy.us' H ep ta epi T he be s (467 B.C .. Seven Against Thebes) and EuripidesPhoinissoi (c. 410 B.C.: The Phoenician H'on-zen) , which ar,c extant. f a toolittle is known about any of these lost plays to JUdge the ir relat ionship tothe Sophoclean versions. The misfortunes of the house of Laius, includingOedipus' des tmy to kill his f athe r and mar ry his mother as well as the mutual fratricide of hIS sons. were mentioned by Homer, and several epICS onthis Theban cycle arc known to have survived past t h fifth ~ e n t u r y B.C.Knowledge of these epics is scanty, but Sophoclean innovations 1I1 thismythic cycle may inc lude the blinding of Oedipus, the dramatic use of a 10'cal Athenian legend' concerning the death of Oedipus m Sophocles' nativedeme of Colonus, and the development of the story of Antigone.:AnN one concerns the events after the deaths of her brothers Eteocles>() nd Polyneices and h er decision to bury Polyneices despite th.e decree of

~ ( ' Creon. the new ruler of Thebes, that the body remam unburied as a lessonSV


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1732 Critical Survey of Drama Sophocles 17335> and perhaps the mos t vivid proof of the heroine is isolation from all human\ contact in pursuit of her noble goal.

Antigone ends as qu ickly as it began. with a decision to free Antigoneforced upon Creon by th e seer Tciresias. but not before it is too late. Inrapid succession, the suicides of Antigone. Hacmon, and his mother,Eurydice. are announced, and Creon returns in the exodos, or last scene ,

>as a broken man. It IS Creon. not AntIgone. who comes closest to fittrngthe reqUirements of an Anstotelian tragIC hero. with a penpeteia, or "fall," o . e . . . ~ ' ( ' 1caused by hamartia, a "tragic flaw." Like both Xerxes III The Persians and ,,",0 IAga.m.emnon lll. the first play o.f .orestela' .creon s I.'lama!. tia may. be. a fO.rmSo(j' '-is. 1.\\fr'"of faulty thinking that IS punished by the gods. (Creon himself realizes this Is"::o~ ' f 'and uses the word liamartematai, By contrast. Antigone has no true f'r ~ ( . .pertpeteia; while s he doe s d ie, she dies as a Sophoclean hero III the glory isand Isolation of her self-conscious nobility. An Anstotelian tragic hero can \r\Q,ro ithus be found III this play, but only at Antigone's expense. ISnJ f ) ,Oedipus Tyrannus concerns an ear lier s tage In the same myth. with the 'discovery by Oedipus, Antigone's father, that he has fulfilled a Delphico racl e by unwittingly killing hIS father, Latus, and marrymg his mother,Jocasta. The play IS perhaps better known by its Latin title, Oedipus Rexor Oedipus the King, but t he Greek t it le, while probably not Sophoclean(fifth century playwnghts apparently did not title their plays, which were Iusually identified by their first lines), IS more dramatically accurate. Techni- \'))..). rcally. the Greek word tyrannos: means not a "harsh ruler" but an "un- Q e o \ ~ !constitutional" one. At the begrnmng of the play, Oedipus. having gained !power by solving the Sphinx's riddle, rules Thebes as a true tyrannos; yet, !dramatic events prove that Oedipus IS also Thebes's true basileus or "king,"since he is really the son of the Jate King Laius. This Irony 111 Oedipus'situauon IS the focus of the drama, which was so admired by Anstotle forits depic tion of peripeteia caused directly by anagnorisis or "recognition." ,Sophocles further developed t his i rony , if no t by actually inventmg the \&iblinding of Oed ipus (who does not blind hinisclf inHomer), then by using OW' ,Ithe t h e ~ e of SIght and blindness to reat d r a m a ~ l c effect In t amous /(;"\ re..9 f 'scene WIth eires ias, in which the blind prophet IS forced by Oedipus to IV . hscontrast hIS own t rue knowledge With the ruler's Ignorance; TeIrCS13S tells 1 \ \ f \ ~ { I , fOedipus: "You have eyes but cannot see in what evil you are." In an i ronic !sense, then, the action of the play is directed toward an Oedipus , who sees Iwith his eyes but not with hIS mind. becoming like Teiresias. who sees withhis min d but not with his eyes. Oedipus Tyrannus is a true tragedy ofdiscovery.

Many of the same dramatic skills found in Antlgone can also be seen inOedipus Tyrannus. In this play, too , Sophocles combines rapid act ion anddialogue with careful character development. One striking difference between Antigone and Oedipus Tyrannus, however, is structural: Oedipus Ty-

ranlltlS lacks the diptych form and vacillation between two main characterswhich are found in Antigone. Rather, Oedipus Tyrannus is focused entirelyon Oed ipus and t he development of his personality. Tills development isaccomplished through a ser ies of dia logues between Oed ipus and mos t ofthe other dramatis personae. beginning in the prologue and not ending until Oedipus learns the fatal truth of Ins identity in the fourth episode. Int he se s cene s, t he qualities of a Sophocl ean hero a re again and againrevealed in Oedipus: in his heroic int rans igence , his determination to discover the murderer of Laius and his own identity; 1I l his sense of nobilityand self-worth: III his angry al iena ti on from all who try to help. L ike Antigone, Oedipus' own heroic nature leads him on to self-destruction.Aristotle's admiration of Oedipus Tyrannus as the i dea l t ragedy has . in asense, been a Trojan horse for this play, because It has direc ted too muchscholarly attention to Aristotle's interpretation of the play, an interpretationwhich is more Aristotle 's reaction to Plato's prohibition of tragedy 1Il TheRepublic than it is a close reading of Oedipus Tyrannus, Anstotle sought tocounter Plato's objections to tragedy by making Oedipus into a morally satisfying character. by seemg in Oedipus a man, neither outstandingly virtuou s nor evil. who falls into misfortune through hamartia. By doing this.Aristotle has created several thorny quest ions for the play: Does Oedipusreally have a tragic flaw? Could he have acted any differently and still havebeen himself" Finally, is Oedipus of only average VIrtue? The Sophocleananswer to all of these quest ions could only have been negative. Oedipus ISnot an ordinary person. He IS the solver of the Sphinxs riddle and a manof superior Intelligence. He is a man of outstanding vir tue. In short . he 1S aSophoclean hero. To have a cted o ther t han he did would have meant adenia l of his heroic identity, a denial of himself . This heroic firmness IS aremarkably constant theme III the Sophoclean corpus. It can be found IIIthe suicide of Ajax, il l the despera te love of Deiancira, in the CIvil disobedience of Antigone, in the inquest of Oedipus the tyrannus. III the hatred of Electra, III the suffering of Philoctetes, and in the mysterious deathof Oedipus at Colonus. Sophocles) primary contr ibut ion to the his tory ofdrama, then. IS his masterful focus on character development, and, III particular. hIS portrayal of the unyietding hero.BibliographyBowra. C. M. Sophoclean Tragedy, 1944.Burton, R. IV. B. The Chorus in Sophocles' Tragedies, 1980.Knox, B. M. W. The HerOIC Tempel': Studies II I Sophoclean Tragedy, 1964.Whitman, C. H. Sophocles: A Study o f HerOIC Humanism, 1951.

Thomas J. Sienkewicz

antigone article 04

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