anthology final

Draft Science Express – Biodiversity Special

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Coach: 1 The Wealth of India: Biodiversity

Understanding Biodiversity Biodiversity defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part of. This includes diversity within species and of ecosystems. Now split the above definition as below: Variability among living organisms from all sources:

- Living sources of earth, Trees, Animals, Water world

Including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part of:

- Terrestrial living (Earthly, Globally, Worldly)

- Marine and Aquatic living (Sea, Oceanic) In short, all the living things of “our world” (of course includes human also) are part of Biodiversity in different ecosystems as per their ecological complexes.

In simpler way, Biodiversity is, BIO = Life and DIVERSITY = VARIETY (can also be understood as Meaningful Differences of such group) So, we can say as Biodiversity is nothing but “Varieties of life”.

(Divert – to change the purpose or use of something from what it was previously)

Biodiversity depends on temperature, precipitations, altitude, sails, geography and the presences of other species. The world is a “Plenum form arum" – Means full of kind of beings that ever can exist and it is better the more kinds it contains.

– A species is a population whose members actually or potentially interbreed, producing offspring that are able to breed among themselves.

– Speciation is the formation of new species.


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Among animals the most common type of speciation is “Allopatric” speciation, which occurs when subgroups become isolated from the parent group.There is likely to be a great deal of variation within populations.

– If the environment changes, variation is advantageous because it increases the chances that some individuals will survive and reproduce, leaving that also fare well under the new conditions.

– Variation is the raw material for natural selection. The fittest individuals are those who leave the most offspring.

Variation in the environment is a factor that maintains variation in the populations. Shifting environment conditions maintain variability in a population if the population lacks sufficient time to adjust to the new set of conditions. An environment consisting of patches of different habitats or with gradual changes across the habitat also maintains the variability because subgroups adjust to local conditions.

– The traits of the best reproducers increase in the populations.

– When presented graphically, variation in a trait such as human height produces a bell shaped curve.

– High selection pressure eliminates individuals with extreme forms of the trait, producing a narrower curve.

Biodiversity is the branch to know about varieties in of the earth in below defined branches. a) Species – Plants and Animals b) Ecosystem – environmental bionetwork of animal chain c) Genetic – inherent varieties


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Biodiversity: Species

In biology species is one of the units of biological classification and it is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. “A species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that is reproductively isolated from other such groups”. In simpler words, Species that are believed to have the same ancestors are grouped together, and knows as “Genus” and one species belong to one “Genus” group only.

– For example, Dog is one of the species of animal group. Neem tree is one the species of plant group. Similarity is best checked by the similarity of their DNA.

– In Biodiversity basically the differences among many species is due to “Reproductive Isolation”: Means the inability of members of one group to successfully interbreed with another.

– Such isolation ensures that the genes from one group will not be combined with those from another group, thus each can accumulate its own genetic distinctions.

– There are such reasons why groups are reproductively isolated.

– Reproductive isolation is important in maintaining the integrity of species.

A. Geographic Isolation: If the groups can’t reach each other, they can’t interbreed. B. Behavior Isolation: The behavior of two groups may keep them from

interbreeding, even where their ranges overlap. C. Mating Isolation: Some species, especially insects, have complex genitals. They

may not be able to mate simple because their reproductive apparatuses do not fit.

D. Genetic Isolation: In cases where individuals of two species do interbreed, the embryo may fail to develop because the mismatched chromosomes impede the normal pairing processes. That must occur before development can proceed.

E. Hybrid Isolation: In rare cases, offspring can be produced, but thee are sterile (germ-free).


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Speciation

In Definition Speciation can be stated as formation of new species. It is strongly dependent on geography. It is mainly parted in four types: Allopartric, Peripatric, Parapatric and Sympatric Speciation. Peripartric and Parapatric can be explained in similar way as Allopartric, whereas Sympatric Speciation is the different and rare event. As shown in the blow figure speciation can be cause due to several factors.

Allopatric Speciation:

Most species arise through Allopatric speciation: Other land.

The process involves a population being somehow divided and each subgroup taking a different evolutionary route until they have diverged so much that interbreeding is no longer possible.

Populations have also been divided by geological events, perhaps as some great barrier appeared; separating a larger group into two smaller groups that then went their own evolutionary ways.

The best example to understand it is the Darwin Finches, which have different beaks adapted to different types of food. As shown in the below figure


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The inference from the observations of living birds is that the finches speciated allopatrically. That is to say, that the genetic differences resulting from mutations took place in two different populations of finches, between which there was no gene flow (i.e. no mating between the two populations).

This is the mode of speciation that is most easy to comprehend: two populations of the same species are reproductively isolated from each other by some physical barrier and as mutation and natural selection (or genetic drift) causes the two populations to diverge from each other, they eventually become different species.

Sympatric Speciation: Sympatric speciation is a less common event, involving formation of two species from one, continuously interbreeding population. It is, by far, more common in plants than animals.

Among many plants, the flowering plants in particular, new species can arise by the interbreeding of existing species.

Plants can also speciation successfully in a quite dramatic way, one in which whole sets of chromosomes become doubled. This condition is called “Polyploidy”. A cell produced in this way is called a “Tetraploid” (four), and it may go on to from tetraploid tissue and even tetraploid flowers.

Hybridization and polyploidy can create instant, sympatric species of plants, ready to be tested by the forces of natural selection.

This versatility helps explain how flowering plants arose so abruptly in evolutionary history and how they then so quickly spread out over the landscape to help create the incredible diversity of plant species that so beautifully accent our world today.

This speciation in animal is a much rarer event.


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The Comparison of Speciation types at different stage during the process.

Environmental influence to Biodiversity

There are some ways in which genetic mechanisms can increase variation in a population. If the environment were to have the tendency to shift wildly or unpredictably, than populations would have difficulty “tracking” it – that is changing to conform to the requirements set by existing conditions.

– For example, if taller animals do best under certain existing environment conditions, the populations will become taller with each generation as it approaches that optimum.

– But if the environment suddenly change and begin to favor short individuals, the frequency of short individuals would begin to increase. If, before the shift to the optimum was complete, the environment were to suddenly change, favoring tallness again.

– The populations would be unable to stabilize around a mean. Each time the environment changed, never allowing the population to shift, if the optimum continually changed, never allowing the population to stabilize, the result would be a population with high variation.


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– High variation can also result if the environment is “patchy” – that is, comprised of markedly different kinds of places. Because a patchy environment presents a number of kinds of habitats, subpopulations may adapt to a number of environments simultaneously.

– Individuals within each patch might be expected to be rather similar as they conform to the requirements set by local conditions, but the overall populations might well be quite variable. As long as members of these different subpopulations continue to interbreed.

Imaginary view of the environment and evolution process in initial time.


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However, they will tend to “dilute” each other’s adaptations. Thus, no group would be able to fully adapt to its kind of patch. Another environmental influence or variation is geographic clines. Clines are gradual changes across a habitat. In such cases, the geographic features of the habitat vary slightly as one move from places to place. Clines can, in turn, produce gradual changes in the organisms that inhabit these areas. For example, the eastern United States changes somewhat gradually from North to South. These then, are some of the ways that the environment can influence variation. Also with this genetic variation also operate simultaneously, at a different level encourage variation among individuals in populations.

How Ecosystem is related with Biodiversity?

Ecosystem functioning reflects the collective life activities of plants, animals, and microbes and the effects these activities - Feeding, growing, moving, excreting waste, etc. - have on the physical and chemical conditions of their environment. Functioning Ecosystem: Means showing activity and does not imply that organisms perform purposeful roles in ecosystem-level processes.

– A functioning ecosystem is one that exhibits biological and chemical activities characteristic for its type. A functioning forest ecosystem, for example, exhibits rates of plant production, carbon storage, and nutrient cycling that are characteristic of most forests.

– Ecosystem functioning results from interactions among and within different levels of the biota, which ecologists describe as a “Nested Hierarchy”. If the forest is converted to an agro ecosystem, its functioning will change.

– One of the most striking features of the earth’s biota is its extraordinary diversity, estimated to include about 10 million different species. One of the most conspicuous aspects of contemporary global change is the rapid decline of this diversity in many ecosystems.

– Since Darwin, prominent biologists have hypothesized about the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. More recently, concerns about increasing loss of biodiversity and questions about resulting degradation of ecosystem services have stimulated unprecedented observational, theoretical, and experimental studies.

– The overwhelming majority of studies of regional climate effects on terrestrial species reveal consistent responses to warming trends, including pole ward and elevation range shifts of flora and fauna.

– Responses of terrestrial species to warming across the Northern Hemisphere are well documented by changes in the timing of growth stages (i.e., phonological changes), especially the earlier onset of spring events, migration, and lengthening of the growing season.


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– An ecosystem is an interdependent, functioning system of plants, animals and microorganisms. An ecosystem can be as large as the Mojave Desert, or as small as a local pond.

– Without the support of the other organisms within their own ecosystem, life forms would not survive, much less thrive.

– Such support requires that predators and prey, fire and water, food and shelter, clean air and open space remain in balance with each other and with the environment around them.

Climate is an integral part of ecosystems and organisms have adapted to their regional climate over time. Climate change is a factor that has the potential to alter ecosystems and the many resources and services they provide to each other and to society. Human societies depend on ecosystems for the natural, cultural, spiritual, recreational and aesthetic resources they provide. In various regions across the world, some high-altitude and high-latitude ecosystems have already been affected by changes in climate. These changes can cause adverse or beneficial effects on species. For example, climate change could benefit certain plant or insect species by increasing their ranges. The resulting impacts on ecosystems and humans, however, could be positive or negative depending on whether these species were invasive (e.g., weeds or mosquitoes) or if they were valuable to humans (e.g., food crops or pollinating insects).


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The risk of extinction could increase for many species, especially those that are already endangered or at risk due to isolation by geography or human development, low population numbers, or a narrow temperature tolerance range. Given its importance to human welfare, the maintenance of ecosystem functioning should be included as an integral part of national and international policies designed to conserve local and global biodiversity. Groups of species that perform similar roles in an ecosystem process are known as functional types or functional groups.

– Species may also be divided into functional types based on what they consume or by tropic status (e.g., their place in the food web as producers, decomposers, predators).

– Within tropic groups, species may be further divided according to life history, climatic or nutrient needs, physiology or other biological traits. Researchers may place a species into several different functional categories depending on the ecosystem process they are studying.

Observations of ecosystem impacts are difficult to use in future projections because of the complexities involved in human/nature interactions (e.g., land use change). Nevertheless, the observed changes are compelling examples of how rising temperatures can affect the natural world and raise questions of how vulnerable populations will adapt to direct and indirect effects associated with climate change.


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The following certainties concerning biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:

Human impacts on global biodiversity have been dramatic, resulting in unprecedented losses in global biodiversity at all levels, from genes and species to entire ecosystems.

Local declines in biodiversity are even more dramatic than global declines, and the beneficial effects of many organisms on local processes are lost long before the species become globally extinct.

Many ecosystem processes are sensitive to declines in biodiversity.

Changes in the identity and abundance of species in an ecosystem can be as important as changes in biodiversity in influencing ecosystem processes.

From current research, we have identified the following impacts on ecosystem functioning that often result from loss of biodiversity:

Plant production may decline as regional and local diversity declines;

Ecosystem resistance to environmental perturbations, such as drought, may be lessened as biodiversity is reduced;

Ecosystem processes such as soil nitrogen levels, water use, plant productivity, and pest and disease cycles may become more variable as diversity declines.

Importance of evolution for Biodiversity

As per the Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. It is all about “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life.”

The new research focuses on a time period around 450 million years ago — the end of the Ordovician Period. At that time, most life was marine. The world's oceans were full of diverse invertebrates like trilobites, corals, sponges, and snails, as well as some early animals with backbones — the armored, jawless fishes.

– The land, which was only inhabited by a few arthropods and plants, was in a very different arrangement than today. At the time, terra firma was composed of the southern super continent “Gondwana” and a few smaller continents.

– The land that makes up modern-day North America was one of these smaller continents, called “Laurentia”. It had a balmy, tropical climate — or at least it did until 450 million years ago.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology


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Around that time, the climate began to change. Ice sheets grew on Gondwana, the cycling of carbon through the atmosphere, land, and ocean shifted, the oceans began to cool, and as more and more water was locked up in glaciers, sea level dropped and the warm, shallow seas near Laurentia drained.

The scientists focused on organisms living near Laurentia around the time of the mass extinction of evolution time and which is also root of Biodiversity of different species.


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Animal fossils that were common in earlier strata suddenly disappear in rocks of this age, never to be seen on Earth again. There were lots of environmental disturbances at the time, to some species, but not others.

Below Image chart explains how the various process fallen into the steps.

There is always information and variety about each animal group — diet, geographic range, ability to move, etc.

1. Habitat loss contributed to extinction. Based on the preservations of fossils in some rock layers but not others, paleontologists know that some organisms lost lots of their former habitat as the seas drained, while others did not.

2. Global cooling contributed to extinction. Some organisms have fossils that can be found in what would have been colder latitudes, while the fossils of others are only found in what would have been warm tropical waters. This indicates that some organisms were more cold-tolerant than others.

3. The mass extinction is something of an illusion that occurs because sediment was not laid down when seas drained, and hence, fossils were not preserved for a long time; this lead to the appearance of a mass extinction, but actually many organisms persisted during the sea level drop and were simply not preserved as fossils (as shown in the diagram below).

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/glossary/glossary_popup.php?word=fossil


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If the apparent extinction pulse were only a byproduct of a long gap in the rock record, then we would expect longer gaps to be correlated with greater apparent levels of extinction. The animals that lost a large portion of their habitat to climate change were more likely to go extinct than those that did not, and cold-tolerant animals were less likely to go extinct than temperature-sensitive species. So even hundreds of millions of years ago, habitat loss and climate change were major contributors to mass extinction. Recent species losses have not yet reached mass extinction status, but if current trends continue, we will be entering the Earth's sixth mass extinction in the next few hundred years — and habitat loss and climate change are the factors most likely to push us over the edge. The below image shows how the different species have habitat over a period of time.

– Studies of the fossil record highlight similarities between past mass extinctions and processes going on today. The major difference is that while ancient extinctions were caused by unavoidable changes in Earth's systems, the modern


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spike in extinction rates has been caused by human actions — and “it is still within our power to turn things around and prevent a mass extinction”.

Biodiversity over period of time

Biodiversity over the time, under effect of below factors

Ecosystem + Nature Changes + Ecosystem => Process of Biodiversity

It says that, the “strongest” one is the one who survived in the nature. But this “strongest” one was the one, who was best fitted for Earth’s climate condition and could survive in the least sources of survival. Nature selected such “genes” as the “strongest” one accordingly.

In the talked of Evolution process the term "selfish gene" was introduced as a way of expressing the gene-centered view of evolution as opposed to the views focused on the organism and the group. From the gene-centered view follows that the more two individuals are genetically related, the more sense (at the level of the genes) it makes for them to behave selflessly with each other.

Therefore the concept is especially good at explaining many forms of altruism, regardless of a common misuse of the term along the lines of a selfishness gene. An organism is expected to evolve to maximize its inclusive fitness—the number of copies of its genes passed on globally (rather than by a particular individual). As a result, populations will tend towards an evolutionarily stable strategy.

The Biodiversity identified till now can be grouped as shown in below chart.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_fitness

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy


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"Selfish", when applied to genes, doesn't mean "selfish" at all. It means, instead, an extremely important quality for which there is no good word in the English language: "the quality of being copied by a Darwinian selection process." This is a complicated mouthful. There ought to be a better, shorter word—but "selfish" isn't it.

- Reference from Book The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins

How does Biodiversity serve us?

Our well-being depends on the state of our physical and emotional welfare. When we live healthy, contented, and secure lives, and when our social needs are met, our way of life and sense of community belonging add to the value we attach to our world. Biodiversity contributes to key aspects of our well-being, which we cannot live without and include:

Basic goods - sufficient food of good quality, building materials for shelter, clothing, fiber and access to fuel such as firewood;

Security - secure access to natural and other resources, personal safety, and security from natural and human-made disasters.

Health – a sense of wellness and strength that comes for a healthy physical environment that provides us with clean air, water and medicines;

– Good social relations and freedom of choice and action – conservation of biodiversity, fair access to it and the equitable sharing of the benefits deriving from its use enhance mutual respect for others and a sense of purpose and ability to provide for children, and to contribute to the social cohesion of the community as well as to individual and collective freedom of choice and action;

– Ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems and all their components.

– Ecosystems provide us with such benefits as food, water, disease management, climate regulation, spiritual fulfillment, aesthetic enjoyment and many others.

– Our well-being depends on the ability of ecosystems to continually provide these benefits for our use, which in turn relies on ecosystem resilience and their capacity to quickly recover from adverse changes.

“It is the effect of human action that is driving the changes in ecosystems and ecosystem services, which are gravely affecting our well being. It is therefore our responsibility to think wisely about our attitude and behavior towards the environment, and in particular to the conservation of biodiversity.”


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Provisioning services Ecosystems provide us with the basic elements for life including food, fresh water, wood, fiber, genetic resources, medicines, and ornamental and cultural products.

– These services are provided by biodiversity, which forms the basis of the provisioning services of ecosystems.

– They are essential for sustaining and securing livelihoods, and they ensure the health of communities, their security and well-being.

– Medicines, including traditional medicines and the pharmaceutical industry greatly rely on plant biodiversity, which is a valuable source of genetic resources.

– As the human population grows, together with an ever-increasing demand for food and other resources, pressure on ecosystems has severely affected the quality of these services, a situation which has worsened over the past 50 years.

Regulating services Healthy ecosystems and their biodiversity help maintain air quality, purify water, treat waste, and protect us from natural hazards, erosion, pests and diseases.

– For example, the unique biodiversity of wetland ecosystems assists in the natural purification of water, trees in cities reduce air pollution, and mangrove forests and coral reefs protect coastal communities and their coastlines from erosion and the full force of tsunamis and storm surges. Vegetation cover helps prevent landslides and soil erosion.

– The spread of diseases such as cholera is controlled by access to clean water, a product of ecosystem services.

– The regulating services of ecosystems therefore make an important contribution to the natural equilibrium of our planet, which in turn benefits human security and well-being.

Supporting services The supporting services of ecosystems such as nutrient cycling are the fundamental but often invisible processes, on which all the other ecosystem services depend, including the production of food and water, and climate regulation. They create the basic conditions for life on Earth.

– For example, food production depends on soil formation, which itself greatly depends on climatic conditions as well as chemical and biological processes carried out by bacteria and fungi, which decompose waste and make nutrients available to food crops.

– Human-induced reduction in biodiversity therefore disrupts the way ecosystem processes function causing the supporting ecosystem services to degrade, which ultimately affects our well-being.


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Cultural Services Cultural services are the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences.

– Our various spiritual and religious beliefs and customs are often connected to nature. Stories around biodiversity shape our legends and ground our sense of belonging to a distinct place or community.

– Many communities around the world have a spiritual relationship with nature.

“Biodiversity has greatly contributed to, and inspired our cultures, history, and arts. Our cultural heritage, our knowledge and educational values are all rooted in our natural environment.”

“Biodiversity has measurable economic value in relation to recreation and ecotourism, but its value in terms of spiritual enrichment and aesthetic enjoyment is beyond measure.”

Losing Species: Tiger – How much it impacts to us?

Why Save Tigers? Along with the Amur, Sumatran, Indochinese, South Chinese and Bengal subspecies of tigers, there also existed their now extinct cousins the Javan, Caspian and Bali Tigers. The tiger roamed the earth freely throughout Asia in the 1900s from the grasslands of Central India and the taiga of Siberia, to the bamboo forests of China. Fearless, they reigned supreme. Today, from a staggering 100,000 in 1900s, there are only an estimated 1411 tigers left in the wild in India. The only traces of the Caspian tiger are a couple of tiger bones, corroded by the salty air and water.

– The unforgiving rainforest has removed every trace of tigers in Bali and Java. A small number of their Sumatran cousins remain alive.

– Approximately 1411 Bengal Tigers and a paltry number of Amur, Indochinese, and South Chinese and Sumatran subspecies exist, constantly living in danger, on the brink of extinction.

– You might want to ask: So what if the tiger is dying out? Why should we be worried? How does their extinction have any connection to our existence? Well, the answer is simple.

The tiger is at the top of the food chain. Therefore, the healthy presence of tigers indicates healthy forests. The presence of tigers in a forest has dual benefits, firstly, it keeps the ungulate (hoofed animals like deer (cows are not found in the wild) and wild boar) population in check and also keeps humans at bay as most people are scared of venturing into a tiger or lion forest.


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This mostly applies to poor villagers and not poachers and hunting tribes. If there is no apex predator, herbivores wreak havoc and humans enter the forest for farming, logging, and poaching of smaller animals with less fear. The existence of tigers is vital for the survival of forests. But why do we need forests? Think of the forest as a gigantic sponge. A sponge absorbs water and stores it until and unless you squeeze it out. During the few months of monsoon, the forests absorb billions of gallons of rainwater. During the dry months, two things happen to this water; it is taken up by the trees via their roots and then transpired into the atmosphere.

This transpired water, in the form of water vapor, forms clouds and in a few months’ time, precipitates to form rain. The second thing that happens to the rainwater is that it forms underground rivers and streams. These streams then later rise to the surface to form rivers. These rivers flow to areas even where there has been no rain for many months. So forests provide us with our drinking water. Three hundred of such small and big rivers originate from just 41 tiger reserves in India! Therefore we can say that:

Tigers = Forests = Water = US

This is why we need to save tigers.

In any case, if someone asks you why they should start saving tigers, ask them a simple question, “Would you feel no embarrassment at all if India is left without a single wild tiger?” He or she will have no answer.

The question that arises now is, how?

To answer this, we must first know what the tiger needs and what we are depriving it of. Tigers need a pristine forest with little or no human interference and abundant prey.

What are we not giving it? It is strictly required a pristine forest, with little or no human interference and abundant prey. Humans have taken up the best forest areas for themselves, leaving tiger habitat encroached and forests fragmented. All this has resulted in human-animal conflicts, poaching and habitat destruction. We must provide tigers with good forest areas free of humans.

We can do this by proper relocation of forest dwellers, most of whom don’t like living in the forest, and who would happily move outside forests given incentives such as employment, electricity, water, schools and hospitals.This brings us to the biggest problem that the tiger faces – poaching.


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If you ask anyone how to stop the poaching of wildlife, they will always have a straightforward answer: better protection. And that is precisely what we need to provide for our wilderness. Instead of meandering about in utopian ‘co-existence’ ideas, we need to focus our finances, effort and enthusiasm into providing better equipment to new, young and enthusiastic guards who can actually protect the forests. The average age of forest guards in some forests in India today is just under 50 and young recruits are not being hired faster than the old lot is retiring. In addition to recruiting more and younger guards, we also need to pay guards with better salaries and life insurance, as their job is very risky. We must also boost their morale by regularly applauding the efforts of diligent officers. If these steps are not taken fast, tigers don’t stand a chance for survival. Without adequate protection measures and conservation efforts the Bengal, Sumatran, Amur, Indochinese and South Chinese Tigers will also meet the same fate as their Javan, Balinese and Caspian cousins. Did you know?

Tigers and all cats - lions, panthers, jaguars, and leopards - evolved from a teeny squirrel-sized mammal that chased insects.

Fossils provide clues about the evolution of the tiger. The oldest fossil has been found from northern China and Java. These show that the tiger evolved more than two million years ago and before the divergence of the lion, leopard and jaguar.

The tiger is believed to have entered India from Northern Asia after the last Ice age.

The oldest fossil remains of the tiger in India were discovered at Karnool cave deposits in Andhra Pradesh, probably in the Pleistocene age (more than 10,000 years B.P.).

Tigers are not descendents of the saber-toothed tiger. The saber-toothed belonged to a completely different species called Smilodon fatalist. They were found all over the world around 35-40 million years ago and became extinct around 10,000 years ago.

There are four Tiger Reserve in this region; Dudhwa, Valmiki, Buxa and Sundarbans. The approximate population of tiger in these Tiger Reserve estimated as 274 as per tiger census 2010


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Biodiversity of India

“Each species is worthy regardless of its worth to human beings.” In India, as well as in parts of Asia and Africa, care and respect for nature has been influenced for centuries by religious beliefs and traditions. Many plants and animals have ritual significance.

The “Peepal tree” (Ficus religiosa), for example has a conspicuous position in the cultural landscape of India. Ficus species are recognized as keystone resources by ecologists, and are of particular significance in the overall maintenance of tropical biological diversity. They play a vital role in the ecosystem during the dry season, providing staple food for birds and mammals. Each species and ecosystem therefore, adds to the richness and beauty of life on earth. Once it is lost, it is gone forever, depriving our children of the enjoyment of being able to experience it. Biodiversity and Some Indian Festivals “Sankranti “and “Pongal” are the harvest festivals celebrated between the months of March and April. During these festivals farmers bathe their bullocks and worship them. “Shivaratri” is a festival celebrated by majority of the South Indians. On this auspicious day the devotees of Shiva will observe fast and remain awake throughout the night. The pooja is offered to Lord Shiva using the leaves of Aegle marmelos (Bilva Patre or Bel). The people believe that this tree is sacred. They plant and protect the tree near the temples and homesteads. The tree is important from the point of medicine. This has lead to conservation of this tree species. “Nagpanchmi” is a festival of snake worship. In which women worship snake and put cocerated food mainly milk. Everyone draws snake picture in their house. This sacred feeling has helped the conservation and respect towards snake. “Ugadi” is a New Year festival observed in the month of March in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and during this festival people prepares a divine Prasad with unripe mango pieces, neem flowers and jaggery. This combination varies from region to region. People often plant saplings of these trees in their surroundings and conserve them. The trees are known for their medicinal values. This has lead to continued survival of these tree species.


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Indian Government act of preserving Biodiversity of India on the International Day of Biodiversity. Below picture shares the information about the different areas of India, with the action thought of preserving the ecosystem and biodiversity.


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Cause of loosing Biodiversity

It is clear that no part of the world can be considered truly 'undisturbed'. A number of threats to local biodiversity have been identified in the South India. These include: habitat destruction; population growth; lack of policy; and cultural changes.

Many are linked and they will all vary in importance between different areas. Besides the hazards of drastic changes in the environment and habitats due to population explosion and unplanned developmental activities, some threats are:

Population growth

Expansion of agricultural area

Deforestation

Harvesting of timber and fuel wood

Poaching and hunting

Forest fire

Urbanization

Unplanned development

Environmental pollution

Lack of proper policies

Introduced species, etc.

"The Earth has enough to satisfy every man's need but not for anyone's greed" - Mahatma Gandhi

Breakdown of Traditional Conservation Ethics

A very important factor leading to loss of biodiversity and fast becoming a major threat is the breakdown in traditional conservation ethics amongst the local population. For example, the many animals and birds which were considered sacred and protected in earlier times are no longer being protected so now.


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Many farmers do not hesitate to drive away nesting “Sarus” pairs from their paddy fields as the large nests that these birds build destroy their crops. In earlier times “Sarus” were considered to be symbols of marital fidelity and farmers would let them be.

Same is case with crop-raiding animals like “Nilgai” (which people believed was a close relative of the sacred cow) and monkeys. These animals are no longer treated with the forbearance of earlier times.

This erosion of traditional values is affecting even “Bishnoi” villages. Due to the protection of the “Bishnoi” community, blackbucks have multiplied in numbers in Bishnoi areas and are causing extensive damage to standing crops. It would be hardly surprising if this community is forced to reconsider its benign attitude to this animal in the coming years.

Hunting, Poaching and Trafficking Although many traditional communities derived their food through hunting and gathering practices, it was probably sustainable because of lower population size and the different financial and economic systems in place.

Most traditional societies have unwritten ethics or codes of conduct, which prevent hunting of animals during mating seasons. When a hunter kills a game during the open season; people of some communities leave behind indicators. E.g. a broken twig, to tell other hunters that a game has already been taken from that area.

This is respected and people do not hunt for some time. This however is not the case. Many species have been over exploited by humans, sometimes to the point of extinction. Besides killing for survival or game, people nowadays, kill and collect plants for collectors and for money.

Various reptiles and amphibians are being exploited for skin and meat. The trades in butterflies, birds, orchids and medicinal plants have led to a decline in many species.

Economic systems and policies Economic systems and policies that fail to value the environment and its resources, particularly in the long term, contributed to the loss of biodiversity.

Biologically diverse natural systems are most often undervalued in monetary terms and, as a result, are converted into agricultural lands or enveloped for housing or industrial activities that seemingly have more direct economic benefits.

Wetlands such as ponds in urban areas are being filled and being converted for commercial and housing projects. In developing countries particularly, the short-term pressure to address development concerns decreases the value of the future relative to the present. NGOs and other community organizations need to look at ways to address these real needs for conserving biodiversity through concerned efforts and lobbying.


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FAQS

1. Why are we losing sparrow?

House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a common bird that millenniums ago originated in the Mediterranean and came into Europe and Asia with the spread of agriculture. It is the most lovable, small and harmless bird. Sparrow can be seen anywhere in our surroundings. According to the study there is 80% decline in the number of sparrow.

It was the most widely distributed species of the world. Today it is suddenly disappearing in the urban environment. What this translates into is that the modern urbanization has reached a level where it can trigger the extinction of a species.

House sparrows are small, stocky songbirds that are ubiquitous all over the world. They have thick bills and brown feathers with streaks of black on their backs. These birds prefer crevices and holes in man-made structures rather than naturally occurring nesting sites and are found to live in close proximity with human beings rather than in extensive forests or woodlands.

Habitat and Food

Sparrows are generally associates with human beings. Sparrows are found in the places where human are densely populated. Sparrows eat food grains like wheat, oat etc and larvae of mosquitoes and insects.

Importance of Sparrow

The some major importances of sparrow are:

Ecological Balance: Every animal and plants in this world has its significance. The sparrow is a member of many food chain and food web. So as you know if you harm any food chain it will affect complete food web. So if you will not save sparrow it will disturb ecological balance.

Pollination in many plants: Sparrow helps in pollination in many plants. Pollination is a process by which the pollen grain of one flower reaches to stigma of other flower in sexual reproduction. So Sparrow helps in sexual reproduction in plants. Reduce many diseases: Sparrow eats larvae of many insects and mosquitoes which causes many diseases like malaria, dengue etc. so sparrow protects us from many diseases which are life threatened.

Brings prosperity: Sparrows bring prosperity for us. We like to watch this small and lovable bird. Our children always want to observe this bird and always sing songs related to this bird to entertain themselves.


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Reasons of declining

The numbers of sparrows are declining. Some important reasons of declining are as follows. Loss of habitat: Due to modern technology old spacious buildings have been changed to the shapes where sparrows do not find their habitat. It is most important reason of decline of population.

Lack of feed: The old Kirana shops have been converted in to malls or big bazaar. In this type of bazaar and malls all the items are found in packets. So sparrows do not find their food grains which were available in old Kinra shops.

Electro Magnetic Radiation: The electromagnetic radiations released from our mobile phone are also a major cause of decline the numbers of sparrows. Modern Agriculture: modern agriculture is also a important reason of decline the numbers of sparrows. In modern agriculture insecticide and pesticides are widely used which adversely affect the birds directly and indirectly. When sparrows eat this types of fruits this affects in the formation of egg's shell. The number of insects decreases due to insecticides whose larvae are food of sparrows.

Pollution: Pollution is the most important reasons of declining the numbers of sparrows. Different types of pollution like water pollution, soil pollution, noise pollusion, etc adversely affect sparrows.

Loss of tree cover: The deforestation is also a reason of decline of sparrow’s population. We are constructing modern buildings, malls, big bazaar, industries etc by destroying forest and plants.

Urbanization and Unplanned development: Urbanization and unplanned development are also the most important causes of decline of sparrow’s population.

2. How many animal species are in danger?

There are nearly 77 species are endangered in India. Among them 9-10 species are critically endangered. Most of them are as listed below. Biological names are mentioned in bracket.

1 Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi)

Critically Endangered

2 Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea)

3 Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris)

4 White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)

5 Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus)

6 Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa)

7 Jerdon's Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus)

8 Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus)


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9 Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti)

10 White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis)

Endangered

11 Oriental Stork (Ciconia boyciana)

12 Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius)

13 White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala)

14 White-winged Duck (Cairina scutulata)

15 Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)

16 Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis)

17 Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indica)

18 Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer)

19 Rufous-breasted Laughingthrush (Garrulax cachinnans)

20 Spot-billed Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis)

Vulnerable

21 Socotra Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis)

22 Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus)

23 Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus)

24 Baikal Teal (Anas formosa)

25 Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris)

26 Baer's Pochard (Aythya baeri)

27 Pallas's Fish-eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus)

28 Nicobar Sparrowhawk (Accipiter butleri)

29 Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga)

30 Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca)

Vulnerable

31 Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni)

32 Nicobar Megapode (Megapodius nicobariensis)

33 Swamp Francolin (Francolinus gularis)

34 Manipur Bush-quail (Perdicula manipurensis)

35 Chestnut-breasted Partridge (Arborophila mandellii)

36 Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus)

37 Blyth's Tragopan (Tragopan blythii)

38 Sclater's Monal (Lophophorus sclateri)

39 Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii)

40 Hume's Pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae)

Vulnerable

41 Green Peafowl (Pavo muticus)

42 Sarus Crane (Grus antigone)

43 Hooded Crane (Grus monacha)

44 Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis)

45 Masked Finfoot (Heliopais personata)

46 Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius)

47 Wood Snipe (Gallinago nemoricola)

48 Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus)

49 Indian Skimmer (Rynchops albicollis)

50 Pale-backed Pigeon (Columba eversmanni)

51 Nilgiri Wood-pigeon (Columba elphinstonii) Vulnerable 52 Pale-capped Pigeon (Columba punicea)

53 Dark-rumped Swift (Apus acuticauda)


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54 Rufous-necked Hornbill (Aceros nipalensis)

55 Narcondam Hornbill (Aceros narcondami)

56 Yellow-throated Bulbul (Pycnonotus xantholaemus)

57 Nicobar Bulbul (Hypsipetes nicobariensis)

58 Grey-sided Thrush (Turdus feae)

59 Rusty-bellied Shortwing (Brachypteryx hyperythra)

60 White-bellied Shortwing (Brachypteryx major)

61 White-browed Bushchat (Saxicola macrorhyncha)

62 White-throated Bushchat (Saxicola insignis)

63 Marsh Babbler (Pellorneum palustre)

Vulnerable

64 Rusty-throated Wren-babbler (Spelaeornis badeigularis)

65 Tawny-breasted Wren-babbler (Spelaeornis longicaudatus)

66 Snowy-throated Babbler (Stachyris oglei)

67 Jerdon's Babbler (Chrysomma altirostre)

68 Slender-billed Babbler (Turdoides longirostris)

69 Black-breasted Parrotbill (Paradoxornis flavirostris)

70 Grey-crowned Prinia (Prinia cinereocapilla)

71 Bristled Grass-warbler (Chaetornis striatus)

72 Broad-tailed Grassbird (Schoenicola platyura)

73 Kashmir Flycatcher (Ficedula subrubra)

74 White-naped Tit (Parus nuchalis)

75 Beautiful Nuthatch (Sitta formosa)

76 Green Avadavat (Amandava formosa)

77 Finn's Weaver (Ploceus megarhynchus

3. Differences between hare and Rabbit.

The most visible different between them is that Hares are long but rabbits are short. Hares differ from rabbits in several ways.

A hare has longer ears, is more powerful, runs faster and has longer legs and have black markings on their fur.

Hares give birth on the ground or in a scratched-out depression called a form. The young are born covered with fur and with their eyes open.

Rabbits are born naked and blind in a fur-lined nest. Hares never dig burrows as do many rabbits.

In addition, hares usually try to escape from their enemies by leaping away rapidly. Rabbits usually try to hide from enemies.

Rabbits are observed as social animals, they generally live in pairs. In opposite, hares live most of the time by themselves.


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4. What are the main threats to Biodiversity?

The main threats to Biodiversity are as mention below:

Habitat Loss/Destruction/Fragmentation These are the main threats to biodiversity around the world and here in Ireland. Very often large scale construction occurs in ‘fragile areas’, for example, wetland drainage and infilling. Habitat destruction changes the conditions needed for particular plants and animals to survive. Invasive Non-Native Species Species that are non-native to a particular area can sometimes spread very quickly, for example the zebra mussel and Japanese knotweed have spread rapidly in Ireland in the past two decades. As a result, these species can destabilize an ecosystem by altering habitats affecting food webs. Pollution/Litter As you will remember from the Litter and Waste theme, pollution is always caused by humans. Pollution can have a huge impact, altering the balance within ecosystems, and is the cause of death for millions of animals and plants around the world every year. Land Use Change/Increased Infrastructure Development This is the alteration of natural areas by humans, for example, the clearing of huge areas of rainforest in South America for farming. In Ireland, upland open habitats, such as rough grassland, scrub and heath, have been changed by agriculture and a forestation. Intensive Farming Practices Extensive use and concentrations of chemical and/or biological pesticides and the removal of hedgerows are typical practices in modern-day intensive farming. Often large areas of land are planted with a single crop (monocultures) which greatly reduces the level of biodiversity in that area. Climate Change It is now widely accepted that the current global rate of change in climate is as a result of human activity. As global air or sea temperature changes, even by just 1 or 2 degrees, the habitats in which species live will also change and may even become uninhabitable to some species.


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5. What about loss of Biodiversity?

Many environmentalists, including farmers themselves, are very concerned about the loss of biodiversity. Although the increased adoption of conventionally bred crops has raised similar concerns, we want to make sure that we maintain the pool of genetic diversity needed for time the future. Scientists continue to work actively to preserve plant species through the preservation of genetic material (DNA) in lab facilities and field plots around the world. The science of biotechnology has dramatically increased our knowledge of how genes express themselves and highlighted the importance of preserving genetic material. Another related concern relates to the narrow range of crops that farmers currently grow. There are only about 35 crops with significant world production. If all farmers grew, for example, the same variety of corn, one unstoppable corn blight could easily destroy a huge amount of our corn production. This has been a concern with conventionally-bred crop varieties as well. Biotechnology can help in two ways. Crop varieties can be developed that are "disaster-resistant" much quicker than through conventional breeding. And biotechnology has the increased capability of developing multiple sub-species of the same crop, tailored to specific growing conditions and consumer needs, thereby reducing the chance of an entire crop being wiped out.

6. Do we need to protect every habitat in order to protect Biodiversity?

There exists great confusion worldwide as to what biodiversity and habitats are, as these ideas live mainly in our minds rather than out there in nature. Biodiversity is the 'confusion' of life, created in response to external factors. Change the factors, and life's biodiversity adapts likewise. So biodiversity is not a constant thing. Where humans change habitats, wildlife adapts, and remembers that in the sea very little habitat change has happened. There are exaggerated stories about trawler damage, but check it out for you in a deep dive to 30-60m. One sees only large ripples in the sand (mega ripples); no trawl tracks. Remember the following that sums it all up: We talk about habitats, we see and measure communities but we know little about how it functions. There are only three main habitats: The open water, the (soft) sea bottom and the hard shore. All other habitats are combinations and variations of these three. As species in one community also occur in other communities, we do not need to be concerned to protect all variations of habitats in order to protect biodiversity. Just some of the three main habitats in the various climate zones will do.


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7. What is marine conservation?

Marine conservation is essentially the act of saving our seas for future generations. The word conservation is often misunderstood to mean improving the present conditions, but it works only when all threats are taken away, forever.

Conservation is thus impossible without knowing what threatens the environment. Our national parks are often praised for their quality, but because invasive grazers such as rabbit, possum, goat, deer and pig are still present, and also exotic predators like wild cat, stoat, rat, mouse, wasp, trout and more, these parks have little conservational value. They cannot and will not protect our native flora and fauna in the long term. By contrast, the conservation islands like Little Barrier Island, Hen and Chickens, Kapiti and Stewart Island and others do not suffer such threats, and they will be safe for our native wildlife. For conservation to work however, also size is important, because the wildlife inside Noah's Ark must have sufficient individuals of each species to contribute to a varied gene pool. A varied gene pool is necessary in order to be able to adapt to changing circumstances in the long term, such as climate change. Nature does not 'design' new organisms, but selects those who survive, which may lead to new traits or organisms, or extinction. Exchange of genes must also be present. It is because of this that even the above mentioned islands may fail in the long term. Fortunately, the situation in the sea is entirely different. Here the habitats have not been changed by human farming, habitation, industry, roads and more. Also, in the sea all areas are interconnected. There are no islands under water as they are above the water. So conservation of our seas makes a better chance. But like the situation on land, marine conservation works only when all threats are taken away. Marine reserves are particularly good for:

Protecting a unique spot: some places in the sea, such as around offshore islands, are hot spots of biodiversity surrounded by a much poorer sea and sea bottom. Islands attract fish towards their shallows. They work like oases, attracting life from far around, including sea birds and sea mammals. Protecting scientific experiments: scientists need to be assured that over time, the equipment and cages in the sea remain undisturbed, also the species and individuals that they are studying. Separating takers from lookers: people who take from the sea, particularly spear fishermen, can cause tremendous harm to a protected area where fish have learnt to trust people. People who come to observe the natural environment must be assured that it will still be the same, and perhaps even better when they return next time.


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Attracting people where access is easy: given the choice to go to a beach outside a marine reserve, or one within, people will choose the reserve, because there is more to see and the fish are friendlier. Helping marine education: where else would you like to take children for their first encounter? Besides, the rocky shore in many places outside marine reserves has been stripped barren. Helping to rebuild marine community structure: Only large marine reserves with relatively little spillover rebuild their ecosystems to a natural state with large predators and other old species. This happens only where no other threats remain such as from mud, dense plankton blooms or poisonous plankton blooms. Because many fish change sex (female to male) at a late age, a reserve can improve the sex ratio of some fish. However this also increases competition between males. 8. Why do scientists say there is a biodiversity crisis?

Scientists say there is a biodiversity crisis because the current rate of extinction is roughly 100-1,000 times faster than the natural rate. Besides diminishing the natural world around us, scientists believe that this loss of biodiversity will harm people. This is because we depend on nature for food, medicines (such as cancer treatments), industrial products (such as oils and resins), and vital ecosystem services (such as water purification, erosion control, and climate control).The rate of extinction has accelerated throughout human history, and biodiversity loss is occurring throughout the world.

More than 1,000 species are known to have gone extinct in the last 400 years, including the Passenger Pigeon and Stellar's Sea Cow. In addition, many subspecies have gone extinct.

Subspecies are genetically distinct populations of a species and can be very different from each other. For example, the Greater Prairie Chicken and the Heath Hen are both subspecies of “Tympanuchus cupido”, and they are different sizes and live in different habitats.

The Greater Prairie Chicken is larger and lives in the prairies of the Midwest, while the Heath Hen, which went extinct in 1932, was much smaller and inhabited coastal heath land from Massachusetts to Virginia.

Moreover, many other species and subspecies have declined so much that they are also in danger of going extinct. However, as dire as this sound, there is some hope: because people are causing the current accelerated rate of extinction, we also have it within our power to slow it down or even stop it.


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9. Why is protecting any one species important?

There are three answers to this question. First, if you believe that biodiversity has inherent value, then each species is valuable and should be protected from extinction. Second, the extinction of a single species may decrease the utilitarian value of nature. For example, if the species has economic value, its extinction clearly results in any economic loss.

Furthermore, if the species is important to other species or for the maintenance of important ecosystem characteristics, then its extinction can have undesirable cascading effects. For example, beavers dam streams and create networks of ponds that provide habitat for species like fish and ducks and that improve water quality and prevent erosion. The loss of beavers, therefore, would result in the loss of other species as well as of the ecosystem services provided by the habitat they create.

10. What can I do to help conserver biodiversity?

It's generally easiest to help conserve biodiversity in your local area or region. Before you actually do anything, you need to learn both about the local threats to biodiversity and about the most effective ways that you can counteract those threats. Begin by contacting or reading material from regional government natural resource agencies, non-governmental conservation organizations with regional offices (such as The Nature Conservancy), and regional universities or colleges with conservation biologists on the faculty.

There are five easy ways that you can help conserve biodiversity:

Personal behavior: Examples include turning your yard into a natural habitat by removing non-native species and landscaping with native plants; reducing waste production by buying products with less and/or recyclable packaging, recycling household goods, and composting vegetable waste for garden or flowerbed fertilizer; and limiting natural resource consumption and pollution by using public or non-motorized transportation, using fuel efficient vehicles, making your residence energy efficient, and disposing of chemicals properly rather than dumping them in sewers.

Political activism: educate politicians on biodiversity issues and support politicians with good conservation records.

Neighbor education: teach your neighbors about biodiversity, telling them why and how we should conserve it.

Field assistance: for example, you can help monitor populations to identify those that are at risk of declining, and you can help restore native vegetation on public land.

Monetary support: contribute funds dedicated to conservation on tax or vehicle registration forms.

http://www.nature.org/


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Coach: 2 Trans-Himalaya & the Himalaya

Introduction to Himalaya

The Himalaya sustains millions of people in India. The Indian Himalayan Region occupies a special place in the mountain ecosystems of the world. The Himalaya stretches in an arc over 2,500 km from Nanga Parbat in the West to Namche Barwa in the East. This expanse has a great variation in biodiversity as well as topography. The Shivalik ranges, or the foothills, are uplifted glacial debris. Middle Himalaya reaches altitudes up to 3,000 m in the form of undulating hills, cut by flowing torrents and rivers. The Greater Himalaya range consists mainly of sedimentary rocks with patches of igneous (solidified from lava) rock formations. Most of this area is covered with huge glaciers and peaks, with a few semi-arid and occasional arid valleys. Across the Greater Himalaya is the region referred to as Trans-Himalaya. The Himalaya forms the watershed for most of the rivers flowing in northern India, sustaining the lives and livelihoods of millions of people. The high ranges of the Himalaya stop the northward movement of monsoon clouds that bring rain to the Indian sub-continent. The diverse terrains and altitude gradients harbour a rich variety of flora, fauna which show several behavioural and physiological adaptations. There is also a great deal of cultural and ethnic diversity. Did you know? Where the Himalaya stands today was once the Tethys Sea 70 million years ago. The collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates led to a rise of land mass, converting the sea into high mountains. The tectonic plates are still moving, making this region vulnerable to natural hazards Abode of snow: Unique Vital Fragile The Trans-Himalaya and the Himalaya together occupy nearly 11 per cent of India's total land surface. The high altitude landscape comprises varied ecosystems and harbours rich biodiversity. This region is also one of the most important, fragile and threatened life-support systems on the earth. The areas set aside for protection and conservation in the Region include: 20 National Parks, 74 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 5 Biosphere Reserves 36 Conservation Reserves, 5 Snow Leopard Conservation Landscapes


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Forests: From Peaks to Plains There is great variety in forests in this region. Forest types are determined by rainfall regime, altitude and latitude. Major forest types Thorn scrub, desert steppe: Trans-Himalayas Montane grasslands, shrublands, alpine shrubs, meadows: Greater Himalayas Temperate broadleaved and mixed forests: Lesser Himalayas Sub-tropical pine forests, sub-tropical broadleaved forests, scrubby forests: Shiwaliks Grasslands, savannas, deciduous and evergreen forests: Bhabar-Terai Tract A Profusion of Plants The region supports nearly 50% of the total flowering plants of India.

Represents 18,440 species of plants, (all the plant groups), of which about 4,665 endemic species are represented.

Over 1,700 species of medicinal and aromatic plants provide livelihood, healthcare and food for millions.

Endemic species such as Himalayan May Apple and Himalayan Yew are said to have anti-cancer properties.

About 155 sacred plants including deodar, rudraksha, brahmakamal, bhojpatra and pipal are found here.

87 species of Rhododendron and 26 species of Oak grow in the forests. At Home in the Himalaya The Himalayan mountain system is recognized as a centre of origin and evolution of many living forms.

Is home to almost 300 species of mammals, of which 12 are endemic, including Kashmir Markhor, Kashmir Red Deer, or Hangul, Himalayan Tahr.

About 1000 out of the 1300 bird species of India occur in the Himalaya, including 31 endemic species. A majority of these breed in the region.

Harbours the largest diversity of domestic and wild relatives of sheep, goats and equids (hoofed animals such as horses).

Today, several of these are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered. Hop, Fly, Swim in the Himalaya

Over 925 out of the 1501 species of Indian butterflies are found in Western and North Western Himalaya.

Nearly 175 species of reptiles have been documented, of which nearly 50 are endemic.

Of around 105 species of amphibians, over 40 are endemic. Two species of caecilians (legless, tailless tropical amphibians) are found here.

Fish species from three major drainage systems, the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, inhabit the Himalaya. 30 of nearly 270 species are endemic.


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Under Threat Threats to Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan fauna include habitat loss and degradation, poaching, wildlife trade, logging, over-fishing, pollution, human-animal conflict, climate change and unsustainable harvesting for firewood, food, fodder and timber Valley of Flowers The Valley of Flowers is renowned for its meadows of rare, native and endemic alpine flowers, and outstanding natural beauty. Located in Uttarakhand Himalaya, this valley, together with Nanda Devi Park, has been designated as Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Over 55 per cent of the species in the Reserve are native to Himalaya, over 10 are endemic and 225 are near endemic. The Biosphere Reserve was declared as World Heritage Site by UNESCO under the Man and Biosphere (MAB) program in 2004. New Discoveries Despite large tracts being remote, harsh, and inaccessible for most part of the year, new floral species are constantly being discovered in the region. Its rich biodiversity is yet to be entirely documented. Several of the species were identified by scientists of Botanical Survey of India. The new discoveries have not yet been given common names. Mountains and People Since time immemorial local people have used forests and pastures in this region for multiple uses and values. Pastoralists migrate from lower reaches to Alpine Pastures every summer along with herds of goat and sheep. Livestock rearing has been the backbone of the local economy. Mountain people rely heavily on natural resources and make optimum use of nature's bounty. Products or by-products are never wasted and thus, various livelihood activities emerge from one another. While agriculture and animal husbandry are the primary occupations, various non farm-based livelihood practices include:

Tourism and pilgrimage-related services – tour guide, porters, religious services, trekking, mountaineering, summer and winter sports etc.

Collection of non-timber forest produce (fodder, medicinal plants)

Apiculture, mushroom cultivation, poly greenhouse cultivation

Handicrafts and handloom such as wooden furniture, baskets, rattan / bamboo products, ropes, garments, carpets, souvenirs etc.


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Coping With Change in the Himalaya The Himalayan ecosystem, one of the most fragile ecosystems of the world, is faced with many natural changes, as well as challenges of developmental process, deforestation and land use changes. These changes are severely affecting livelihoods of millions of people, including indigenous communities who reside in the mountains and valleys of the region and whose livelihoods and culture are closely linked to the mountain ecosystems. Climate change is having a critical impact on this region, as a result of which conventional ecosystem services are being adversely impacted. Reduced food productivity and water availability, loss of flood regulation, increased cases of natural disasters are all examples reflecting the loss of ecosystem services. Unpredictable variations in temperature and rainfall patterns, affecting stream flow, and appropriate moisture conditions for crops, agricultural productivity and diversity, and fodder for animals are some of the impacts of climate change. Himalayan glaciers are the primary source of water to several perennial rivers, and also have profound effect on both the regional and global climate. The retreating of the glaciers is leading to glacial lake outburst floods in the mountains, and floods and drought in the plains. The communities in these regions are some of the most susceptible to even a slight change in temperature and precipitation. Minimum temperatures are projected to rise by 1 to 4.5 degree C, and the maximum temperatures may rise by 0.5 to 2.5 degree C. Existing and detailed knowledge on the vulnerability of the region to impacts of climate change is still limited. Absence of information calls for an urgent need to initiate efforts to generate information to respond and adapt to the current and future consequences on the natural resource base and climate change in the region. IUCN, in collaboration with Nokia, is working to encourage an integrated multi-stakeholder approach for developing sustainable and effective adaptive strategies to cope with climate change in the Himalayan region. A priority of the project is to document and disseminate best practices related to water management and climate change adaptation in the Indian Himalaya, and presenting improved water management regimes from the perspective of indigenous systems, the work of government, civil society and community-based organizations. In order to increase the resilience of the Himalayan ecosystem and reduce the vulnerability of the local communities it is essential to develop guidelines that can ensure sustainable management of the natural resources. This is possible through implementing the best practices for sustainable development and improving the existing governance structure as well as strengthening the local institutions and participatory planning.


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Equally important is the development of a strategic, integrated approach for addressing the issues of biodiversity conservation and improvement of livelihoods in the context of climate change that ultimately ensures the well-being of the people in the Himalayan region including their social, economic and cultural aspects.

Trans-Himalaya Trans-Himalaya is the northern-most area of India. It falls in the rain shadow regions immediately north of the Himalaya. This includes the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and Lahaul-Spiti region of Himachal Pradesh, some parts of Garhwal, Uttarakhand, and a small part of Sikkim. It is the only region in the world where both desert and arctic conditions are found, marked by scanty rainfall, high radiation and intense cold. The temperature drops to as low as −50 degree C in some places. Snow-clad peaks, seasonal marshlands and high-altitude lakes are characteristic features. The seemingly inhospitable terrain has given rise to a variety of flora. The plant growth season is only two to three months. Marmots, Wooly hare, Tibetan antelope, Tibetan sheep, Bharal, Wild yak, Wild ass, Wolf, Snow leopard, Black-necked crane and Bar-headed goose are some characteristic animals of this region, which are highly adapted to the harsh conditions. This region forms the catchment of three major rivers--Indus with its major tributaries, Zanskar and Shayok; Chenab, and Sutluj – each with its tributaries. There are two National Parks, three Wildlife Sanctuaries and one Biosphere Reserve in this region.

Frozen Desert Where high Himalayan Mountains block rain clouds lay the cold deserts.

These regions are marked by severe, arid climatic conditions.

The annual precipitation is between 500 and 1000 mm, mainly in winter. The main source of water is snow melt.

Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir is the largest cold desert in India covering 80 per cent of the trans-Himalayan tract.

Other cold deserts include Lahaul Spiti, parts of Kinnaur and Pangi area in Himachal Pradesh, very small pockets of Niti, Malari, Mana and the Nelang regions in Garhwal, Uttarakhand and the Tso Lhamu Gurudogmar plateau of Sikkim.

Seasonal migration by Bakarwal, Gujjar and Gaddi herdsmen and nomadism followed by the Changpa tribe are important practices in cold deserts.

The Snow Leopard is the largest predatory animal found in cold deserts.


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Bare But Not Barren Cold deserts have remarkable ecological and biological diversity.

There are a variety of habitat types across various altitude levels, and hence a diversity of ecosystems.

The predominantly herbaceous and grassy vegetation is highly diverse and supports many rare and endemic species, indigenous varieties and breeds.

Animals of economic importance include pashmina (changra) goats, changthangi sheep, yaks, chumurti horses, donkeys, and double-humped camels.

Animals have adapted to the extreme and difficult climatic conditions. Major Biodiversity conservation areas in the Trans-Himalaya are:

Hemis High Altitude National Park,

Jammu & Kashmir (J&K)

Karakoram Wildlife Sanctuary, J&K

Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary, J&K

Pin Valley National Park, Himachal Pradesh (HP)

Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, HP

Sechu Tuan Nala, HP When it Thaws, Sparkle the HAWs High Altitude Wetlands are unique water bodies found at altitudes of over 3000m.

They comprise lakes, marshes, peat lands, wet grasslands, streams and rivers. Often fed by glaciers or snow from the surrounding mountains, the water bodies remain largely frozen during the winter months.

There are over 500 HAWs in central and western Himalaya alone. They are home to several endemic species of birds, animals and medicinal plants.

Pasturelands around the wetlands provide grazing grounds for livestock.

They are of immense livelihood, cultural and spiritual significance for local communities.

These wetlands are crucial for biodiversity, sustainable economic growth, and control over climate and river flow, hydropower generation, transport, irrigation and fisheries.

Welcome to Winged Visitors The Indian Himalaya is a popular destination for migratory birds.

Birds migrate for various reasons such as availability of food and water, safe nesting and breeding locations, climatic conditions and protection.

The migratory birds face several threats: habitat loss; destruction of breeding and nesting sites; unsustainable tourism; hunting; air and water pollution, as well as weak trans-boundary conservation efforts.


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Saving Wetlands Sky-High! This is a regional initiative of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) to mobilize governments, communities and local stakeholders towards conservation of the Himalayan High Altitude Wetlands which are beyond national and political boundaries. The initiative includes India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and China. Agricultural Practices Environmental, biological and socio-cultural diversity of the Himalaya has resulted in unique traditional varieties of crops, livestock, and agro-pastoral practices. Some traditional agricultural practices:

Mixed cropping

Agro-forestry

Rotational cropping

Crop sowing prioritization (sowing crops in a certain sequence)

Seed selection (collecting seeds from different villages every 3-4 years to avoid in-breeding)

Root spreading (digging soil to facilitate horizontal spread of roots)

Apricot grafting (grafting sweet apricot on bitter, wild apricot)

Better soil fertility with animal bones

Agricultural patterns in the Himalaya differ according to geographic zones. Western Himalaya, a region of low rainfall, heavy snowfall and temperate conditions, grows mainly cereals and fruits. Eastern Himalaya with high rainfall is a major producer of potato, oilseeds, sugarcane, millet, pulses and vegetables.

Livestock and Livelihood Livestock rearing is an integral part of livelihood in rural areas.

Livestock provide draught power, manure, wool and food.

Ownership of cattle ensures economic stability and sustainable farming.

In spite of hardships of high altitudes, there is presence of different breeds of sheep, goats, horses, yaks, mules, pigs and poultry in this region.

Nomadic pastoralism is a common practice of some mountain tribes

Threats to domestic animals include shrinkage of grazing pastures, shortened grazing periods, inadequate fodder growth, shortage of water, poor health of animals due to changing temperatures and parasitic infections.

Barahnaja An age old agricultural practice of intercropping of twelve or more compatible mix of crops using native, indigenous seeds.

A community of cereals, lentils, vegetables, creepers, and root vegetables grown together on the same terraced fields in the kharif or monsoon season.

This helps maintain ecological balance, protects farmers from losses due to crop failures, enhances food and nutritional security, and provides good quality fodder for domestic animals.


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This system of bio-farming is scientific, sustainable, replicable and highly beneficial to the rural farmer.

Traditionally practised in Garhwal, Uttarakhand, this dying practice is being revived by Vijay Jardhari, a farmer and one of the founders of the Beej Bachao Andolan.

Saving the Sanjeevani: Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCA) The collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) from the wild, as well as their cultivation, provide livelihood and health care to a majority of rural India.

Over-exploitation and habitats degradation are threats to MAPs.

Some of the MAPs have been categorized as Globally Significant Medicinal Plants (GSMP).

For the protection, conservation, cultivation and regeneration of MAPs and GSMPs in their natural habitats, a network of natural sites or forests have been set up as MPCAs.

The network of MPCAs represents the diversity of forest types.

MPCAs are managed by local communities and forest departments.

Sustainable harvesting is promoted from adjoining areas of MPCAs.

MPCAs offer protection to species that are in high demand and at risk of becoming extinct.

MPCAs help in preserving germplasm of important plants. Saving Monarch of the Mountain The snow leopard inhabits 1.5 lakh sq km of the Greater and Trans- Himalayan regions of J&K, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Being a top predator, this medium-sized cat is an ideal flagship for conservation efforts in the cold, dry, non-forested high altitude regions of the Himalaya. Only 3500-7000 snow leopards are left in the wild. This endangered animal is a Schedule I animal. It is also protected under CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora) that disallows any international trade in snow leopard or its parts. Many organisations such as Snow Leopard Trust (SLT), Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF), Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC), Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are working to conserve the Snow Leopard and its habitat. The Hemis High Altitude National Park is working to reduce retribution killings and providing alternative incomes. NCF and SLT have helped set up livestock insurance programmes and community-managed reserves in Spiti and Ladakh. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), GoI with SLT-NCF, inaugurated a flagship programme in 2009 called 'Project Snow Leopard' (PSL). It stresses on: identification and zonation of large landscapes that have conservation value; identification of threats; innovative approaches to conservation; participation of other institutions.


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The PSL encourages the use of alternative energy sources, environmental education, and eco-friendly cultivation practices. Advanced tools have also been introduced to accurately measure the number of snow leopards in India.Today, there are 400-700 snow leopards left in India, and over 30 PAs that cover their range. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem GoI’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) has enunciated the launch of a National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem. The mission attempts to address some important issues concerning biodiversity conservation and protection; and wild life conservation and protection in the context of the traditional knowledge societies and their livelihoods. It recognizes the importance of scientific and technological inputs and planning for sustaining of the Himalayan Ecosystem which is vulnerable and susceptible to the impacts and consequences of climate change and anthropogenic activities.

Further Reference At least 353 new species have been discovered in the Eastern Himalayas between 1998 and 2008, equating to an average of 35 new species found every year for the last 10 years. The discoveries include 242 plants, 16 amphibians, 16 reptiles, 14 fishes, 2 birds and 2 mammals, and at least 61 new invertebrates. The remote Eastern Himalayan state of Arunachal Pradesh, with its rugged mountains and extensive forest cover, is one of India’s last truly wild places, and the location of two highly significant and exciting large mammals found. The Eastern Himalayas are a truly magnificent part of the world. The enormous cultural and biological diversity belies the fragile nature of the environment on which all depend and which risks being lost forever unless we take concerted action now. As human populations grow and development activities unfold we must ensure that these take place in a way that is sustainable, not just for our own generation but for the sake of those to come as well. This will be our legacy to our children and grandchildren and one we hope they will thank us for. WWF believes that real progress can be made in tackling the pressing issues in the Eastern Himalayas, like global warming, deforestation, the illegal wildlife and timber trade and the need for sensitive infrastructure development. At the same time, good environmental management will help increase livelihood options and help secure food and freshwater availability for millions of people throughout the region. This in turn, will address the poverty that underpins so many of the current, unsustainable, demands on the landscape. In order to maintain a Living Himalayas, several key undertakings have to be realized:


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That the governments of Bhutan, India and Nepal, who already recognize the importance of the Himalayas at a national level, develop a shared three-country vision for the region as a whole. This will result in a united conservation and sustainable development plan that ensures the connectivity of landscapes within the Eastern Himalayas, allowing for the free movement of wildlife across political borders and combating illegal trade at a regional level. Broadening the scope and scaling up the local stewardship of forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Local communities already have many rights to manage the natural resources within the environment where they live, as these increase there will be mutual benefits for both biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihoods. With increased rights come increased responsibilities but the future of the wildlife that live there is best assured by giving the people, who share these landscapes, a vested interest in their survival. Ensure that regional mechanisms are in place to respond to climate change and the inevitable changes that it will bring. Communities will need to be supported to cope with the rising threat of floods from glacial lake collapse and to respond to changing weather patterns. Water availability will be a key concern and, since major rivers rising in the Eastern Himalayas support millions of people downstream as well as the rich biodiversity, so river management will need to take place at a regional, river-basin scale, if it is to meet the needs of all. Development initiatives must take into account the environment if we are not to damage, irretrievably, the very resources on which economic development depends. This applies to all industries but is of particular relevance to growth in the energy and tourism sectors. The Landscape level planning and the development of ‘best practice’ guidelines will help to ensure that the richness of the Eastern Himalayas will be maintained and that the economic growth requirements of the region are met. Bounded to the East by the Himalayan Mountains, the Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP) forms part of the boundary between four ecological zones:

The dry deserts of interior Asia and the well-watered lowlands of the Indian plains,

The Oriental and Pale arctic faunal realms,

The high plateau of Tibet and the jumbled Himalayan peaks, and

The catchments of the Beas and Sutlej Rivers, both mighty tributaries of the Indus.

Because of its complex geography and its great variations in altitude, the limited area of the Park encompasses an enormous range of species, which span the subtropical to the alpine and include those characteristic of the south-east Asian forests as well as those found across Siberia and the Asian steppes.


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Few ecological sanctuaries present such a variety of wildlife habitat and biological diversity in such a small area. The Park is the foremost priority for conservation in the North-West Himalayas. Its remote location has thus far spared the Park many of the problems that have affected natural ecosystems elsewhere in India. The occurrences of temperate and alpine ecosystems in a geographically compact area make GHNP the most significant and biggest conservation unit in the Western Himalayas. This status further protects the relatively inaccessible rugged terrain which represents the ecology, geology, and biota characteristic of the North-West Himalayas. The boundaries of GHNP are contiguous with the Pin Valley National Park in Trans-Himalaya, the Rupi-Bhawa Wildlife Sanctuary in Sutlej watershed, and the Kanawar Wildlife Sanctuary. Together the varied wildlife habitats of these protected areas support the full range of Western Himalayan biodiversity, from tropical to alpine and Tibetan. Thus, the Park is a crucial protected area because it connects other islands of biodiversity. This increases the availability of migration routes between protected areas which is essential for the survival of many animals. From the road head at Gushaini or Neuli, the trails leading to the Park pass through subtropical pine forests. They rise towards the dense coniferous and mixed deciduous woods of the temperate zone, which is entered at about 1800 m. In summer, the spreading canopy of green and silver oaks and horse chestnuts provide welcome relief from the sun. Above this zone, at about 2500 m, cool-temperate forests of fir and spruce occur on northerly slopes, with brown oaks on southerly aspects. Above 3000 m, these forests grade gently into a sub-alpine zone of birches and rhododendrons, diminishing in size as the tree line is approached. Above 3000-3200 m, we find alpine meadows, splashed with a great variety of flowers and higher again is the realm of rock and ice that rules the high peaks and ridges. Among the large mammals that visitors may encounter, there are several species of herbivores that are characteristic of the Park. The Goral (Naemorhedus goral), a small goat-antelope is found in the lower forests; the Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) in the higher forests, and above the tree-line the Bharal, or Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur). These mammals are the prey for Leopards (in the forest zone) and Snow Leopards (above tree-line). Himalayan Black Bears inhabit the forests, while Asiatic brown Bears occur on the alpine meadows. Among birds, the Park is well known as the most important locality in India for the endangered Western Tragopan.


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Four other species of pheasant occur in or adjacent to the Park; the one most likely to be seen by visitors is the Himalayan Monal, an abundant bird in the higher forests, although rather shy. Raptors are also a prominent feature of the Park, with Lammergeiers, Himalayan Griffon Vultures, and Golden Eagles being seen regularly. A great variety of other birds occurs, some of which reach their western limit in the Park. The flora of GHNP shows affinities with Mediterranean, Tibetan, and the Peninsular Indian region. For example, species of Valerians, Dactylorhiza, Yew, and Leycesteria are typical taxa which extend to Afghanistan and west China. Other affinities that are met with here are in form of buckthorn (Hippophae) of palaearctic region; Cedar trees, herbaceous Violets, and grasses such as Poa of Mediterranean region; and spurge (Euphorbia) shrubs of Peninsular India. In addition, GHNP has a number of endemic species of Himalayas, for example several species of balsams (Impatiens), species of Androsace, Hedysarum, Draba (Whitlow grass), etc. Many visitors are drawn to the mountains and the wildlife of the Park. The indigenous cultures of the mountain villages, adjacent to the Park, also offer unique experiences for the traveler. Isolated for centuries from the large urban centers, these remote hamlets developed a highly distinctive culture, based on the worship of local deities (devta) which are celebrated in numerous local, regional and national festivals. From the characteristic architecture of the houses and temples, and the folk wood carvings that decorate them, to the silver jewelry and woven wool shawls and blankets, there is a great range of local crafts to see. Nor should the visitor ignore the clear interdependence of people and environment that is characteristic of traditional lifestyles. Although the high valleys of the Park are remote and support a varied flora and fauna, the signs of traditional use are everywhere. They form an intimate part of the Park's ecology. An understanding of the role that traditional practices (e.g., grazing, burning, and medicinal plant collection) have had on the Park's biota is important before we can fully appreciate the forces that have contributed to development of the ecosystems we see today.


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Coach: 3 The Gangetic Plain

Introduction The Ganga is India’s 'National River'. The Ganga basin is a network of river Ganga and its tributaries – some of them are the Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, and Son. The major part of the Ganga basin falls in the Gangetic Plain area. The basin is home to rich natural vegetation, considerable endemic flora, and supports a large number of wildlife species. River Ganga is considered to be one of the most sacred rivers, and is recognized as the country's valuable heritage. Industrial and domestic waste water, agricultural runoff, some developmental projects, disturbance on the river catchment area, contribute to make the Ganga river basin highly polluted in the Gangetic Plain. Forests to Farmlands The Gangetic Plain comprises a variety of habitat types. These include floodplains dominated by agriculture; marshy grasslands in the Terai, and forests along the northern fringes. Each habitat has typical vegetation. Forests: Sal (Shorea robusta), Bahera (Terminalia belerica), Jamun (Syzygium cumini), Gular (Ficus glomerata), Semal (Salmalia malabarica), Khair (Acacia catechu) are characteristic tree species. Grasslands: Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), Kans (Saccharum spontaneum), Munj (Saccharum munja), Narkul (Phragmites karka), Pater (Typha angustata) are typical grasses of this region. Wetlands: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), Trapa (Trapa natans), Water lily (Nymphaea sp.) are some of the common aquatic plants. Canebrakes: Cane or Bent (Calamus tenuis). Mangroves: Rhizophora sp. found mainly in the Sundarbans. Rivers: Aquatic plants. Farmlands: Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Pulses are some of the major crops grownhere. A tree that can be as tall as a ten storey building! Sal (Shorea robusta) is a large, deciduous tree which is native to the Indian subcontinent. This moderate to slow growing tree can attain a height of 30 to 35 m and girth of up to 1.5-2 m. Its wood was widely used for making railway sleepers by the British. The trees shed their leaves in February-March, this is followed by flowering. The small off-white flowers fill the forest with fragrance. The fruits are food for many animals during the dry summer months.


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Sal is the dominant forest type mainly distributed in the Terai region of the Gangetic Plain. Periodic infestation by Sal borer affects Sal forests.

The Wetlands Home to innumerable birds and plants, the wetlands also support lakhs of humans. IUCN’s Important Bird Areas (IBA) is areas recognized as being globally important habitats for the conservation of bird populations. Some of the IBAs in this region: Uttar Pradesh: Patna Jheel, Etawah; Shiekha Jheel, Aligarh; Lakhbahosi, Farrukhabad; Saman, Mainpuri; Sandi, Hardoi Bihar: Kanvar Lake Bird Sanctuary, Begusarai; Gogabil Bird Sanctuary, Katihar; Nagi Dam and Nakti Dam, Jamui; Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur. West Bengal: Kulik Bird Sanctuary, Raiganj; Sundarbans, 24 Paraganas. Ramsar Sites: The Gangetic Plain has two Ramsar Sites, wetlands of International Importance designated under the Ramsar Convention. Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch) Uttar Pradesh East Kolkata Wetlands, West Bengal Wetland Birds Long-haul flight from Siberia to India over the Himalaya. No Passport Required! The wetlands are favourite wintering grounds of the migratory birds from Siberia. Below are listed Some Migratory and Resident Birds. 1. Spotbilled Duck 2. Pintail 3. Shoveller 4. Ruddy Shelduck 5. Lesser Whistling Teal 6. Common Coot 7. Comb Duck 8. Rosy Pelican 9. Purple Heron 10. Pheasanttailed Jacana 11. Bronzewinged Jacana 12. Sarus Crane 13. Barheaded Goose The wetlands provide feeding and breeding habitats for the Sarus Crane, which is the tallest flying bird in the world.


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Ramsar Convention has defined wetlands as "areas of marsh, fen , peatland or water, whether natural or artifical, permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low t ide does not exceed six meters".

Deer: The Gangetic Plain is home to five species of deer as mentioned below. Swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli), Sambar (Rusa unicolor), Spotted deer, or Chital (Axis axis), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Hog deer (Axis porcinus). All the five species of deer are found in the Dudhwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh.

Did you know? Deer are different from antelopes. Deer — have antlers (only males) — shed and re-grow their antlers periodically. The newly-grown antlers are encased in thick soft skin called 'velvet'. Antelopes — have horns (both male and female) — Horns are permanent and without branches.

Gharial: Croc with a Pot! Crocodile, alligator and gharial are collectively called crocodilians. They all share some common features a long toothy snout, a compressed powerful tail and a tough leathery hide. The Gangetic Plain is the home of the Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), a specialized river-dwelling fish eater. It lives in deep fast-flowing rivers and feeds mainly on fish. The Gharial gets its name from its long and narrow snout which ends in a tip with a bulbous pot (ghara). The gharial is endemic to the Indian subcontinent occurring in the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi river systems. Once found abundantly, it is believed that the gharial is possibly extinct from Myanmar, Bhutan and Pakistan. Bangladesh and Nepal has remnant populations. It is estimated that less than 250 'mature individuals' exists in the wild. Thus, gharial is globally 'Critically endangered'. In India the major breeding populations are found in Chambal and the Girwa rivers; Chambal holds 85% of the entire gharial population. Habitat destruction, prey population depletion, pollution, siltation and poaching are some of the main threats to this crocodilian. River conservation and various protection measures can help to save this unique species which is also referred to as the 'River Guardian'.


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The Gangetic Plain refers to the floodplains of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. The soil of this region is formed by the fertile alluvial deposits of the Ganga and its tributaries. The rivers and wetlands are important habitats for migratory waterfowl. They also support Crocodiles, Gharials, the Ganges River Dolphin, and more than 15 species of freshwater turtles. Most natural vegetation and wildlife is found in the north bordering Shivalik hills and in adjacent Bhabar and Terai tracts. The vegetation is typically tropical, moist and dry deciduous. The important Protected Areas in this region are Dudhwa, Valmiki, Buxa and Sundarbans. The approximate population of tigers in these areas was estimated to be 274 in 2010. Freshwater Turtles Freshwater turtles are of two types depending on the shell, which is either a soft shell or a hard shell. Turtle populations in this area have declined drastically during the last few decades. The freshwater habitats of turtles are under constant threat due to sand mining, agriculture practices on the river banks, discharge of pollutants etc. Turtles are also poached for food and medicinal purposes. This is currently the most serious threat. The loss of turtle eggs due to predation by domestic and wild animals, as well as humans, is another factor responsible for the decline in the population of turtles.

Did you know? Some turtles are very important for aquatic ecosystems as they act as natural scavengers by eating dead and dying aquatic animals.

The Gangetic Plains is one of the important regions for freshwater turtles in India Herbs for Health: When you think of health, think of plants. Different parts of plants provide raw material for use in several indigenous systems of medicine in India–Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and home remedies. Many modern medicines contain plant derivatives as well. Tulsi leaf juice is useful for treating gastric disorders, bronchitis and skin diseases. Bel fruit destroys intestinal worms, stops nausea and vomiting and purifies blood. Brahmi is used to treat rheumatism, mental disorders, constipation and bronchitis. The gum of Palash, or Dhak, is beneficial in the treatment of diarrhoea. The seeds are beneficial in the treatment of skin diseases. Amla is a rich source of vitamin C, and it is prescribed in jaundice, hemorrhage etc.


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Neem is used as an insecticide. Extracts are used in hair oils, toothpastes and mosquito repellants. Arjun leaf juice helps to cure dysentery and ear ache, and maintains cholesterol levels. Ashwagandha improves memory and concentration. It is a powerful antioxidant and boosts the immune system. Aloe vera helps in healing small cuts, insect stings, wounds etc. It is widely used in cosmetics industry.

Dudhwa National Park The Park area of 884 sq km represents the best natural Sal forest left in the Terai region of Uttar Pradesh, as well as extensive tracts of moist grasslands. Sal, Asna, Bahera, Haldu, Rohini, Semal, Khair are the predominant tree species. Dudhwa is perhaps the last stronghold of the wild fauna of the Gangetic Plain. Several endangered and important species are found here. It is home to sizeable populations of Tiger and Leopard. Some critically endangered species like the Bengal Florican and the Hispid Hare are also found here.Once distributed across the floodplains of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra, the one-horned rhino now occurs only in a few pockets in terai of Nepal and West Bengal, and Brahmaputra valley in Assam. Rhinos are reported to have occurred in Dudhwa in the 19th century. Since it offered the required swampy habitat under the protection of a national park, rhinos were successfully reintroduced in the park through a programme initiated in 1984. Dudhwa is the only National Park of Uttar Pradesh, located in the Lakhimpur Kheri district of the state.

Further Reference 1) Ganga River: Geographical Range, History and biodiversity Importance in India Ganga is considered as “the lifeline of India” as it drains a vast area of the country. It has great importance in respect of culture, economy as well as ecology. This river is vastly used for agriculture, power generation, fishery and pilgrimage. For such importance of the river, It was declared as the ‘National River’ of India on November 4, 2008.

– Ganga is often called as “Ma Ganga” (mother Ganga) probably because billions of lives are directly or indirectly dependant on it. Since time immemorial, the river has provided livelihood to millions of people and has been emotionally attached to the faith and believes of the people of India.


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– Considered as the symbol of purity, the National River is under constant threat from sewage and industrial waste disposal, deforestation, runoff of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, human and animal bathing, domestic use, dead body disposal, idol emersion etc.

– The anthropogenic activities are acting upon the rich and diverse biodiversity of the river. In this report the ecological and biodiversity status of the lower middle and lower Ganga are analyzed along with threats and possible intervention measures.

"The Ganga, especially, is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age long culture and civilization, ever changing, ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga."

- Javaharlal Nehru.

The Ganga is a major river of the Indian subcontinent rising in the Himalayan Mountains and flowing about 2,510 km generally eastward through a vast plain to the Bay of Bengal. In central Bangladesh it is joined by the Brahmaputra River and Meghna rivers. Their combined waters (called the Padma River) empty into the Bay of Bengal and form a delta 354 k wide, which is shared by India and Bangladesh. Its plain is one of the most fertile and densely populated regions in the world. The Ganges alone drains an area of over a million square km with a population of over 407 million. Despite its importance, extreme pollution pressures pose a great threat to the biodiversity and environmental sustainability of the Ganga, with detrimental effects on both the quantity and quality of its flows. The profile of the Ganga Basin, based on the available information from various agencies presents the salient features of the basin and the river with regard to the catchment, hydrology, tributaries, water uses, environmental features such as river water quality, aquatic and terrestrial flora / fauna, natural resources, ecological characteristics, sensitive environmental components and other features such as land use, settlements, major activities, industrial activities, etc. The source of Ganga is difficult to resolve. Although it is mythological believed that Gomukh (cave) at an altitude of 4000m is the source of Ganga, it does not bear any geographical support. Factually Ganga has its origin from different small streams at an altitude of 6000m or above. Two main tributaries, Alakananda and Mandakini conjoin at Rudraprayag. 23 km away from Gomukh, the shrine Gangotri (Uttarakhand) is situated on the bank of Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi River joins with the common flow of the river Alakananda and Mandakini at a place called Devaprayag to form Ganga.


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Yamuna River originates at Yamunotri glacier, in the east of the Bhagirathi River (60 km away from Kedarnath) and runs 1376 km parallel to Ganga and shares a common flow with Ganga only from Triveni Sangam of Allahabad. Ganga moves away from its origin and cuts the Sivalik Hills to reach the town Haridwar. It drains Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal to reach at the Bay of Bengal. At Pakur, near Farakka, Ganga starts diverting to form its distributary ‘Bhagirathi-Hoogly’ which goes to form the Hoogly River. The main branch of Ganga enters Bangladesh and is known as Padma River there. It is fed by Jamuna and Maeghna (distributaries of Brahmaputra) before merging into the Bay of Bengal. The length of the Ganga is 2510 km with a basin of 907,000 sq. km. The main tributaries to the left of Ganga are Mahakhali, Karnali, Koshi, Gandak, Ghaghra and to the right are Yamuna, Sone, Mahananda. The Gangetic Plain refers to the floodplains of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna This region includes alluvial plains, wetlands and rivers. The soil of this region is formed by the alluvial deposits of the Ganga and its tributaries. This makes it one of the most fertile areas of the world. The fertile soil makes this region very cultivable for agriculture, which supports a large human population. This is one of the most densely populated areas not only of India, but of the world.

The rivers and wetlands are important habitats for migrating wildfowl, in addition to supporting Mugger crocodiles, Gharials, Ganges River Dolphins and more than 15 species of turtles. Most natural vegetation and wildlife is found in the north bordering Shivalik hills and in adjacent Bhabar and Terai tracts. The vegetation is typically tropical, moist and dry deciduous type.


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Species Diversity of the Ganga Basin Ganga basin has a diversity of biological wealth distributed in its forests, wetlands, fresh water river channels and in its marine areas. A comparison of species richness of Ganga basin in terms of national and global level is shown below.

Group Number of species in the Ganga Basin (SGB)

Number of species in India (SI)b

Number of species in the world (SW)

SGB/SI (%)

SGB/SW (%) SI/SW (%)

Mammals - 390 4,629 - - 7.6

Birds 300+ 1232 9,702 24.35 3.09 12.6

Reptiles 15 456 6,550 3.29 0.23 6.2

Amphibians 90 209 4,522 43.06 1.99 4.4

Fishes 140-264a 2546 21,730 5.49 to 10.37

0.64 11.7

Flowering Plants

1175 (Lower Ganga only)

15,000 250,000 7.83 0.47 6.0

Ecological importance of Ganga The Ganga supports over 400 billion of lives which flourished in and along the river. The faunal resources of Ganga have distinct characteristic features that fall into three zones: the Upper Ganga in hilly terrain ; the middle Ganga River flowing in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Best Bengal and finally the lower Ganga River in deltaic tract. 1960s and 1970s were periods of unprecedented destruction of aquatic life and its habitat. All the data collected is being compiled for the database preparation, as well as being compared with contemporary data and with some very primitive data by Hamilton, Menon, Jhingran and others since 1822. It is being done to find out the change in the ecological status of the river. We put emphasis to find out the key species of the ecosystem that is essential to maintain the Ganga as a unique ecological entity. Alteration of fishes as well as other biological factors would be indicator of the alteration of the ecosystem. Biotic factors like water quality, pH, sedimentation etc. directly influence biodiversity. The report contains information on the floral and faunal biodiversity of the lower middle Ganga basin. We also attempt to identify threats and measures to ameliorate them.

The river bed of this region is sandy in nature with 80-90% sand and low percentage of silt and clay. But from Bhagalpur to Farakka, the sand contribution declined considerably with 54-69% sand and substantial increase in silt and clay content.


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Sandy bed is indicator of low aquatic productivity. This is compensated by the nutrient flow from the basin. However, deforestation and other developmental activities in the basin area accelerates silt load. Due to high load of silt, wetlands loss their connection from the river. As a consequent, the wetlands vanish from its existence. During 1966 it was reported that high productive character in all stretches of the Ganga River with high oxygen, alkaline pH and less carbon dioxide. In the later period, the hydrological degradation increased due to human intervention through water modification, huge domestic and industrial discharges. During 1987-1988, degraded water quality of Varanasi was reported with total absence of dissolved oxygen in many cases and extremely high rise of free carbon dioxide (up to 36 mg/l), and the average dissolved oxygen and free carbon dioxide was estimated at 2.2 mg/l and 8.8mg/l respectively. During 1988 it was reported that tremendous increase of chemical parameters (alkalinity, total hardness, chloride etc.) of Ganga at Varanasi as compared to Kanpur. This is probably because of the reduction of the water volume and the subsequence increase in concentration of chemicals. From Patna to Farakka, water degradation is less due to less variation of water volume. Ganga is fed here by the tributaries Ghagra, Sone and Gandak. The ecosystem of this region comprises of phytoplanktons, zooplanktons, other invertebrates and macro fauna including fishes.

Biodiversity of Ganga River The biodiversity of the Ganga river basin is unique as it is a synthesis of three major eco regions of India situated along climatic gradients; the Himalaya, Gangetic Plains and Central Highlands. While the trunk of the river flows through the Plains, its tributaries flow down the steep mountains in the Himalaya and gentle hills and plateau of Vindhyan ranges in the Central Highlands. While the Vindhyan region south of the Plains has always been a part of the Indian subcontinent the Himalaya is extra peninsular. These regions have different geological history and hence the biota by virtue of evolutionary processes should be unique. The trunk of the river Ganga provides the means for exchange of biota and could facilitate exchanges within eco regions too. However, the multiplying needs of the rapidly growing population led to numerous developmental activities in the Ganga basin. These have impacted the unique ecosystem variously along the length of the river. The main problems of the Ganga River Basin (GRB) are provoked by irrational use and sharing of water resources.


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This pressure affects both the hydrological and ecological state of the GRB through soil erosion, landslides, increased sediment loads, habitat fragmentation, and species loss. Therefore in the current conditions the main problems of the basin development are

(i) Unsustainable use of the water, loss of biological resources, declining of ecosystems;

(ii) Continuing pollution of the waters in the basin by industrial wastes;

(iii) Desertification and as a consequence the loss of agricultural lands and their productivity; among many others.

This has adverse consequences on the ecosystem and biodiversity. Ecological basis of river basin management is becoming a concept of its own, with an emphasis on involving all actors that are connected to the ecosystem in a planning process that takes as its point of departure the functions that the system performs for these stakeholders-instead of first designing what society wants and then try to force nature into this human straightjacket. Ecosystem-based river management means to first take heed of what the river is, how it functions and what it could be in terms of, say, hydro-morph dynamics, biodiversity, connectivity and integrity and only then enter into a give and-take between society and this functioning. Since a river basin is the main structural and functional component of the circulatory system of the continental part of the geographic system, the basin- wide approach should be treated as one of the principal approaches to the formulation and solution of natural scientific, socioeconomic, and other problems of rational use of natural resources. In general the ecological concept of GRB management is directed to reach the following aims:

Protection and restoration of the hydrological regime of GRB, natural (terrestrial and aquatic) ecosystems as a main condition for the supporting of the vital activity of the region;

Development of environmental-friendly activity, land use/land cover measures, sustainable power, agriculture, transport and communication infrastructures;

Development of human potential, preservation of spiritual and cultural welfare, physical health.

Continuum of e-flow in the main channel and major tributaries at required water quality level.


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Biodiversity maintains the critical ecosystem processes that support life. Healthy, functioning ecosystems are necessary to maintain and regulate the atmosphere, climate, fresh water, soil formation, cycling of nutrients, and disposal of wastes. Hence, Biodiversity Management Planning is needed to develop strategies to enhance biodiversity in the selected area, by sustaining current biodiversity values and providing opportunities for migration of plants and animals to support ecosystem functions for the longer term. The strategies must be based on sound information and ongoing monitoring to assess trends and outcomes. The main function of the Biodiversity Management Plan's is to provide a program to manage biodiversity at various levels of policy makers. Each strategy in the action plan specifies key actions, responsible personnel, and timelines.

Importance of Ganga in Scriptures All Hindu spiritual literature from the Vedas, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, to the eighteen Puranasmention the purity and glory of Mother Ganga and several of these texts have elaborate hymns in her praise. Below are just a few of these passages:

Bhagavad Gita "Pavanah pavataam asmi, Raamah shastra-bhrtaam aham, jhasaanaam makaras caasmi, srotasaam asmi Jaahnavi." - "Of purifiers I am the wind, of the wielders of weapons I am Rama, of fishes I am the shark, and of flowing rivers I am the Ganga." Lord Krishna, Bhagavad Gita

"Living creatures are nourished by food, and food is nourished by rain; rain itself is the water of life, which comes from selfless worship and service." Bhagavad Gita Upanishads "Prithiviya Apo Rasah" - "The water is the essence of earth." Chhandogya Upanishad

Puranas "Food from the devotee of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Ganga water, the mind engaged in the Lotus Feet of Lord Vishnu and the day of Lord Hari, named Ekadasi, these are all pure and thus holy." - Conversation between Markandeya and Bhagiratha, Hari Bhakti Vilasa 9/283 from the Skanda Purana


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"India is great, the Himalaya is great, but the region in the Himalayas where Ganga is born is especially great because that is the place where She [Ganga] exists in confluence with Narayana." Skanda Purana "Even if thousands and thousands of sinners touch the dead bodies and bathe in thee [Ganga], all those will be destroyed when devotees will come and touch thee." The Devi Bhagavatam, Skanda IX "Thousands of man's sins get destroyed by the holy site of the Ganges, and he becomes pure by the touch of the water of the Ganges, by consuming it, or just by pronouncing Ganga." Garuda Purana "Mountains of sins accumulated by a sinner in the course of his millions of transmigrations on earth disappear at a mere touch of the sacred Ganga water. Cleansed will he be also, who even breathes some of the air moistened by the holy waters." Brahmavaivarta Purana

Mahabharata "By holding that sacred stream, touching it, and bathing in its waters, one rescues one's ancestors to the seventh generation." Mahabharata "That end which a creature is capable of attaining by penances, by Brahmacharya, by sacrifices, or by practicing renunciation, one is sure to attain by only living by the side of Bhagirathi and bathing in her sacred waters." Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, Chapter 27, Verse 26 "One may, by putting forth one's best powers, count the stones that occur in the mountains of Meru or measure the waters that occur in the ocean, but one cannot count all the merits which belong to the waters of Ganga." Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, Chapter 27, Verse 97 "Ganga always extends her unto those that are devoted to her with humbleness of heart. She unites those that are so devoted to her with every kind of happiness." Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, Chapter 27, Verse 100


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Other texts "Apo hi stha mayobhuvah" - "Water is the great sustainer like the mother." Taittriya Samhita "Bhagavadgitaa kinchidadhitaa gangaa jalalavakanikaa pitaa, sakrdapi yena muraarisamarcaa kriyate tasya yamena na carco." - "One who has studied the Bhagavad Gita just a little, drunk even a drop of Ganga water, has worshipped Murari (Krishna) just once, does not meet with Yama (the lord of death)." Bhaja Govindam, Verse 20, Adi Shankaracharya In many other religions, Ganga and water in general is held in reverence. Here are a few passages from other religions' Holy Scriptures in honor of Ganga/water: "Some try to find the Guru by shaving their heads at the Ganga, but I have made the Guru my Ganga." Shri Guru Granth Sahib

FAQS

1. Does the river Ganga really have the self purification property within itself?

As it flows through highly populous areas the Ganges collects large amounts of human pollutants, e.g., Schistosoma mansoni and faecal coliforms, and drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection. While proposals have been made for remediating this condition, little progress has been achieved. The combination of bacteriophages and large populations of people bathing in the river have apparently produced a self-purification effect, in which water-bourne bacteria such as dysentery and cholera are killed off, preventing large-scale epidemics. The river also has an unusual ability to retain dissolved oxygen, but the reason for this ability is not know. A UN Climate Report issued in 2007 indicates that the Himalayan glaciers that feed the Ganges may disappear by 2030, after which the river's flow would be a seasonal occurrence resulting from monsoons.Pollution of the Ganges has become so serious that bathing in and drinking its water has become very dangerous. The major polluting industry along the Ganges is the leather industry especially near Kanpur, from which Chromium and other chemicals leak into the river.


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Another huge source of pollution is that of the nearly 1 billion litres of mostly untreated raw sewage that enters the river every day. Inadequate cremation procedures result in partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating in the river. The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was set up in 1985 by the Indian government with British and Dutch support to build a number of waste treatment facilities. Under the GAP sewage is intercepted and water is diverted for treatment and several electrical crematoria have been built. The project is now in its second phase - GAP II. 2. Some interesting facts about river Ganga. River Ganga holds great importance in the economic, social and cultural life of the Indian people in general and Hindus in particular. Here are some interesting facts on the most sacred River of India, Ganga.

River Ganga is about 1557 miles long (2506 km).

The Ganges basin is about 200 to 400 miles (322 to 644 km) wide.

The river Ganga originates at Gangotri glacier on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, some 14, 000 feet above sea level.

River Bhagirathi and Alaknanda join each other at Devprayag to form River Ganga.

Major pilgrimage places on River Ganga are- Rishikesh, Haridwar, Varanasi and Prayag (Allahabad).

The mouth of River Ganga forms a vast delta, the Sundarban delta (the largest delta in the world).

There are two major dams on the Ganga. One at Haridwar and the other dam is a part of the hydroelectric project at Farakka.

3. The burning issue: Facts about Pollution in Ganga River and consequences? The Ganges River Pollution is now at such a high level that the amount of toxins, chemicals and other dangerous bacteria found in the river are now almost 3000 times over the limit suggested by the WHO as 'safe'. The river directly and indirectly affects the largest population of any river in the world with over more than 420 million people who rely on it for food, water, bathing and agriculture. And that is not to mention the tens of Millions of pilgrims who venture to India's most holy of rivers each year to bathe and worship.

Approximately 1 billion litres of raw, untreated sewage are dumped in the river on a daily basis. The amount has more than doubled in the last 20 years and experts predict another 100% increase in the following 20 years.

The rapid explosion of India's population in the last 25 years coupled with lax regulations on industry has put a huge strain on the river.

Thousands of bodies are cremated on the banks of the river yearly with many being released into the river with hopes that their souls may have a direct path to heaven.


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Hundreds Unwanted or 'illegitimate' babies, cattle and other animal carcases are also dumped in the Ganges again with religious significance

The levels of Coliform bacteria are over 2800 times the level considered safe by the W.H.O (world health organisation).

Industry Pollution: Some of the main Ganges river pollution contributors are those in industry - specifically in this case those of the leather industry who use vast amounts of chromium and other toxins and chemicals - the majority of which ends up in the slow paced waters of the Ganges during the dry season, peak time for the tanning industry and also when the river is moving at its slowest. Thanks to globalisation, international, national and local government this trend seems unlikely to get better with more and more factories cropping up every week and all running under a distinct lack of regulations. The consequences of Ganges river pollution Now these problems are huge on their own but couple with this with fact that India's holiest river, specifically at the banks of the ton of Varanasi, is considered as thepilgrimage site with tens of thousands of pilgrims entering the city every month to bathe, wash, sip and drink the water.

The river is now a leading cause of infant and child mortality rates, skin problems and some more, serious disabilities.

The Yamuna river, the main contributor to the Ganges has been completely devoid of all water and sea life for the past 15 year!

Another of the main issues of the Ganges river pollution is the vast irrigation networks which have cropped up to feed India's ever expanding population - These vast networks of canals and ditches slowly but surely filter off the water from the Ganges and it's subsidiaries causing an alarming drop in the water levels, especially in the dry season.

4. How we can participate in Ganga conservation?

There are many possible ways of contributing in conservation of Ganga. Type of

participation needs a understanding of the problem and also a willingness to work

for a long time in future. Few ways of contributing can be following.

Cleaning of Banks.

Treatment of waste water before disposing in the river.

Monitoring of the Water Quality.

Beautification of the banks and reviving the cultural practices.

Research of other issues related to water management in context of the Ganga River Basin e.g Biodiversity, landscape, Demography etc.

Polythene bags, we all know are used to package and bag many items including food.

Such items are secured and portable in these rubber bags.


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The use of polythen for such an easy packaging also makes it possible for most

people to handle food in such a hygienic way. The fact that these ‘’for once’’ bags

are useful does not make them the ultimate solution of the purpose for which they

are used.

It is because it is very easy to manufacture them, which have led to their abundance,

that we think we must use them. We also think that the industries that manufacture

them form part of the satisfaction that seems to quench our quest for industrial

development. If care is not taken some industrial engagements will always

necessitate the creation of other industries only to take care of their mess.

Our present situation is exactly the case. We are very proud to have got the

industries that produce polythene bags. These industries have always done well for

continuous production to fill our markets with their products, and for that matter to

the reach of the even the poorest.

Such an endeavor would have been a very great economic achievement. However,

the behavior of most Ghanaians suggests the diversion of the efforts of the

polythene industries. We have always failed to attest to the fact that it takes

behavior to be a savior.

People defecate into these bags, just like the way they are used to rap food only to

be thrown away at places where we live, work or even cook and eat. This has been

the practice of the socially unfriendly people in our society. Most people also use

them in place of other containers for many purposes and drop them anywhere after

use. People use them to rap food even at home and throw them away anywhere

after use.

5. Actions taken for cleaning Ganga River. Government of India through its Ministry of Environment & Forests implemented the following for cleaning and conservation of River Ganga:

Intercepting untreated municipal sewage and industrial wastewater flowing into river and diverting to sewage treatment plant

Setting up Sewate Treatment Plants (STP) in the cities lying along the river for treatment of sewage and wastewater with suitable technologies for the standards for river dischare and letting treated effluent into river

Construction of bio gas/electrical crematoriums in the river bank

Construction of bathing ghats/toilets to eliminate open defecation in river bank

Improvements to river banks to ensure its stability against erosion

Afforestation, creating avenues along river bank

Solid waste management systems to prevent dumping of solid wastes in the river


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Coach: 4 North-East India

Introduction North-East India is the Land of the Rising Sun in India North East India comprises eight states nestled in the Eastern Himalayas, North Eastern Hills and Assam Plains. This region marks the confluence of Indo-Malayan, Indian, Indo-Chinese, Indo-Burmese & Indo-Japanese bio-geographical elements. The altitude ranges from 200 m to 8600 m. The climate varies from near tropical to near alpine. The greater part of the region has, however, subtropical climate characterized by high humidity, and moderate temperature. The annual precipitation ranges from 1637 mm to 6317 mm. The world’s wettest place, Mawsynram (11,872 mm annual rainfall) is located in this zone. The region has an uneven topography with undulating mountains. The major peaks include Kanchendzonga (the highest mountain peak in India and third highest in the world (8585 m), Tawang, Zafu etc. Amidst the hills, lie more than two lakh hectare of wetlands, which harbour a wide range of aquatic flora and fauna. Assam alone has more than 3500 wetlands (>50 ha). The major wetlands of the region include three Ramsar Sites (wetlands of international importance), namely Loktak, Deepor beel and Rudrasagar. The major rivers of North East include the Brahmaputra, Barak, Teesta and their tributaries. Did you know? The North East is called ‘the land of the rising sun in India’, because the sun rises first in India in Dong, a village in easternmost Arunachal Pradesh.

Many Faces, Many Tongues The North East has among the highest ethnic, bio-cultural and linguistic diversity in India. The region is home to more than 220 tribes with more than 1000 languages and dialects. They include Indo-Mongoloid, Tibeto-Burman and Proto-Austroloid races. Rice: The Staple Food The North East region, with 6 distinct agro-climatic zones, is very rich in indigenous rice varieties including a number of aromatic varieties. Depending on the season, place and system of agriculture, rice varieties grown in the region can be classified into 6 major groups:


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Ahu (autumn rice)

Sali (winter rice)

Boro (spring/summer rice)

Asra (shallow water rice)

Bao (deep water/floating rice)

Hill rice. North East India is believed to be the Center of Origin of citrus. King Chilli is believed to be one of the hottest chillis in the world. Six major groups of rice are grown in this region Hot Hotter Hottest A great variety of chilli is grown in North East India. This includes popular varieties like King Chilli (Bhut Jolokia), Dhan Jolokia, Khud Jolokia, Krishna Jolokia etc. King chilli belongs to genus Capsicum which includes more than 25 species. Add “C” to Health More than 17 species of citrus and their 52 cultivars have been reported from this region. As many as 32 strains of lemon alone are available in North East region Did you know? Nokrek Biosphere Reserve in Meghalaya is the country’s first protected area for Citrus

A Plenitude of Plants The region accounts for nearly 50 per cent of the total number of plant species in India. Many of the flora found here are endemic to the region. 6 species of pines out of 7 found in the world are found in North East. Approximately 7500 species of flowering plants, 1000 species of non-flowering plants are found here. 28 species are Gymnosperms (plants whose seeds are not enclosed in an ovule, e.g. a pine cone). 97 ferns and 144 orchids are endemic to North East. Many primitive plants like Tree fern, Magnolia, Ginkgo biloba are found in the region. Out of 124 types of forest in India 54 types of forests are represented here. Bamboo North East India accounts for over 63 species of Bamboo classified under 20 genera. This tall grass is an integral part of the culture and day-to-day life of the people of this region, particularly those living in the rural areas. Himalayan ginseng (Panax pseudoginseng) It has high medicinal properties–believed to be a stamina-boosting plant as it contains sapogenins.


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Taxus wallichiana An important gymnosperm which yields a valuable anti-cancer compound called taxol. Did you know? The Giant or King Fern (Angiopteris evecta) is one of the largest ferns on earth. This rare and endangered fern species is found in Arunachal Pradesh. It is used by the local people as a substitute for staple food during food shortage.

Magnificent Mammals Royal Bengal Tiger The 5 Tiger Reserves in the region are home for over 150 tigers. 329 species of mammals are distributed over a wide range of habitats from mountain peaks to floodplain wetlands in North East India. One-horned Rhino Kaziranga National Park alone is home to 2290 rhinos out of 2505 found in the region. The rhino population is confined to riverine grasslands of the Himalayas only. Asian Elephant The second largest elephant population (more than 9000) in the country is found in the region. There are 8 Elephant Reserves and 58 elephant corridors. Did you know? The larget population of the wild water buffalo in the world is found in this region. A Paradise of Birds Some of the rarest birds of the world like Greater Adjutant Stork, Bengal Florican, Green Peafowl and Bugun Liocichla are found in North East. 3 species – Manipur Bush Quail, Marsh Babbler and Black Breasted Parrot bill – are endemic to the Assam plains. North East is also home to several species of critically endangered vultures. Apart from the resident species, during the winter, a wide number of migratory birds like the Bar Headed Goose visit this region from Siberia and Mongolia. This region is a part of the migration route – Central Asian flyway. Did you know? Out of about 1300 bird species reported from India, North East is home to about 900 species. Creatures Big and Small - 44 Lizard species reported out of 201 species found in India - 102 Snakes species out of the 275 identified from India.


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- 21 tortoises and freshwater turtle’s species found out of 29 species known to occur in the country. North East is a ‘Hotspot’ of tortoises and freshwater turtles within India. - 105 Amphibian species out of 286 reported from India. - 267 Fresh Water Fish species have been reported. - 3624 Insect species have been reported. Did you know? Assamese Balloon Frog is only found in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It is endemic to North East India.

Wave to our Close Relative! The Hoolock Gibbon It gets its name Hoolock from the howling sound that it makes. Gibbons are apes. Look at the Pictures. • What is the most prominent feature of the face? • How are they different? The male is black. The female is brown. • Notice the arms and legs. The arms of the Hoolock Gibbon are normally double the length of its legs. Did you know? 15 out of 31 known species of primates found in India are reported from the North East.

Wave Celebrating Biodiversity Bihu: Farming FestivalsThree bihus are celebrated in Assam. Rogali the spring festival is celebrated in April for preparation of farming activity. Kongali is for worshipping the gods for a prosperous yield. The lighting of lamps around paddy fields helps to control pests. Bhogali is a post harvest festival. The traditional dishes for the festival feasts are made from a variety of cereals and seasonal vegetables. Hornbill Festival: Unity in Diversity This most important festival of Nagaland is named after the bird Hornbill (Dhanesh). The aim of the festival is to revive and protect the rich culture of Nagaland and display its traditions. The festival signifies unity in diversity. Jon Beel Mela: Conserving the Wetland Jon Beel Mela is a century-old festival of Assam. The three-day mela held in the second or third week of Magh is known for the Gobha Haat. This is the only fair of North East India where the barter system still exists. Before the mela, an Agni Puja, or fire worship, is performed for the well-being of mankind. The mela has great significance for the conservation of Jon Beel wetland.


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Sacred Groves Sacred groves are tracts of virgin forest with rich diversity. They have been protected by the local people for centuries because of the cultural taboos and beliefs that the deities reside in these and protect the villagers from calamities. Several plants and animals that are threatened in other forests are still well conserved in some of the sacred groves. The sacred identity of these forest tracts plays a significant role in promoting sustainable utilization and conservation of flora and fauna of the region. Sacred groves demonstrate an inextricable link between present society and the past in terms of biodiversity, cultural, religious and ethnic heritage. Did you know? The sacred groves, managed by the Lamas and the Mompa tribe in Arunachal Pradesh are known as Gompa forest area. Gompa means Monastery. Going Going... Human activities are posing a serious threat to the biodiversity of the region. Some of these are: a) Developmental projects: Construction of hydro power dams, roads, railways, industries, townships etc., though inevitable, are leading to loss of forests and posing threat to the wildlife in these habitats. b) Poaching Rhino, Tiger, Elephant and Snakes are some of the prime targets of poachers. This region is on the route of the illegal international trade of wild animals to South East Asia. c) Encroachment Forests and wetlands are being encroached upon by people for agricultural practices and settlement. This is a major cause of habitat loss for wildlife. Did you know? Why are they poached? Rhino for its horn Elephant for its tusks Tiger for its skin and bones Snake for the skin

Special Places for Special Species 25 per cent of the birds, mammals, reptiles and other vertebrates found here are endemic (not found anywhere else in the world) to the region. North East India is also home to some of the flora and fauna which are found only in a few other places on the globe.


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Did you know? Two Biodiversity Hotspots–Indo Burman and Himalayan–are found here. Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes khasiana) is a carnivorous plant found only in the Khasi hills of Meghalaya. Golden Langur is named for its golden coloured fur. It is restricted to the western part of Assam. Pygmy Hog is found only in Assam. These are among the smallest pigs in the world. Orange bellied Capped Langur is an endemic langur of North East India. Did you know? The largest population of Greater Adjutant Stork is found in Assam.

Working Together to Conserve Biodiversity Recovery Activities in Manas–A World Heritage Site Manas National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Park was tagged as “in danger” after serious wildlife depletion due to political unrest. The Forest Department, Bodoland Territorial Council and Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) developed a recovery plan for the site. Activities like translocation of hand raised calves of rhinos and elephants were taken up. Initiatives like Rhino Vision 2020 and Project Tiger have immensely helped in the recovery of the Manas National Park. Active NGOs of the area including WWF-India, Aaranyak, WTI, Ecosystems India, Manas Maozigendri Eco- tourism Society, CEE, Green Manas, Natures’ Foster, have helped the Forest Department in implementing the recovery plan and raising public awareness. This collective effort has succeeded in the removal of the “in danger tag” from Manas National Park. Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme The Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme was started in 1995 to revive populations of the Pygmy Hog through conservation breeding. Captive bred populations are being acclimatized and released into Nameri, Sonai-Rupai and Orang protected areas. Many international and national organizations including the State Forest Department, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Ecosystems India are involved in the project. Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation The Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation is the first rescue and rehabilitation centre near a protected area in India. CWRC was established in August 2002 near the Kaziranga National Park with the primary aim to stabilize displaced animals and release them back into the wild. This is a joint venture of Wildlife Trust of India–International Fund for Animal Welfare, and Assam Forest Department. This is one of the most successful rescue and rehabilitation centres with more than 83 per cent successful rescues.


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Indian Rhino Vision 2020 IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Asian Rhino Specialist Group is helping to rehabilitate a once dwindling population of the magnificent Greater-One Horned Rhinoceros. In order to reduce the risks to the Indian rhino population by overcrowding, disasters and disease, The Indian Rhino Vision - 2020 aims to ensure that rhinos are evenly distributed throughout their home range. Translocations are the driving force in the successful comeback of the Greater One-horned Indian Rhino. Community Conservation Initiative

Adding Value to Grasses Magic Brooms Broom grass (Thysanolaema maxima) is an important Non Timber Forest Produce of Tripura. Traditionally the broom grass was collected and sold as raw grass through MARKFED, a state level public sector undertaking. In 2011, under the Tripura JICA Project, the Government of Tripura launched a pilot project to involve 500 households of 14 Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) in harvesting, processing, and value addition of this important NTFP. Some portion of the grass was sold as raw grass, and some portion was used by the members of the JFMCs for making brooms, i.e. value addition. The project yielded a harvest of 522 MT worth Rs 3 crore. Through this initiative the members of the JFMCs got the financial benefit directly without any intervention of middlemen. The project was extended in 9 Ranges in the next harvesting season. A Fragrant Business Tripura supplies approximately 25,000 MT of raw bamboo sticks that account for 60 per cent of the total raw sticks requirement for incense stick production in the country. Tripura JICA Project launched ‘Incense Stick Making’ as a sustainable income generating activity for the members of the 130 Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMC). Following the training, most of the members started this activity, and through this value addition, have been able to supplement their household income by Rs 2000/- to 2,500/-per month. About 1.5 lakh artisans are engaged in value addition of bamboo in the state. Khonoma Khonoma is the first village in Nagaland to impose a ban on logging and hunting in community forests. The conservation effort was initiated by the local community. The village started the ban on logging in 1996. Subsequently, demarcation of the area as a sanctuary was envisioned, and as a result in December 1998, Khonoma Nature Conservation and Tragopan Sanctuary were established. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) provided support to build capacity of the village council in the context of biodiversity conservation.


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Organizations like Kalpavriksh and others also extended support. Implementation of conservation and eco-tourism initiatives was taken up by Khonoma village council. The council has 3-4 representatives from each khel and 3 women members. The village now has a better forest cover, increased animal population and has become an eco-tourism destination for a number of tourists.

Further Reference

1. Biological Diversity of North East India –Introduction

The North Eastern region of India covering nearly 2, 62,379 sq. km. area has been divided into two biogeography zones – Eastern Himalaya and North East India, based on floristic composition, the naturalness of the flora and the local climate. The Eastern Himalaya comprising of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim is more me-sic due to high degree of precipitation resulting from direct confrontation of monsoon laid wind blowing from Bay of Bengal by abruptly raising hills. The North east India biogeography zone (Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura) is most significant one and represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese biogeography regions as well as a meeting place of Himalayan Mountains with that of Peninsular India. The North Eastern Region of India lies between 22*N and 29*5’N latitude and 88*00’E and 97*30’E longitudes, and shares international border with Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The region is geographical ‘gateway’ for much of India’s flora and fauna, and as a result, the region is one of the richest in biological values with vegetation types ranging from Tropical rain forest in the foothills to Alpine meadows and cold deserts. The North-East region of India contains more than one-third of the country’s total biodiversity. The region represents important part of Indo Myanmar bio-diversity hotspot, one of 25 global biodiversity hotspots recognized.

Flora

The region has at least 7,500 flowering plants, 700 orchids, 58 bamboos, 64 citrus, 28 conifers, 500 mosses, 700 ferns and 728 lichen species. Some of the important gene pools of citrus, banana and rice have been reported to be originated from this region (Anonymous 1996). About one third of the flora of Northeast India is endemic to this region. The eastern Himalaya support one of the world’s richest alpine floras with high level of endemism. According to WWF and ICIMOD 2001, the Temperate Broad Leafed forest type in eastern Himalaya is among the most species rich temperate forest in the world. Nearly 50% of the total flowering plants recorded from India hail from north eastern


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region of India (Rao 1994). Takhtajan (1969) treats this region as the ‘Cradle of flowering plants’. The region is habitat of many botanical curiosities and botanical rarities. Many families, represented in India by solitary genus with one or two species are represented in this region, e.g. Coriariaceae, Nepenthaceace, Turneraceae, Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Siphonodontaceae, Tetracentraceae, and a few others. The north eastern region of India forming the ‘Hindustan Centre of Origin of Cultivated Plants’ is very important for tropical and sub-tropical fruits, cereals etc. Over 50 species of economic plants have their genetic diversity in this region. There are based on geographical distribution, taxonomical and cytogenetically studies, and Assam-Burma-Siam-Indo-China region as the centre of origin of Musa. Out of estimated 800 species consumed as food plants in India, about 300 species occur in Eastern Himalaya alone. Orchidaceous, the most fascinating and highly evolved groups of plants with 1229 species belonging to 184 genera in India, about 700 species have been reported from north 27 eastern region of India. Of these, 545 species belonging to 122 genera are reported from only Arunachal Pradesh of which 12 species are under endangered category, 16 species vulnerable and 31 species threatened. The genus Rhododendron of Ericaceous is another remarkable group of showy plants with nearly 98% of the total Rhododendrons reported from India are confined to Himalayan region. In total 72 species, 20 sub species and 19 varieties listed from India, eastern Himalaya region harbors 71 species. Out of 12 species, 2 sub species and 5 varieties of Rhododendron endemic to India, in north eastern region, Arunachal Pradesh has maximum number of endemic species with 9 species and 1 sub species, followed by Manipur and Sikkim with 3 species and 1 sub species and Mizoram with 2 species. Rattans, commonly known as cane is one of the most important NTFP from North East India. Of 60 species of canes reported from India, north eastern region harbors more than 26 species with nearly 18 species distributed in Arunachal Pradesh. Out of 150 species of bamboos found in India, 63 species in 22 genera are found in Northeast India, spread over an area of 30,500 sq. Km. about 25 species of bamboo is considered rare in Northeast India.

Fauna

The region is equally rich in faunal diversity. An estimated 3,624 species of insects, 50 mollusks, 236 fishes, 64 amphibians, 137 reptiles, 541 birds and 160 mammalian species have been so far described. The remoteness of the region and difficult terrain make it extremely difficult to document the faunal diversity of the region. However, a new species of barking deer, ‘Leaf Deer (Muntiacus putaoensis), which was recently discovered in Myanmar, is reported from the forests of Arunachal


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Pradesh in the year 2003 (Datta et al 2003) and more recently the findings on Tawang macaque (Macaca munjala) as a new record for India, this justifies the above observation that much is yet to be identified, named and studied in Northeast India.

Primates

Three families of primates’ occur in India with 15 known species, nine of these species occur in North east India. The Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei) is one of the most localized species, between Manas and Sankosh Rivers in the Himalayan foothills along the Assam - Bhutan border areas. This narrow endemic was discovered in Chakrashilla Hills Reserve in the Dhubri District of Assam, and the area has been turned into a wildlife sanctuary. The Slow Loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) is an inhabitant of tropical forests south of the Brahmaputra River in Northeast India.

Carnivores

Of the six largest cats of the world recorded from India, state of Arunachal Pradesh only sustain four of them - the Tiger (Panthera tigris), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and the Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa). Of these, the Indian population of the Clouded Leopard is restricted to the Northeastern region. Tiger has become a very rare animal in the entire region with exception of Assam which is still considered as one of the safest asylum for this large cat. Very little information is available about the status of Snow Leopard in the region. As per IUCN criterion, the approximate total habitat of Red Panda in India is about 25,000sq.km out of which 23,000sq.km is in Arunachal Pradesh. If the lowest average density, i.e., one panda per 4.4sq.km is taken as a guideline, then there could be around 5000 to 6000 animals in India with bulk (about 90%) in Arunachal Pradesh. All the bear species that occur in India are recorded from the northeastern region. Besides, Northeast India forms the western end of the range for Malayan Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus).

Ungulates

The foothill grasslands and broadleaf forest harbor important population of Asian elephant, one horned rhinoceros and wild water buffalo. The elephant population in the north bank of the Brahmaputra River in Assam is one of the India’s largest and most important. Of the 28000 wild elephants in India, about 33% are found in Northeast India. In fact, Assam alone accounts for more elephants than Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia or any other country in Asia.


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In Northeast India Great Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is now restricted to Kaziranga, Pabitora and Orang in Assam. The population at Manas in Assam is believed to have been decimated in recent years. Historical records suggest that both the One-horned Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) and the Two-horned Sumatran Rhinoceros (Didermocerus sumatrensis) were once found in parts of Northeast India. Both the species are now extinct from the region. The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi eldi), locally known as Sangai is endemic to Manipur and one of rarest and the most localized subspecies of deer in the world. The Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius) is the smallest and the rarest wild suid in the world, and only a few isolated wild populations survive in Northeast India. Arunachal Pradesh is home to some fasinating large herbivores such as newly discovered Chinese Goral (Naemorhedus goral), Red Goral (Naemorhedus baileyi), Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) and Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis).

Birds

The Eastern Himalayas and Assam plains are the two endemic bird areas among the 7 such areas identified in the country. This region perhaps supports the highest diversity of bird species in the Orient. From Arunachal Pradesh over 760 bird species have been reported. The Elliot’s Laughing Thrush (Garrulax elliotii) and Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrush (G. henrici) are two species that have been recently added to the region’s list, from Arunachal Pradesh. Both these species had previously been recorded only in China.

White winged Duck, which has been reported form D’Ering Wildlife Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh (Kaul 2000) is identified as highly endangered duck. Sangte Valley of Arunachal Pradesh is only habitat for wintering Black Necked Crane (Grus nigricolis). Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) is a globally threatened bird with the majority of the world’s population now found in Assam. Spot-billed Pelican (Pelicanus philippensis), Blacknecked Stork (Ephippiorhyncus asiaticus), Lesser Adjutant (Leptotilos javanicus), and Pale-capped Pigeon (Columba punicea), are only to name a few of the globally threatened birds found in the region. Swamp Francolin (Francolinus gularis), found in Northeast India, is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis) is one of the rarest bustards in the world. Manas National Park has the largest population of this bird in the world. Lesser Fish Eagle (Icthyophaga humilis) is the rarest of the fish and sea eagles, and there are reports of its sightings in Namdapha in Arunachal Pradesh.


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The highly endangered Rufous-vented Prinia of the eastern population, regarded as a separate species ‘Swamp Prinia’ (Prinia cinerascens), is reported from the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam. Beautiful Nuthatch (Sitta Formosa) is a resident of primary forests of Northeast India.

Lower Vertebrates

So far 137 species of reptiles have been recorded from Northeast India which has the greatest affinity to the Oriental, Indo – Malayan and Indo – Chinese regions. The Gharial (Gavialis 29gangeticus) found in Brahmaputra River is of great conservation significance. Northeast India has the highest diversity of turtles. As recently as 2000, a chelonian species -Amyda cartilaginaea, was reported from Mizoram as a first record for India, the previous range for this species being from southern Myanmar to central Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand. The black softshell turtle (Aspideretes nigricans) was once considered as extinct (IUCN 2002) has been rediscovered recently from Assam Valley (Praschag and Gamel 2002). 20 lizard species from the State of Assam and 18 species from the tiny state of which is profoundly influenced by the Indo-Chinese connection have been recorded so far. The Tokay Gecko (Gekko gekko) is the largest gecko alive today and is found in northeast India. Fifty eight species of snakes have been recorded in Assam, 34 from Manipur and 92 from Arunachal Pradesh. Python reticulatus, the largest snake in India, is found in northeast India and Python molurus bivittatus is the most commonly known in the region. One can expect to sight both the snakes in ‘Mouling National Park’ in the Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh. King Cobra (Ophiophagus Hannah) is the most awe-inspiring reptile of the region. Typhlops jerdoni, T. tenuicollis, Stoliczkaia khasiensis, Elaphe mandarina, Oligodon melazonotus, Xenochrophis punctulatus, Bungarus bungaroides, Trimeresurus jerdoni are just a few examples of very elusive and rare snakes of Northeast India. So far 64 species of amphibians have been recorded from the Northeast India. A survey of amphibians conducted in the State of Nagaland from 1998 to 2002 has resulted in 19 species as new records for the State and 5 species (Megophrys wuliangshanensis, M. glandulosa, Amolops viridimaculatus, Rana humeralis and Rhacophorus gongshanensis) as new records for India. Orang Wildlife Samctuary in Assam is the only known site to have the Orang Sitcky Frog (Kalophrynus orangensis).


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Invertebrates

The Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Northeast Ecoregion suggest that 3,624 species of insects and 50 molluscs are recorded from the region (Tripathi and Barik 2003). Butterflies and moths are by far the best-studied invertebrate organisms in Northeast India, and the region contributes the maximum number of species for the group in the country. A decade ago, 689 species of butterflies were recorded from the State of Sikkim. An ecological study on Mammals, Birds, Herpetofauna and Butterflies carried out in Teesta Basin, Sikkim, revealed nearly 350 species of butterflies in altitudes less than 900 m. In the study area the family Nymphalidae is recorded to be the most species rich forming 50% of the observed species, followed by Lycaenidae and Pieridae (17.2% each). Papilionidae and Hesperiidae have relatively low species richness, forming only 8.6% and 7.0% of the species, respectively. As species richness in the study area was found to be far greater than that reported earlier, especially at higher altitudes, this particular study highlights the importance of altitudinal gradients in the distribution of butterflies, and in their conservation. One of the largest known tropical Lepidoptera is the Atlas Moth (Attacus atlas), is not uncommon in many parts of Northeast India. Princeps polyctor ganesa, which occurs in Northeast India, is one of the most beautiful butterflies in the country, while, -Erysmia pulchella and Nyctalemon Patroclus are very beautiful moths that occur in the region. It is pertinent to add that sericulture is an ageold occupation for some people in states like Assam and Manipur, especially in the ‘Loi’ community in Manipur who have rendered the skill of silkworm rearing and silk weaving to art form.

North-East India – Geographical Facts

The northeast India, being at the confluence of three major bio-geographical realm of the world, is extremely rich in floral and faunal biodiversity with several endemic species. Northeast, with seven states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura), represents one of the few hot spots of biodiversity of the world. All the northeastern states make up for about 8% of the total geographical area of the country, but has about 25% of the country’s total forest areas supporting about 30% of the total growing stock of the forest of the country.


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Nearly 64% of the total geographical area of northeast (2,55,000 km2) is having forest cover, of which only 35% of forest are under the control of Government and rest 65% are under the control of District Council, Village Communities and Private Ownership. About 70% of the total geographical area is mountainous and hilly and rest 30% is under Brahmaputra and Barak valley systems. The entire region is highly populated with about two third of total human population [31.5 million (1991 census)] is in Assam and remaining in other 6 states. The human population density is ca. 250 persons/km2 in Tripura and Assam, less than 100 persons /km2 in Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya, and about 10 persons/km2 in Arunachal Pradesh. The demographic feature of northeastern states is unique in that there are more than 100 recognized tribes, which inhabit mostly the hill areas and each with distinct culture, ethos, and traditional knowledge systems. The majority of the people survive on subsistence economy based mainly on the agriculture, supplemented with limited horticulture, animal husbandry, crafts/handloom, etc. The forestry and wildlife resources contribute substantially in meeting even the needs of subsistence economy, which make the dependency of the people on the forestry resources very high. The use of areas rich in forestry and wildlife resources (mainly of practicing shifting cultivation across the region) and extraction of various forest products from the forests is in vogue since long past as an accepted practice. One unique feature of this natural-resource-dependent economy is its close and intimate linkages with the social, cultural, and traditional institutions and life-style of various communities. This linkage between the life-style and extraction and utilization of natural resources, which was in total harmony till the carrying capacity of the natural resources was sufficient to cater to the burgeoning needs of the people, has now over the past few decades totally disturbed following fast degeneration of the natural resources on the one hand and multiple increase in the user groups. Another major conservation problem is the inter-state border disputes and presence of a long and porous international boundary, which also facilitate draining down of natural forestry and wildlife resources across the border, thus further depriving the states with their natural wealth. A small contribution to this is also from the present civil unrest problem in the state, which is quite adversely affecting the management of protected areas as well as other forests under the management and control of the Government. Northeast India is one of the rainiest regions of the world being fed with two monsoons. The highest rainfall area is also present in this region, the town called Mawsynram, about 10 km away from earlier highest rainfall area (Chirapunjee) in the state of Meghalaya (the abode of clouds and also called as Scotland of India).


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The tropical climate of the regions with high rain fall and plenty of sun-light coupled with unique bio-geographical positioning of this region is responsible for rich biodiversity in terms of floral and faunal elements. Recognizing the importance of this region as one of the hot spots, majority of the biodiversity rich areas of the region has been placed inside the protected area network system comprising mainly of the National Parks and Sanctuary. However, the total area under the protected area network is only about 6.5%, which ideally should be around 10% as per the policy of the government.

Threats and Pressure on Biodiversity

• Dichotomy in Forest Administration

Most of the forests in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya and Nagaland are owned by private individuals, communities and clans and local communities have traditional ownership and user 30rights over such forest areas. The ownership rights over land and resources are further protected by the sixth schedule of Indian Constitution. The acts and rules framed by the state and national governments are therefore not applicable to such forests to ensure their protection (Tripathi and Barik 2003). This necessitates the framing of appropriate policies and laws to effectively manage these forests.

• Deforestation

Northeast India has 64% of the total geographical area under forest cover and it is often quoted that it continues to be a forest surplus region. However, the forest cover is rapidly disappearing from the entire region. There has been a decrease of about 1800 sq.km, in the forest cover between 1991 and 1999 (F.S.I., 2000). More worrisome still is the fact that the quality of the forest is also deteriorating, with the dense forests (canopy closure of 40% or more) becoming degraded into open forest or scrub. For example, though the forest cover in Manipur extends to 78% of the total geographic area, only 22% of forest area is under dense forest cover and the rest has been converted to open forests. Unregulated shifting cultivation, extended over 1.73 million ha (F S I, 1999), by the local tribal populations due to shortening of jhum cycle has been one of the major reason of deforestation, mainly in unclasped and community forests of the region. In the absence of any alternative livelihood source, shifting cultivation continues to be the main stay of sustenance for a vast majority of the forest dwellers.


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• Species loss

Many forest bird species, especially those with ranges restricted to Northeast India declined in abundance or disappeared in succession fallows followed for the shifting cultivation practices in the region, unless regeneration exceeded 10 years (Raman 2001).Studies conducted on the Phayrer’s Langur (T. phayrei) revealed that it needs at least 9-10 years fallow period to survive in secondary forest. However, a progressively shortening cycle of shifting cultivation and degradation of forests poses a threat even for such adaptive animals. Similarly, studies conducted reveal that arboreal mammal species such as Malayan Giant Squirrel, Pallas’s Squirrel (Callosciurus erythraeus) and Hoolock Gibbon are dependent on tall, undisturbed primary forests or at least, late succession vegetation (25 years old, or more) (Raman 1997). However, it is a stark reality that in most parts of Northeast India, fallow periods have declined to 5-10 years and in some places may be as short as 3-5 years. With sharp decline in their populations, the role of birds, bats, ungulates and primates as seed dispersers is decreasing, leading to further impoverishment of the primary as well as the secondary forests. It should be a matter of disquiet that only a meager 4.4% of the geographical area is under State Forest department, the rest being land belonging to other categories like Private Forest, Clan Forests.

North-East India as a Global Biology Hotspot

Norman Myers, a conservation biologist, in 1988 first identified ten tropical forest ‘hotspots’ characterized by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious levels of habitat loss. In 1990, Myers added another 8 spots to his list. Conservation International adopted Myer’s hotspots as its institutional blue print in 1989, and in1996. To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemic and it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. These are the areas which are under constant threat due to human pressure. In the 1999 analysis, in all 25 hotspots were identified. A second major analysis was undertaken and the number or global hotspots stood at 34 in 2005.Overall, the 34 hotspots once covered 15.7% of the Earth’s land surface. In all 86% of the hotspots’ habitat has already been destroyed. The intact remnants of the hotspots now cover only 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface.


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Over 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to these 34 biodiversity hotspots. Among the 34 hotspots of the world, two have been identified in India - The Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats. These are particularly rich in floral wealth and endemism, not only in flowering plants but also reptiles, amphibians, butterflies and mammals.

Fast disappearing forests & species of the Northeast India

The primary vegetation in extensive areas of the Northeast India has been disturbed and modified and in some places destroyed by seismic activities, frequent landslides and resultant soil erosion. While these natural causes have contributed only marginally to the change in vegetation type, it is the activity of Man that has led to the irreversible transformation in the landscapes and has resulted in colossal loss of biodiversity in the entire region. Human influences have pushed many species to the brink of extinction and have caused havoc to natural fragile ecosystems. Such devastations to natural ecosystems are witnessed almost everywhere in the region and is a cause of great concern. Northeast India has 64% of the total geographical area under forest cover and it is often quoted that it continues to be a forest surplus region. However, the forest cover is rapidly disappearing from the entire region. There has been a decrease of about 1800 sq.km. More worrisome still is the fact that the quality of the forest is also deteriorating, with the dense forests (canopy closure of 40% or more) becoming degraded into open forest or scrub. Though there is a succession of several seraphic formations, a vast area of land has already been transformed into barren and unproductive wastelands. This being the case, the statistics of ‘more than 64 % of the total geographic area in this region under forest cover’ could be misleading. For example, though the forest cover in Manipur extends to 78% of the total geographic area, only 22% of forest area is under dense forest cover and the rest has been converted to open forests. Except in the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys of Assam where substantial areas are under agriculture, little of the land is available for settled cultivation. Hence, shifting agriculture or slash-and-burn agriculture is the major land use in Northeast India and extends over 1.73 million hacker. Different agencies have come up with different figures concerning the total area under shifting cultivation (Jhum) in the region.


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What is not disputable is that with an ever shortening jhum cycle, the other human influences have caused environmental degradation with disastrous consequences. Though Northeast India is predominantly mountainous, the region is very rich in aquatic ecosystem diversity. A large number of Bheels, ponds and marshlands in the Lowlying and floodplain areas of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura represent the diversity in Lentic ecosystems. However, deforestation and the resultant loss of soil, especially in the hill areas, are leading to increased siltation of rivers and streams. The deep pools that are the favored habitats of many species are rapidly becoming shallow and choked with silt, leading to a decline in habitat. At the same time, swamps, marshes, and other wetlands are increasingly being reclaimed for urban and agricultural expansion. The forests of Assam once acted as a sponge, absorbing the tremendous impact of the monsoons. The natural drainage of the vast northeastern Himalaya is channeled through Assam and with the loss of thick forest cover, Brahmaputra, one of the largest and fastest flowing rivers of the subcontinent is creating havoc in the State. Floods that have devastating effects are now common to Northeast India and protecting the forests is a difficult problem. A vast majority of the indigenous inhabitants of this region are meat-eating in their food habits and almost all communities have expert hunters, trappers and fishermen. One can find bones, skulls and hides of large and small mammals in tribal huts. It should be noted that though the traditional practices of trapping, snaring etc of animals are carried out in very remote areas, in most parts of Northeast India shooting wild animals with guns is prevalent, giving very little chance for the denizens of the forests to recoup from such pressures. Besides, certain meat is valued as medicinal and such animals are persecuted as great efforts are made by a few individuals to seek such animals and bring back home their body parts. In the past, the hunting/trapping was done with considerable prudence with many taboos and restrictions. For example, the Anaal Naga in Manipur did not consume turtle or tortoise meat. The Maram Naga did not eat pork and the Thangkhul Naga did not eat any member of the cat family. Unfortunately, such taboos no more hold any sway among the people now. It is a great tragedy that in many parts of Northeast India some people poison the rivers, streams and other water bodies to get good catches of fish. Apart from using plant poisons, lime, DDT, copper sulphate (Cu SO4) and, other synthetic chemicals are being used for fishing. Some are even using dynamite and gelatin sticks for the same purpose.


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This has serious ill effects on the entire aquatic ecosystems. Fish stocks are being entirely wiped out; several species of amphibians, birds and other fish predators are also being affected in the process; and nothing is known as to what happens to human beings on consuming such poisoned fishes. Northeastern India is often called India’s forgotten corner and it was perceived that the remoteness of the place has helped preserve its biodiversity. However, the penetration of roads into interior areas has already exposed the local populace to market economy, unscrupulous urban traders and middlemen in most parts of the region. A series of proposed dams in the Northeastern region may lead to submergence of vast tracts of rainforests. Comprehensive environmental impact assessments, which are mandatory as per the law of the land, reveal the possible danger that these projects pose to the biodiversity of the region. The impregnability of certain forests in Northeast India is a source of only some protection, as this factor itself offers some hope for the survival of many species.

Basic Facts about North-East India

North East India Also known as NE, the region initially had the seven states- Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura and was coined as the "Seven Sisters of India". Later Sikkim also became a part of NE.

The zone is located in the Northeast region of India at a Latitude 21.57and Longitude 88with and area of 25.5 million Sq. Km (7.8% of the land mass of the country).

It borders China in North, Bangladesh to the South West, Bhutan and Nepal to the North West and Myanmar to the East.

“Chicken Neck" connects NE to the rest of India. It is narrow corridor of 33 km on eastern side and 21 km on Western Side.

Approximately 70% of NE is hilly region.

Myers 2000 recognized Northeast India as the 7 most bio diverse regions of the world.

NE possesses more than 550 varieties of orchids, which is said to be almost 70% of the total orchid species identified so far.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken


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Coach: 5 The Western Ghats

Panel Details

Western Ghats: Mountain chain that rises in Gujarat ends more than a thousand km away at Kanyakumari. The Western Ghats, or Sahyadris, are the ancient chain of mountain ranges that run from the southern border of Gujarat down to Kanyakumari, at 30 to 50 km inland along the west coast. More than 30 per cent of India's biodiversity is found here. The region harbours remarkable species diversity, of which around 332 are globally threatened species.

The Western Ghats Hill Ranges run to a length of about 1600 Kms, interrupted only between Maharastra and Karnataka by Goa Gap and near Palghat in the southern-most region by Palghat Gap.

The average elevation of the mountain range is 1200 m, or 3900 ft. It has 15 peaks, and the highest peak is Anamudi (elephant head) in Kerala (2695 m, or 8842 ft).

The region is rich in natural resources including plant products (timber, fruits, herbal medicine), animal products (lacquer, honey), and mineral wealth (iron and manganese).

It is home to a number of tribes who are the original inhabitants of the region.

The major rocks found here are basalt, laterite, granites and granite gneiss.

There are more than 400 forts, of which around 300 are in northern region.

Increasing human pressures have resulted in the degradation of the region. Once a dense forest, only one third areas now remains pristine. The Western Ghats are identified as one of the world's 8 'Hottest Hotspots', which makes it a critical bio-geographical region for conservation.

Which is Older, Himalaya or Western Ghats? It is believed that the Western Ghat ranges were in place even before peninsular India became part of the Asian mainland.During the breakup of the super continent Gondwana 150 million years ago, a large part split and moved northwards to collide with the Asian Mainland to become peninsular India. As it drifted over the localised volcanic centres of the earth, called the Reunion Hotspots, series of volcanic eruptions laid down the basaltic sheets or traps resulting in the elevation of its western part.


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The faults (fractures) caused in the earth’s crust during this process between 45 and 65 million years ago, gave rise to the present day hill chain of the Western Ghats. The Western Ghat ranges thus are Fault Mountains or fault-block mountains due to the uplift along the faults of Deccan plateau. Hence the ranges have high summits, steep slopes, long cliffs, deep valleys and high potential for erosion. An Ancient Link Studies of the species such as Myristica swamps purple frog in the Western Ghats and Madagascar have shown interesting resemblances providing evidence to the Gondwana split theory. Striking similarities between some of the species of the Western Ghats and the Himalayas such as Rhododendron tree, mountain goat, some bird and fish species indicate that the species distribution was once continuous. Such resemblances also provide evidences of the movement of the Indian land mass.

Endemic and Endangered Liontailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) endemic (not found anywhere else in the world) to the southern Western Ghats is endangered due to the destruction of lush green forests which is their habitat. Large populations are sighted in Silent Valley in Kerala, which is the only undisturbed home left for these monkeys. Have we lost this species? Isolated populations of the nocturnal Malabar large-spotted civet (Viverra civettina) once lived in the Malabar region. Now they are critically endangered. There are no confirmed records of its recent sightings! The Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) resembles wild goats (Capra genus) of the Himalayas. However, it is more closely related to the sheep (Ovis genus). As the name suggests, this is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the southern Western Ghats and lives in sholas (patches of forests separated by grasslands). It is now endangered due to the degradation of the sholas. The Indian Giant Squirrel, or Malabar Tree Squirrel (Ratufa indica), lives in the upper canopy of trees. This brown squirrel flattens itself on a tree branch when in danger, and the colour of its body blends with the background. It is nearly threatened due to the destruction of trees. Jungles for Jumbos The Western Ghats support nearly 15,000 Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), which is more than 50 per cent of the total elephant population of India. Major elephant ranges are in the Nilgiris.


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An adult elephant in the wild consumes 100 to 200 kg of vegetation per day from more than 50 plant species. Hence elephants require large forest ranges that make up their home (home range). They migrate from one forest to another through strips of vegetation called corridors that connect forests. Elephants have been an important part of Indian culture and religion from time immemorial. Elephant population is decreasing due to poaching for their valuable ivory and also due to significant reduction in the forest cover and disappearing corridors. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India launched Project Elephant in 1992 to protect and conserve elephant populations. Since migration corridors are vital for elephant conservation, the Project has identified 30 state corridors and 6 major interstate corridors in the Western Ghats. Bird Watchers' Paradise 508 bird species (including 144 aquatic) have been identified in the Western Ghats. Out of these at least 16 are endemic. Endemic to the Ghats the hornbill lacks casque, the spongy growth on the beak, which is prominent in other species of hornbills. Most birds are important pollinating and seed dispersal agents. This is very important for the regeneration and survival of the habitats. This hornbill particularly is a crucial seed dispersal agent in the Western Ghats. Vernal Hanging Parrot (Loriculus vernalis) is a resident breeder in the Western Ghats.

Incredible Invertebrate Diversity

About 6000 species of insects are recorded from Kerala alone! Among the invertebrate (without backbones) fauna, insects form the largest group in the Western Ghats. Out of 334 butterfly species reported from the Western Ghats, 37 butterfly species are endemic- found nowhere else on earth. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve alone has 315 species of butterflies! The Crimson Rose butterfly (Atrophaneura hector) is endemic to India and also found in the Western Ghats. The red colour in its wings gives out warning signals to its predators about its toxicity. Some other butterflies also mimic its warning patterns to avoid predators. As the name suggests the Southern Birdwing (Troides Minos), the largest butterfly in South India has a wing span of about 6 inches or 15 cm! More common in the Western Ghats, it is the highlight in butterfly walks. Its striking colour warns the predators about its unpalatability due to the toxins it collects from plants.


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There is also a high diversity of the molluscan fauna, particularly land snails, due to high rainfall. The endemic land snail (Indrella ampulla) shows great colour diversity from white, yellow, red to black. It is found along water bodies and other moist. habitats of the evergreen forests.

Original Inhabitants The Western Ghats first came under human influences during the Stone Age some 12,000 years ago! Tribes of the Western Ghats are the original inhabitants (Adivasis) of the region. There are several tribal communities in the region, living in small pockets. Coexisting with nature, each tribe has developed unique culture and practices closely linked with nature. They have rich knowledge of the local natural resources. Interestingly, each of these tribes uses different resources for their sustenance and livelihood, thereby not competing with the other. This supports the sustainable use, and harvest of the available resources.

Sustainable Living: The Way of Tribal Life

Todas: The Nobles of Nilgiris. The well-built Todas, supposed to be of some foreign origin, believe that they are the God-sent lords of the Nilgiris. Dairy is the livelihood of this pastoral community. The population of the Todas is less than 1000 today. Siddis: From East Africa to Uttara Kannada Siddis, supposed to have African ancestors have been living in the forests of Uttara Kannada district in Karnataka for the last 400 years. They believe that Barack Obama, the US President shares their genepool! They even wanted to gift him a bottle of honey during his visit to India in 2010! They practice agriculture, collect forest produce like honey, and occasionally hunt small animals. Colorful, traditional patch work quilts (kawandi or kaudi) stitched by Siddi women are popular the world over. In Harmony with Nature: The Warli Tribe. Living in the northern-most region of the Western Ghats, Warli, an agricultural tribe, is said to predict the onset of the monsoon using eco-indicators such as the time of the sunset, bird calls etc. They respect life forms and do not hunt unless it is a necessity. Traditional folk paintings of the Warli tribe revolve around nature, religious rituals and daily social life. The Kings of Wayanad Jungles: Kattunayakans Kattunayakan is one of the five primitive tribal groups in Kerala. They are also called Cholanaickan in Nilambur area and Pathinaickans in the plains of Malappuram district. Kattunayakans gather forest produce. Expert honey gatherers, they can even tell if there is honey in a hive hanging at a height of 20 m!


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Changing Times Troubled Tribes The tribes today form less than 5 per cent of the population in the Western Ghats. The umbilical cord between the tribes and the Ghats are being severed. Declining forests, developmental activities like dam construction, forest policies etc. have made life difficult for these tribes. Forced out of their traditional way of life and livelihood, tribes are finding it difficult to adapt to the changing lifestyles. Incidences of crimes and begging are on the rise. Allowing tribes to lead their traditional lifestyle and/or equipping them to lead a decent life before bringing them to the mainstream are the needs of the day. The 'hotspot' status of the Western Ghats defines only the protection of plants and animals, but not of the tribes who live there!

Promising Ventures How secure is the future of the Western Ghats? As the initiatives to conserve the Western Ghats Biodiversity increase, new challenges are emerging, particularly the complexity surrounding to the developmental projects and climate change. DNA Barcoding DNA barcodes are used in rapid assessment of species from samples. It is a cheaper taxonomic method that uses a short genetic marker in an organism's DNA to identify the species. The National and State Governments are planning the DNA barcoding project to identify and distinguish species in the Western Ghats, with the Kerala State initiating the project in threatened habitats.

Further Reference

Biodiversity in the Western Ghats

The Western Ghats is considered as one of the global biodiversity hot-spots. The Western Ghats comprises of over 5000 vascular plants, of which about 30% of which are endemic to the Ghats.

Western Ghats also has over 450 species of birds 35% endemic, 140 mammal species ( around 20% endemic) and 260 reptile species (over 60% endemic). The range also has a number of fresh water fishes and a number of invertebrates most of which are endemic to the region. Similarly, a number of amphibians are endemic to the Western Ghats and the area has become a hotspot of discovery of new species of frogs in the last decade.


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The methodology developed to assess biodiversity over the Western Ghats using remote sensing, involves a synthesis of information derived at several spatial scales.

In India we have 320 million hectares of land, and 200 million hectares of exclusive economic zone in the sea, within which are distributed some 120, 000 known and perhaps another 400, 000 as yet not described species of microbes, plants and animals In a country with this rich heritage of biological diversity, it is obviously not possible to census the distribution of each and every species based on field studies alone

A two-level combination of remote sensing and field studies can be used to derive information on the distribution of large numbers of species. This methodology appears simple - but there are several possible difficulties associated with its use over large areas. Although several species are known to exist in tight association with their habitats, some species are more wide ranging, and may occur in a wider variety of habitats. Certain groups of organisms, such as birds, may require a mixture of several ecotypes, some for foraging and others for breeding, for example. It may not be possible to relate their distribution to the presence of a single ecotype type. The spatial scale at which habitats are differentiated by the remote sensor may also crucially affect the results obtained. For example, herb species may respond to ecotypes at a very fine scale, much finer than the spatial resolution of the remote sensor. Still, such a two scale coupling of remote sensing and field sampling still shows great promise and, indeed, has been recommended by the Global Biodiversity Assessment.

Study area

Biogeographically, the hill chain of the Western Ghats constitutes the Malabar province of the Oriental realm, running parallel to the west coast of India from 8 ° N to 21 ° N latitudes for around 1600 km. Rising up from a relatively narrow strip of coast at its western border, the hills reach up to a height of 2800 m before they merge to the east with the Deccan plateau at an altitude of 500-600 m. The average width of this mountain range is about 100 km. This bio-region is highly species rich and under constant threat due to human pressure, and is considered one of the 18 biodiversity hot spots of the world. With its complex, heterogeneous landscapes and high levels of biodiversity, it forms an ideal ground for the testing and elaboration of this methodology.

Methods and Results

The methodology developed to assess biodiversity over the Western Ghats using remote sensing, involved a synthesis of information derived at several spatial scales. The scenes were manually co-registered and pasted together to create a composite image of the study area.


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Using information derived from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (to minimize effects of inter-image variability). This map classifies the Western Ghats into 200 patches belonging to eleven eco mosaic types. Each eco mosaic type is a characteristic set of several ecotype types, both manmade such as different types of agricultural crops and plantations, and natural, such as forests in various stages of degradation. The resultant map was compared with pre-existing information on the distribution of forests, agricultural lands, climatic and topographic features, and population, for interpretation. At the next scale of mapping, twelve landscapes belonging to five of the eleven eco mosaic types were taken up for more detailed investigations. These landscapes range in size from 9 to 54 sq. km in area. Supervised classification accuracies of these twelve landscapes ranged from 70% to 92%. Unsupervised classification accuracies were uniformly much worse. From the supervised classification maps, information on the size, shape and inter-patch distance of ecotypes was calculated. This information is believed to affect the presence and distribution of various species within a landscape. In addition, ecotype type richness, and Shannon’s index of ecotype diversity (based on proportion of landscape area occupied by various ecotype types) were computed. Statistical analysis determined that landscapes belonging to specific eco mosaic types tended to be similar in their ecotype characteristics, thus providing us with confidence in the eco mosaic map of the Western Ghats.

Biosphere Reserves in the Western Ghats

The concept of a biosphere reserve emerged from the Man and Biosphere programmed sponsored by the UNESCO during the early seventies. Prior to this, conservation efforts had a tendency to focus on a few animals like the tiger, while ignoring the overall diversity of living organisms. They also did not successfully reconcile the need for development with conservation.

The Biosphere Reserve is an attempt to rectify these lacunae and make conservation more meaningful given the socio-economic realities of the region.

Biosphere Reserve is an international designation term made by the UNESCO for representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large areas of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof. The network includes significant examples of biomes throughout the world. The Biosphere Reserve finally aims at conserving and use of resources for the well-being of people locally, nationally and internationally. So far about 360 Biosphere Reserves have been established in about 90 countries.


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In 1978, an advisory group of the Indian National Man and Biosphere program identified 12 sites ranging from Nanda Devi in the Himalayas to the Gulf of Mannar in the Bay of Bengal, representing the diverse biogeography provinces in the country. Of this the project proposal for the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was first prepared in 1980, but it took six years for the reserve to be officially established. Covering an area of 5,500 sq. km in the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve has been designed to encompass extremities of habitat. From 100m above MSL in the Nilambur plains, it goes up the vertical slopes of New Amarambalam to the rugged heights of Makurti peak (2,554 m) and drops in the east to 250 m in the Coimbatore plains. The western slopes get over 5,000 mm of precipitation annually while the sheltered eastern valleys receive less than 500 mm. Corresponding to their altitudinal and climatic gradients, the natural vegetation changes from tropical wet evergreen forest along the western slopes to montane stunted Shola forest amidst the grassy down on the upper plateau and on the east, progressively drier deciduous forests ending in thorny scrub. This setting is home for a variety of animals - the Lion-tailed macaque in the evergreen forests, the Nilgiri tahr in the grassy downs, the black buck in the dry scrub and the tiger and the elephant throughout the region.To the north, the Biosphere Reserve begins in the Nagarhole National Park of Karnataka and the adjoining Wayanad sanctuary of Kerala. The moist deciduous forests and tea plantations of Nagarhole harbours abundant population of gaur, spotted deer, sambar and wild pig which support a sizeable number of carnivores such as tiger and leopard. Nagarhole is perhaps the best place in south India for sighting these large cats. The forest cover along the Kabini River has been reduced due to the construction of an irrigation dam. It was along the banks of this river that elephants were regularly captured for nearly a century by the Khedda method until 1971. Even today an evening ride on coracle along the riverbanks during the dry months may be rewarded with the sight of over a hundred elephants. South of the Kabini, the dry deciduous forests of the Bandipur National Park were declared as a Project Tiger area in 1973. Contiguous with Bandipur lie Madumalai sanctuary of Tamil Nadu and portion of the Wayanad sanctuary in Kerala. The natural vegetation of this tract is moist deciduous forest. The fauna is similar to that of Nagarhole with elephants in large numbers. East of Madumalai, the vegetation over the Sigur plateau and the Moyar river valley lying in the rain shadow of the Nilgiri massif, becomes drier. Thorny plants such as Acacia dominate. In addition to the fauna of the deciduous forests, striped hyena, jackal and four-horned antelope are seen here. The black buck has disappeared from the Sigur plateau but a viable population of 300 to 500 is still found in the Moyar valley.


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They can be easily seen in the evening along the foreshore of the Bhavani reservoir.The Moyar valley is the junction of two great hill chains of the peninsular India - The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats. A portion of Talamalai-Satyamangalam plateau has been included in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve as representative of the Eastern Ghats. Over the eastern slopes of the Nilgiris, the forest cover extends southwards as a narrow belt into Balampatty and Siruvani hills. The Siruvani reservoir on the Kerala side provides water to Coimbatore city. A good stretch of evergreen vegetation covers the higher reaches of Siruvani hills. Adjoining these hills to the north-west, the Attappady valley is mostly under cultivation. The large tribal population here has been practicing shifting cultivation for a long time. As a result, the forest covers over the surrounding hills have largely degraded. A well preserved stretch of evergreen forest with Dipterocarpus, Mesua and Palaquium is seen west of the Attappady Reserve, extending into the Silent Valley, New Amarambalam and through a narrow corridor into Nilambur. The endangered Lion-tailed macaque of the Silent Valley fame is highly adapted to such evergreen habitats. The controversy regarding the proposed dam across Kanthipuzha in the Silent Valley was laid to rest with the entire area being declared as a National Park in 1986. But the Government of Kerala has proposed Pathrakkadavu Hydro Electric Project in the Kunthi River, once again threatening the Silent Valley. Perhaps the largest pristine evergreen forest in peninsular India is the New Amarambalam Reserve, which has escaped the axe simply because its steep terrain is inaccessible. This is home to Chalamekans, the only genuine hunter-gatherers in the peninsula. The upper Nilgiri plateau has been altered by human activities into one vast stretch of cultivated land and settlements around Udhagamandalam (Ooty). Both slopes and valleys here grow tea, coffee, cinchona, fruits and vegetables such as potato. Extensive plantation of Blue gum (Eucalyptus), Wattle (Acacia) and Pine have also been raised. These have resulted in enormous loss of top soil. To tap the potential for generating hydro-electric power, a series of dams have been constructed across the Bhavani River and its tributaries. A major portion of the upper plateau has been excluded from the Biosphere Reserve. Only the western and the southern ridges, which retain some natural Shola and grass land vegetation along with monoculture plantations, have been included. A sanctuary has been declared to protect the Nilgiri tahr.


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Major Ecological Problems

The main ecological problems of the area include increasing pressure of population and industry including tourism on land and vegetation; submergence of forest areas under river valley projects, encroachment on forest lands; mining operations, felling of natural forests for tea, coffee, rubber, eucalyptus, wattle and other monoculture plantations; infrastructural projects such as railway lines and roads; soil erosion, landslides etc,. Financial Assistance Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve covering an area of 5520 sq.km in the Western Ghats region spread over the States of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, was the first Biosphere Reserve in the country. The Central Government provides financial assistance to these States for conservation of the ecosystem, to conduct research, monitoring, and promoting sustainable development. In addition, over 10% areas of the Western Ghats (approx. 13,000 km) are under legally designated Protected Areas. Some important and well-know National Parks in this region include: Nagarhole, Bandipur, Periyar, and Annamalai. The Government also implements the Eastern and Western Ghats Research Program here. Under this program, grants are provided for undertaking research projects for studies relating to biodiversity, land use, impact of developmental activities etc., to address location-specific problems of resources management in the Eastern and Western Ghats region.

National Action Plan on Biodiversity

The Government has prepared a National Biodiversity Action Plan (NABP) which was approved by the Cabinet in November, 2008. The NBAP draws upon the main principle of the National Environment Policy that considers human beings as the centre of concern of sustainable development, entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. The NBAP document is broadly based on the evaluation of existing legislations, sect oral policies, regulatory systems, implementation mechanisms, existing strategies, plans and programs. It proposes to design actions based on the assessment of current and future needs of conservation and sustainable utilization, and of physical and fiscal instruments.


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Coach: 6 The Indian Desert & the Semi-Arid Zone

Introduction

The Indian Desert This includes the arid zone west of Aravalli ranges, comprising the little and Greater Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat, and the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. This area is characterized by extreme climate: annual temperature ranging from near freezing in the winters to over 50 degree C in summers and scanty annual rainfall in the range of 100-150 mm. The Thar Desert is a sandy desert. The Kachchh Desert is a marshy desert. It is characterized by seasonal water-logging. The Semi-Arid Zone This includes the area between the Desert and the Deccan plateau, including the Aravalli hill range. Annual rainfall is between 400 and 1000 mm. Semi-Arid regions are transition zones between arid and sub-humid belts. Did you know? Aridity, or (lack of) moisture and not the temperature is what defines deserts. There can be deserts which are snow covered! Protecting the Biodiversity

The Kachchh Biosphere Reserve covering a total area of 12,454 sq km aims to protect the unique desert ecosystem.

5 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 1 National Park help to conserve biodiversity of the Indian Desert.

81 Sanctuaries and 10 National Parks aim to conserve the biodiversity of the semi-arid zone.

There are 6 Ramsar Sites (wetlands of international importance) in these regions. These are Harike Lake, Kanjli and Ropar wetland in Punjab, Keoladeo National Park and Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, and Bhoj wetland in Madhya Pradesh. The Semi-Arid Zone: What Is Special?

The only region in the world which is home to 3 big cats -- the Asiatic lion, tiger and leopard. The magnificent Asiatic lion is found in its natural state only in the scrub forests of Gir in Gujarat.

Porbandar Gecko (Hemidactylus porbandarensis), a new species of lizard found from the region recently, is believed to be unique to this region.

The world famous bird sanctuary Keoladeo Ghana National Park at Bharatpur is one of the five World Natural Heritage sites of India.


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Is The Indian Desert a Dead Zone?

It is home to 1200 species of animals and 682 species of flowering plants!

‘Flamingo City’ in the Rann of Kachchh is amongst the few places in the world, where flamingos congregate in such large numbers to breed.

It has the largest grasslands area in India, the Banni Grasslands.

The little Rann of Kachchh is the only natural home of the Asiatic Wild Ass. Wetlands in the Drylands

There are more than 25,000 human-made and natural wetlands in the Deserts and Semi-Arid Zone. These attract a large number of birds, both migratory and resident.

'City of Lakes' – Udaipur is situated in the drylands of Rajasthan!

The rivers Sutlej, Beas, Luni, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Yamuna, Ghaggar, Chambal, Bandi, Arvari, Sabarmati, Aji, Bhadar, Mahi, Narmada, Banas are some of the major rivers of the Indian Desert and the Semi-Arid Zones.

And That's Not All Both these zones contribute a large share in India's food security. Together they support more than 30 per cent of the country's food grain and also milk production!

Plants of the Semi-Arid Zone

Some Dominant Plants Desi Babul (Acacia nilotica), Ronjh (A. leucophloea), Dhok (Anogeissus pendula), Wild Date Palm (Phoenix sylvestris), Palash (Butea monosperma), Salai guggal (Boswellia serrata), Godal (Lannea coromandelica), Mahua (Madhuca longifolia), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Pipal (Ficus religiosa), Banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis). Some Threatened Plants Khadulia (Ceropegia odorata), Strobilanthes halbergii, Rohida, or Marwar Teak (Tecomella undulata), Gundi (Cordia crenata), Marwadi Gokharu (Tribulus rajasthanensis). The Semi-Arid Zone represents “Savannah” vegetation. Extensive grasslands rich in legumes and shrubs, deciduous forests, and thorn forests are dominant here. Littoral and swamp forests are seen near wetlands/water bodies. Did you know? The area also has many varieties of medicinal plants like Safed Musli (Chlorophytum spp.), Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri), Baheda (Terminalia bellerica), Harad (Terminalia chebula) and Amla (Emblica officinalis).


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The Most Evolved Plant Species

The grasses are considered to be the most evolved species of plants. They are remarkable as they have short life cycle yet a long life i.e. take a short time from germination to reach maturity. Unlike trees, when cut, they sprout back almost instantaneously. They are capable of supporting or converting into incredibly huge amounts of biomass. They also support a rich and diverse variety of fauna. They are efficient in absorbing rain water and play a vital role in water retention and hydrology of an area. - Task Force on Grasslands and Deserts Grassland ecosystem in Semi-Arid Zone has its own unique place. Grasslands provide the ecological and economic base of this zone. Heteropogon contortus, Aristida spp., Eragrostis spp., Chloris spp., and Aeluropus spp. are some of the common grasses of the zone. Wetlands: Some of the species found are Lemna, Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Najas, Nymphaea, Potamogeton, and Wolffia.

Desert Dwellers

Wildlife in the desert is as colourful and vibrant as in other zones. Mammals like blackbuck, chinkara, gerbil, desert fox, caracal, wolf, bats etc. are seen here. Some of these desert animals are also seen in semi-arid areas. Greater and lesser flamingos, dalmatian pelicans, sociable lapwing, houbara bustard and great Indian bustard are some of the globally threatened bird species found here. Green munia, white-naped tit, demoiselle crane are some other birds of arid areas. Reptiles like monitor lizards, saw-scaled viper, red sand boa, and invertebrates like scorpion, spider, butterfly species such as White Arab and Plain Tiger are found in the Indian Desert. Did you know? In the Little Rann of Kachchh, the Wild Ass Sanctuary protects the endemic and endangered Asiatic Wild Ass. In the entire world, just around 4000 individuals of this sub-species are left at this single location.

Special Places for Special Species Contrary to the common belief that big animals live only in thick forests, it is the open forests of the Semi-Arid Zone that are the habitat for several large animals such as the Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Nilgai, Chital and Sambar.


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Grasslands and wetlands of the region are home to many species of migratory as well as resident birds. Species of crane, grey partridge, peafowl, owl, wagtails, ducks, vulture etc. are found here. Harriers are widespread winter migrants to India. Grasslands of the Velavadar Blackbuck National Park are the Harriers' largest roosting ground in the world. They host the Montagu's, Pallid, Western Marsh and Hen Harriers. Did you know? Three out of the four bustard species found in India are seen in the semi-arid areas. They are the Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican and Houbara Bustard, all of which are threatened.

Fragile Like Glass This region is extremely fragile. Once disrupted, recovery is extremely slow or sometimes the loss is irreversible. It takes ages for a plant to adapt and establish itself. Overexploitation of vegetative cover exposes the land, which induces desertification. Invasive Aliens The uncontrolled spread of an alien species poses an extreme threat to local vegetation and wildlife. Prosopis juliflora, introduced to combat desertification, now dominates the local plant varieties. Asia's finest grassland 'Banni', in Kachchh, is getting converted into homogenous woodland due to the spread of this species. Water hyacinth, an aquatic exotic plant, is choking wetlands of the region. The grasslands are the 'common' lands of the community and are the responsibility of none. They are the most productive ecosystems in the subcontinent; they belong to all, but are controlled by none. - Task Force on Grasslands and Deserts

Deserts Are More than Sand

Deserts are sometimes wrongly perceived as the end result of land degradation or desertification! In fact, a true desert is not the end result of desertification. It is in itself a unique natural ecosystem. Deserts provide important life-support services to a number of life forms including human populations in much the same way as other ecosystems do. The vegetation in these regions is mainly dry consisting of stunted, thorny or prickly shrubs and perennial herbs which are mostly drought resistant. There are open grasslands, too. Short-lived plants cover the desert with a green carpet for a short period after rains.


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Once upon a time… The Thar Desert was a rich forest and Kachchh was sea! The discovery of fossilized remains of dinosaurs and trees and rich reserves of lignite and coal are proof of this. The Indian Desert is the cradle of the Harappa and Mohenjodaro civilizations! The excavations of remains of the ancient settlements of Dhola-Vira from Kachchh indicate that this was once an active port city. Thar Desert is the eastern extension of the Persio-Arabian desert that connects to the great Sahara desert. Complex geological and climatic changes led to the creation of Thar, probably more than 10,000 years ago! Did you know?

Thar Desert is the most populated desert in the world. It has a population density of 83 persons per sq km as compared to the world average of 7!

The cities of Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur are located within the desert!

To Conserve and Protect

Harike Lake A Wildlife Sanctuary and a Ramsar Site, this is an important wintering ground for migratory waterfowl. The wetland has rich floating vegetation. 33 islands are scattered across the lake. During migratory season, the endangered White-headed Duck is found here. Lesser Adjutant, Painted and Black-necked Stork, species of ducks, eagles, and pallid harrier are seen here. The critically endangered Oriental White-backed Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture are also seen here. Black-winged Stilt, Indian Roller, White-breasted Water-hen, Common Moorhen, White-throated Kingfisher Kachchh Biosphere Reserve It is an admixture of saline, marshy and coastal desert where water and soils are extremely saline. Monsoon floods the entire low-lying areas. Then the scorching heat dries up the entire landscape into a flat barren land covered with crystals of salt. A number of wetlands, green elevated patches known as beyt (island), grasslands and saline mud flats give Kachchh its unique biodiversity. Keoladeo Ghana National Park One of the most important waterfowl refuges of the world, a Ramsar Site (wetland of international importance) and a World Heritage Site, this Park is home to rich biological diversity. This is a human-made and managed wetland which was originally a natural depression. It is the wintering area for over 364 species of birds.


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Herons, storks, common teal, species of ducks and sandpiper, white spoonbill, many species of eagle, partridge, quail etc. are found here. Dalmatian pelicans, sociable lapwing, species of vulture are among the threatened birds found here. Sariska Tiger Reserve Besides the tiger, herbivores such as the spotted deer, sambar and blue bull are found here. Dhok is the dominant tree species. Boswellia serrata and Lannea coromandelica grow in rocky patches. Kattha and Bamboo are common in the valleys. Some valleys support Palash and Ber. Dramatically changing with the changes in season, the forest here is typical dry deciduous. The terrain includes undulating plateau lands and wide valleys. Sambhar Lake This is one of the largest inland salt lakes and also a Ramsar Site. Along with Phulera and Didwana salt lake; this salt lake forms a vast saline wetland, which constitutes the most important area for the flamingos outside the Rann of Kachchh. Pied tit, red shank, common sandpiper and pelicans are some other birds seen here. Sambhar Lake is amongst the largest producers of salt in India. Did you know? Cyanophyceae and Rhodophyceae class of algae and bacteria growing in the lake impart a variety of striking colors to the water, and support the lake ecology that, in turn, sustains the migrating wetland birds.

Communities, Culture and Conservation

The livelihood, culture, and lifestyles of local communities have evolved in tune with the biodiversity and natural resources of the region. Several tribes and communities like Bharwad, Raikas, Bishnois, Aahirs, Gujjars, Banjaras, Nat, Bhils, Siddi, and Meena etc. live in semi-arid areas. These communities continue to live in close affinity with their environment. Maldharis are pastoralist communities. Their nomadic lifestyles rely on natural resources. They have their own ethos that reflects their respect for nature and importance of conservation. A Jat Maldhari saying goes to the effect: “never stop living in temporary homes you build in the grassland as that ensures that you are always on the move allowing the grassland to recuperate behind you. The day you build permanent homes in grassland, remember the doomsday is close!” Pastoralists are traditional custodians of dry land biodiversity and protectors of ecosystem services that are vital for global development. Pastoral lands are threatened by development pressures and the growing impacts of climate change. IUCN suggests that in this context a strategy is needed to enable sustainable pastoralist development: improving pastoralists' standard of living whilst protecting the environmental services that their way of life provides.


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Further Reference

1) Indian Desert: Thar The Thar Desert is located in parts of India and Pakistan and is known as the Great Indian Desert. It is bounded by two rivers, a mountain range and a salt marsh. In the winter, temperatures fall below freezing, and in the summer, temperatures can reach to more than 125 degrees Fahrenheit. The Thar has monsoon rains and dust storms. Despite the extremely harsh conditions, the desert is home to many types of wildlife, some of which are disappearing in other parts of the region. The animals of the Thar must often survive the extreme temperatures with little or no water and without vegetation.

Thar Desert: Animal and Plants

Lying to the west of the Aravalli Mountains, the Thar Desert is the seventh-largest desert in the world, encompassing much of northwestern India. The Thar contains several distinct ecosystems, including shifting sand-dunes, arid rocky plains and semi-arid high desert mountains along the foothills of the Aravalli range. An abundance of wildlife and vegetation thrives despite the inhospitable climate, adapted to withstand the extreme temperatures and scant rainfall characteristic of the region. Animals: Mammals A variety of fauna call the Thar Desert home, including several species of gazelle. The chinkara, or Indian gazelle (Gazella bennettii), is a tiny, fine-boned gazelle species known for its handsome reddish-beige coloring and delicate spiral horns. Young chinkaras sometimes fall prey to a common predatory feline of the Thar, the caracal (Caracal caracal). Lithe and muscular, caracals are closely related to the European lynx, sharing the characteristic tufted ears and long legs of the species. The largest and most common species of gazelle in Asia, the nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) thrives across the Thar Desert. The coloration of nilgais ranges from beige in females to grayish-blue in males, leading to the common name, blue bull. Birds Among the diverse bird life found in the Thar Desert is the great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), a rare and endangered species known for its large body and deep, resonant call. Once widespread throughout India and Pakistan, the great Indian bustard suffered declining numbers due to hunting. Standing 40 inches tall and weighing as much as 15 lbs., it is among the largest flying birds on Earth.


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Likewise, the blue peafowl (Pavo cristatus) is a large species common throughout the Punjabi areas of the Thar Desert. Known for its brilliant multicolored plumage, the blue peafowl is a sacred bird throughout the region, as well as being India's national emblem. Trees & Plants Several species of tree exist along the rocky valley floors and seasonal flood plains of the Thar Desert, clinging to sheltered areas or places with subsurface water. The sangri tree (Prosopis cineraria), a relative of the acacia, is a small spiny tree found in alluvial plains of Punjab and Rajastan. It is one of the most common trees in the Thar Desert, known for its bluish, evergreen foliage and small yellow flowers, which appear in late spring and early summer. Prized by people of the Thar Desert, the rohida (Tecoma undulata), or desert teak, is an evergreen tree species found throughout western Rajastan. Used for lumber, rohida is also admired for its winter display of reddish-orange flowers. Shrubs Shrubs thrive throughout all areas of the Thar Desert, from the shifting dunes to the semi-arid foothills of the Aravalli range. Phog (Calligonum polygonoides), a small medicinal plant, is the predominant shrub across the Thar. Growing to 5 feet on average, phog bears tiny, yellowish-green leaves that it sheds during times of stress. Along the southern reaches of the Thar, near the expansive salt-flats of the Rann of Kutch, a small shrub called khar (Haloxylon recurvum) thrives. Growing to 2 feet, khar is a spreading, woody shrub bearing only a scattering of pale greenish-yellow leaves. Grasses Grasses, the predominant flora of the region, abound in all areas including the vast, barren dunes. Kans grass (Saccharum spontaneum) and blue panicgrass (Panicum antidotale) are among the most widespread grasses found in the Thar. Growing to 10 feet, Kans grass is a native perennial grass found in the semi-arid savanna of Punjab. It provides forage for the Thar's many herbivorous species, such as gazelle and nilgais. Blue panicgrass shares much of its range with Kans grass, thriving in areas rich in herding wildlife. It spreads rapidly via underground rhizomes, producing 11-foot-tall stalks topped with feathery seed heads.


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2) Indian desert: Runn of Kutch

The district of Kutch occupies around 24% of the total area of Gujarat and is second largest district in India after Leh. Kutch is unique in its landscape, geography, ecosystems, wildlife and culture. The district is virtually an island with the Arabian Sea in west, the Gulf of Kutch in south and southeast and the Greater Rann of Kutch and the Little Rann of Kutch in north and northeast, respectively. Kutch is the only district in India where four distinct ecosystems (Desert, Coastal, Grassland and Upland) exists within a span of 100 km. Needless to say; Kutch harbours extremely rich biodiversity, including the endangered Asiatic Wild Ass that is endemic to the area. The Rann of Kutch is a unique and largest seasonal wetland of its type in India without any counterparts elsewhere in the world. Occupying 45% of the total area of Kutch, these areas turn into huge wetlands in good monsoon year thereby providing excellent habitat for resident and migratory birds, including the ‘Flamingo City’, which is the largest and the only known breeding ground of Greater and Lesser Flamingos in India. The area together with the Banni grasslands and other smaller wetlands like Chharidhand is one of the best areas for sightings of rare bird species like Grey Hypocolius, Eurasian Eagle-Owl, Common Crane, Dalmatian Pelican, Houbara Bustard, Curlew Sandpiper, Sociable Plover, Cream-coloured Courser and Indian Skimmer. The area south and southwest of Banni is characteristic with its grasslands and semi-arid landscape interspersed with thorny trees like Acacia Senegal and Prosopis juliflora. The area serves as important breeding ground for Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican, Desert Fox, Striped Hyena, Ratel, Chinkara, Nilgai and Caracal. Sightings of raptors (birds of prey) like Greater Spotted Eagle, Steppe Eagle, Black-shouldered Kite, Montagu’s Harrier, Pallid Harrier, etc. are quite common. Other commonly seen bird species are Common Peafowl, Black Francolin, Indian Roller, Painted Sandgrouse, Yellow-wattled Lapwing, etc. The area is also famous for its Banded Gecko (an endemic species), Spiny-tailed Lizard, Desert Monitor and Black Cobra. Kutch attracts not only nature lovers but also those interested in handicrafts, textiles, religious and pilgrimage sites. The Kutchi people from Banni, Anjar, Khavda, Rapar and Bhuj area are famous for their bandhani work on colourful fabric. Dholavira, with its remains of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, and the Fossil Museum in are areas that have a lot to offer those interested in archeology. Not to mention Mandvi, Mundra and Kandla, the important ports of Gujarat. The heritage village of Tera is famous for its fort, water tanks and the heritage precincts.


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Birds The main birds of Little Rann of Kutch Sanctuary are Bustard and Falcons. Even reptiles get a peaceful mark to sport and untroubled accommodation in the wild ass sanctuary. The main reptiles are snakes, tortoises and lizards. The Little Rann of Kutch is a paradise for bird lovers. While taking the jeep safaris in the Little Rann one can expect the big groups of larks and various dry-land bird as sand grouse, coursers, plovers, chats, warblers, babblers and shrikes. There are few winter birds as the Houbara bustard and spotted sand grouse. The Little Rann of Kutch Sanctuary is the hunting land of the raptors as the short-toed eagle, Aquila eagles, and 06 races of falcon, buzzards and 03 harrier species. Wild Ass Sanctuary is one of the some destinations there harriers are spotted roosting in an open-place during the night. The finest birding can be done near the lakes and marshlands at the Wild Ass Sanctuary and also nearby the Little Rann of Kutch where various birds meet in large numbers mainly in the winter season between October and March. In winter months, demoiselle and common cranes could be spotted in amazingly huge numbers. The wetlands of the Little Rann to attract the birds like flamingos, pelicans, storks, ibises, spoonbill, a diversity of ducks and various waterfowl. Earlier Time Once upon a time the Thar Desert was a rich forest and Kachchh was sea! The discovery of fossilized remains of dinosaurs and trees and rich reserves of lignite and coal are proof of this.


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The Indian Desert is cradle of Harappa and Mohenjodaro civilizations! The excavations of remains of the ancient settlement of Dhola-Vira from Kachchh indicate that this was once an active port city. Thar Desert is eastern extension of the persio-arabian desert that connects to the great Sahara desert. Complex geological and climatic changes led to the creation of Thar probably about 10,000 or more years back!

The Semi-Arid Zone

Introduction

“The vast region covering the arid and semi-arid lands of North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia — the Pala arctic Desert — is the cradle of Old World civilization.”

While they have given us most of our domestic animals and some of our most important crops, these arid lands have been devastated by wars, overgrazing, and the vagaries of climate for thousands of years. Today, as populations increase and modern technology becomes more pervasive, many of the rural people living in this region are again facing the ancient scourges of hunger, pestilence, and conflict. One of the tragedies of this situation is that the biological resources which could help make these lands productive often are abused rather than nurtured. Where the productivity of biological resources has been seriously reduced, efforts at development, such as road building, borehole drilling, and food importation for people and livestock, have typically caused more overexploitation rather than less. Thus the major challenges in implementing the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) in arid lands lay not so much in the biology of the species concerned but rather in the social, economic, and political arenas within which people operate. Biological resources are being abused because some people — typically those with the greatest economic stake in development — are making money out of depleting wildlife and habitat, and modern technology often helps to encourage them in their exploitation. And they are making money because they are harvesting the benefits of nature without paying the environmental costs for either production or replacement. Instead, the costs are externalized or passed on to society as a whole, to be paid by the public now or in the future.


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Cultural adaptations to arid ecosystems

While the public perceives arid lands as endless deserts, these systems in fact are highly dynamic. For example, between 1980 and 1995, the edge of the Sahara moved north and south depending on rainfall, moving as much as 300 km over several years, but in different directions. Around villages and wells, overgrazing can shift vegetation from grasses to equally green, but less palatable, shrubs; thus the community structure may change, but biodiversity is not necessarily lost. More important, the climate-related dynamism of these ecosystems has a profound influence on cultural adaptations to them. Humans have adapted to arid lands in many ways. At a technologically rather basic level, some human groups are able to survive as hunter-gatherers in arid areas with very low plant diversity. For example, Australia’s Western Desert Aborigines have just 10 plant staples, and in times of mild drought, this number drops to three, but the volume of food remains sufficient to feed the people (who live in very small bands). In very bad times, the lack of food and water forces people to abandon their territories and seek refuge among neighbors. For most other peoples living in arid lands, pastoralist or agriculture have been the main approaches to earning a living. Domestication of livestock apparently arose after domestication of plants and remains the most significant use of arid and semi-arid lands by people. The dangers of overgrazing have led to many beliefs and customs about human relationships, livestock management, and range management. For example, many Middle Eastern pastoralists have developed complex ways of sharing grazing lands, including the idea of a traditional grazing reserve. At least some species of trees typically are considered sacred by many pastoral peoples and are not destroyed except in times of dire need; conservation of such vegetation thereby provides an emergency resource reserve (as well as conserving biodiversity). The various ethnic groups that occupy the various parts of the Pala arctic Desert have developed powerful attachments to the grazing lands, water sources, and ancient migration routes between dry- and wet-season pasture, the basic resources around which their ways of life have been formed. At least part of the biodiversity problems in these arid lands are due to the erosion of traditional means for controlling the use of agricultural and pastoral lands, as the modern states have proven unequal to the task of resource management even though they often have far-reaching powers.


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For example, traditionally, the customary chiefs prevented herders from digging two wells within a radius that would put two herds in the same pasture, thus avoiding both overgrazing and potential conflicts between groups of competing herders; but modern forms of development often make this very basic mistake of providing too much water too close together. At least historically, pastoralists also frequently fought over grazing land or access to water. The battles often were ritualized, with the result being resolution of conflict and a better adaptation between people and the available resources. With relatively sparse populations, various social means were adopted to avoid all-out war. It appears that at least some local communities share a set of productive interests and sufficient economic and political cohesion to make and enforce rules about common resource use, and may be expected to do so in ways that protect long-term continuity in such resource use. Communities that lack these fundamental characteristics are unlikely to be able to conserve biodiversity in an effective manner. But generally, effective management of biological resources should be based on enabling local communities to regulate their own biological resources, with the role of the central government being to establish the general policy framework and act as guarantor of the tenure rules that are negotiated locally, and helping to ensure that no individuals or groups become so impoverished that they fall outside the consensus and it becomes rational for them to break the tenure rules. In short, the local people who have lived and prospered in arid lands for many generations have developed considerable knowledge about how to adapt to local ecosystems, though this knowledge is seldom fully appreciated by either developers or policymakers. Local people habitually deal with complex systems of grazing and farming, on marginal soils with few external inputs. Natural selection is a very real part of their lives. Under such conditions, pastoralists have amassed an impressive body of useful information on how to manage livestock, and on the relations between their livestock and the rest of the region’s biodiversity. This information, called ethno biology by scientists, needs to be harnessed to support implementation of the CBD.


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Biodiversity and conflict in arid regions

While pastoralist is the major approach to earning a living in arid lands, at least in terms of land area used, farming is also found wherever local conditions—especially soils and water — permit the growing of crops. Given the dynamic nature of the climatic conditions in arid lands, such agriculture often is a risky business. And one of the major risks, at least historically, is the potential conflict between farmers and herders, between Cain and Abel. The historically frequent conflict between farmers and pastoralists is exacerbated by their interdependence, as each group produces something that the other needs. Farmers may also intrude on the favored habitats of the nomadic peoples, leading to additional ecological pressures. Thus, frontiers between different ways of life are dynamic zones where possibilities for conflict are also often at their highest; this dynamism also means that such areas are often extremely rich in biological resources. One of the underlying causes of such conflict in modern times involves the subsidized support of governments for certain types of agriculture, leading to neglect and marginalization of some groups of people, leading in turn to tensions that can eventually escalate into violence. In places like the Sudan-Ethiopia border area, at least some dispossessed and economically marginalized pastoralists have become bandits who raid both farmers and nomads.


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Coach: 7 The Deccan Peninsula

Introduction

The Deccan Peninsula is a large area of raised land covering about 43 per cent of India's total land surface. It consists of 5 provinces: Central Highland, Eastern Highland, Chhota Nagpur, Deccan Plateau and Deccan South. The Eastern and Central Highlands Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests The trees in these forests usually have broad leaves and they shed the leaves during the dry winter and summer season. The common trees of these forests are teak, sal, sandalwood, mahua, palash, khair, wattle, semal, shisham, and arjun. The largest area under bamboo forests (over 50000 sq km) is in this region. Dry Evergreen Forests extend as a narrow strip along southern coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The monsoon here is brief and occurs in the month of October and December. These forests retain their leaves through the year. Who Lives Here? 1. Long billed vulture 2. Hanuman langur 3. Palash tree, flowering 4. Bulbul 5. Painted spurfowl 6. Crocodile bark tree 7. Cicadas on this tree 8. Monitor lizard 9. Termite mound 10. Sloth bear 11. Yellow footed green pigeon 12. Teak tree 13. Flying squirrel 14. Forest owlet 15. Mahua tree 16. Tiger 17. Ratel 18. Plain tiger butterfly 19. Rock python 20. Grasshopper 21. Dung beetle 22. Giant wood spider 23. Harvester ant hill 24. Indian cobra 25. Red jungle fowl


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Did you know? Moist deciduous forests may get converted to dry deciduous forests and dry deciduous may become scrub forests as rainfall patterns in India change due to climate change. Think, then what will happen to the animals?

Species in Danger! The existence of wild animals and plants is in danger. If their habitat is not conserved, we might lose them forever. The natural habitats of the Deccan Plateau and Highlands are rapidly deteriorating due to a number of reasons. With the loss of habitat there is also loss of the flora and fauna of this habitat. With reduction in grassland habitat and conversion to farmlands, blackbucks sometimes enter crop fields. Bauxite mining in reserved forests of Araku valley will destroy the pristine habitats of several endangered flora and fauna. Construction of dams, urbanization and sprawling industries have greatly reduced the undisturbed wilderness available for wild creatures to live in. Gone - Where is the Asiatic Cheetah? Some species are now believed to be extinct, while others are endangered or threatened. Once the top predator of the Deccan grasslands; the Asiatic Cheetah has not been seen in the wild in India since the middle of the 20th century. It is believed that the last one was hunted down in 1947. Going - The Last Wild Buffaloes The wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo. It is bigger in size and heavier, with majestic horns. The Udanti and Indravati wildlife sanctuaries in the State of Chhattisgarh are the only places in Central India where genetically 'pure' wild buffalo population is concentrated, with numbers less than 40 individuals. The remaining wild buffaloes in India total less than 4,000.

Plants in Danger Rakt Chandan (Pterocarpus santalinus) This tree species which is endemic to the Deccan area is widely used for timber and in medicines to treat injuries, reduce burning sensation, arrest bleeding and treat skin disorders. The wood is illegally traded for its medicinal value.The tree is listed as endangered. Rakt chandan, or red sandalwood, is smuggled and fetches a high price as the Zitan furniture (famously called King's Furniture) in China is made from this wood. It is commercially valuable for extraction of dye and cosmetics. Swallow Root (Decalepis hamiltonii) An endemic and endangered medicinal plant of Peninsular India, it is found in the forests of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.


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The plant roots are used in ayurvedic medicine to treat wound, bronchial asthma, fever, haemorrhage. It is also used to make pickle and chutney which taste like ginger. Yenadi tribes of Andhra Pradesh prepare traditional drink from it called Nannari. This drink cools the system and purifies blood. The plant is listed as endangered due to habitat destruction, illegal trade and over-exploitation for its medicinal value.

People and Practices Snake venom for livelihood! The traditional knowledge and skills of tribal communities are being used in mainstream economic and conservation activities. Irulas: Snake-Catchers The Irulas are hunter-gatherers by tradition. Their expertise in catching snakes is legendary. The ban on snake hunting for skins deprived the Irulas of their main source of livelihood. In 1978, Irulas Snake-Catchers Industrial Cooperative Society was formed. The Society is engaged in extracting snake venom which is then crystallized and supplied to various laboratories in India for experiments and making antivenin, which is used in making medicine for snakebite and some blood disorders. Kolam: Expert Honey Collectors Kolam tribe harvests honey from trees as high as fifty feet in darkness with little support. Srujan, an organization working with this community has initiated a 'Non-violent' honey extraction method without destroying bee hives. The Kolam’s custom of leaving some trees in the forest untouched as 'sacred abodes of god' shows their understanding and commitment towards conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Phase Paradhi: Hunters Who Protect Phase Paradhis are traditional hunters skilful in trapping methods. They possess invaluable knowledge of wildlife and their habitats. In Akola and Washim districts of Maharashtra, they helped in recording 11 sightings and protection of three nests of Lesser Florican, not recorded in last 30 years in Maharashtra. They are also playing a critical role in grassland improvement.

People with a Long History Tribal communities have been present in the Deccan peninsular region for thousands of years. Over millennia these communities have developed knowledge of, and close relationship with, numerous plants and animals. Tribes like Kolam, Katkari, Madia and Kamar practise hunting-gathering, fishing and shifting cultivation for their subsistence.


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Some other tribes are: Kurubas: traditional sheep keepers Baiga: semi-nomadic; do not plough the earth out of respect for it Bhoi and Koli: fishing communities in Maharashtra Bhil: rich cultural tradition visible in their songs, dances, stories and art. Walls are decorated with clay relief work, mittichitra, and paintings. Conserving Traditional Rice Varieties The knowledge, practices and cultural values of tribal communities are a valuable resource for modern conservation work. Bastar in Chhattisgarh has over 5000 traditional varieties of rice and millets such as ragi, kodo and kutki. These have been developed and cultivated over generations by Gond, Madia, Halba, Bhatra and other tribal groups. Dharohar Samiti, a local tribal farmers' group in Kondagaon area, is conserving over 260 traditional varieties of rice and millets. Through the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) technique, they have improved productivity of these crops in an organic way, to match productivity of hybrid varieties. This also helps to conserve crop diversity and maintain the ecological integrity of this agro-climatic region.

Government Efforts Government of India has established several wildlife Protected Areas to conserve flora and fauna in the wild. There are 116 wildlife sanctuaries and 21 national parks in Deccan Peninsula. These include special sanctuaries to protect the highly endangered Great Indian Bustard and Jerdon's Courser. Conserving Great Indian Bustard The Great Indian Bustard (GIB) has been categorized as 'critically endangered' by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Birdlife and Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS).The Ministry of Environment and Forests has initiated the GIB Recovery Project in the five states of their occurrence i.e. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka. The recovery plan includes three-tier strategies: at national level, State-specific, and Site-specific conservation. The highlight of the project is to link local livelihoods with bustard conservation; set up a profitable and equitable mechanism to share revenues generated from eco-tourism with local communities; identify core breeding areas and keep them inviolate from human disturbances; permitting only low intensity, traditional pastoral activities during the non-breeding season. Bustard species are regarded as indicators of grassland ecosystems. By conserving the bustard and their habitats a very large number of species dependent on healthy grassland will be protected.


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ICT for Conservation The Forest Department, Madhya Pradesh has launched a unique Information, Communication and Technology (ICT) initiative for effective monitoring of wildlife and conservation of forests. This is the Forest Offence Management System which helps in registering forest offences electronically on GPS-facilitated PDAs at the location of offence itself. The Forest Department has given Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) to all Beat Guards in Kanha National Park and Satpura Tiger Reserve to enable them to immediately report offences. PDA phones have round-the-clock satellite link. This initiative has inspired States like Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Haryana and Rajasthan to adopt the same system. Wild Buffalo Recovery Project It was found that Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary in Chhattisgarh had only seven individuals, including a male calf and one female of the wild water buffalo. The lone female buffalo and her male calf are being kept in a spacious enclosure within the sanctuary for their safety. This is part of the Udanti Wild Buffalo Recovery Project which aims to stabilize the wild buffalo population. The plan aims at ensuring zero unnatural deaths of the remaining individuals, and habitat improvement. Additional females from closely-related populations are to be brought in for breeding in Udanti. The species is classified 'endangered' and listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Benefit Sharing Enabled India has taken significant legislative measures for ensuring Access and Benefit Sharing. In one such case of benefit sharing in the country, the royalty amount of Rs.20,000/- has been given to Amarchinta Biodiversity Management Committee in Mahboobnagar district of Andhra Pradesh, for the export of neem leaves to Japan. This has been enabled through the National Biodiversity Authority, as per the provisions of Biological Diversity Act. Conserving the Gene Pool An early-maturing and large-seeded hybrid of Bajra variety MBH 110 was wiped out due to downy mildew epidemic disease in 1989. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid-Tropics (ICRISAT) developed a new variety called ICTP 8203 similar to MBH 110, from a Bajra variety found in the northern Togo in Africa.


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The Deccan Plateau Grasslands and Scrub Forests are the predominant vegetation types of Deccan Plateau. Grasslands Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low, and the soil depth is shallow. The low rainfall does not support the dense growth of large trees and shrubs, but enough to support the growth of grass during the monsoon. Most of the grasses evolved 40 to 50 million years ago after volcanic eruption and Deccan Trap formation that is after dinosaurs became extinct. Scrub Forests The Deccan scrub forests are located in the arid parts of the Deccan Plateau. The annual rainfall here is less than 750 mm. This forest type consists of open, low vegetation characterized by thorny trees with short trunks such as Acacia spp. The region is neither exceptionally species-rich, nor high in endemism; still it is home to a variety of life forms. Who lives here? 1. Black shouldered kite 2. Baya weaver nests on acacia tree 3. Ashy crowned sparrow lark on stone 4. Blackbuck 5. Indian wolf 6. Ber tree 7. Bay backed shrike 8. Jungle bush quail 9. Grey francolin 10. Green keelback 11. Great Indian bustard 12. Yellow wattled lapwing 13. Indian silverbill 14. Funnel web spider 15. Milkweed plant 16. Plain tiger butterfly 17. Field mouse 18. Toad 19. Fan throated lizard 20. Painted grasshopper Did You Know? The Deccan Plateau was formed from lava flows and volcanic eruptions about 65 million years ago.


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Grasses Sustain Lives and Livelihoods Grasses are integral part of human lives, livelihood and culture.Grasses are used for food, fodder, medicines, building materials, paper, perfumes and more. Bamboo is also a grass! Bamboo craft includes a variety of items such as baskets, mats, furniture, poles, ropes, bows and arrows. Thatch grass is used to cover huts. Ropes and brooms are also made from grass. Disappearing Grasslands Natural grasslands are being converted into farmland, into spaces for human habitation and for industrial areas. This means loss of habitat for the grassland flora and fauna. The native grasses are gradually being replaced by less nutritious grasses due to over-grazing, soil erosion and degradation. “The Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) in Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh is the country's premier research institute in the area of grassland, fodder production and utilization.” Grasses Provide Us Our Food! Grasses are among the most recently evolved plants. They can grow even in low rainfall areas, in harsh sunlight and rocky soils. They enrich and stabilize the soil and, therefore, help other plants to grow. What makes a grass? Stems called culms which are generally cylindrical and hollow. Ribbon-like leaves which are called blades. Fibrous roots which form an intricate web under the ground. Grass also has flowers and fruits. Did you know? Bamboo is the tallest grass. It can grow up to a height of 50 m. Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, rye, bajra, sorghum which are part of our daily food are all seeds of plants in the grass family. Sugarcane is the sweet grass!

Further Reference The Peninsular Plateau of India is also named as the Plateau of Peninsular India. Its biggest part is known as the Deccan Plateau, comprising the most part of southern portion of the nation. The plateau ascends 100 meters in the north, ascending further to over 1,000 meters to the south, creating an elevated triangle situated in the well-known downhill-moving triangle of the seashore of the Indian subcontinent.

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The Deccan Plateau stretches over eight states in India and covers a broad variety of environments, encompassing the majority of the Central and South Indian regions. The Deccan Plateau is lying in the middle of three mountain ranges; the Eastern Ghats creates its eastern border and the Western Ghats its western border. Each of the two mountain ranges ascends from their particular adjacent seaward plains and almost joins at the southernmost point of India. The Deccan Plateau is dissevered from the Gangetic Basin towards the north by the Vindhya and Satpura Mountain Ranges, which create its northern border. The expression Deccan is an anglicized variant of the expression in Prakrit, dakkhin, and it originated from the Sanskrit expression dákṣiṇa, which stands for “south”.

Geography of Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau can be broadly categorized into the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. To the south of the Satpura Mountain Range, the Indian peninsula is known as the Deccan Plateu.

Central Highlands:

The northern segment of the peninsular cluster is known as the Central Highlands, despite the fact that they are not really so high. It was formed from hard metamorphic and igneous rocks. The cluster consists of two segments, demarcated by the west-running Narmada River. The Vindhyas and its eastern stretches enclose the one situated to the north on one region. To the north-west, it is edged by the Aravalli Mountain Ranges. The plateau extends more to the west, but is intersected by the erinaceous and stony arid region of Rajasthan. These are quite old examples of Fold Mountains. On the third side, this plateau fuses gradually in the Gangetic Plains of the north. This is named as the Malwa Plateau. It is considerably broad in the west and becomes narrowed to the east. The eastern portion is named as Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand, both them lying in South Uttar Pradesh. In Southern Bihar, it is known as Chota Nagpur Plateau. The southern tributaries of the Ganga River and Yamuna River drain the plateau.

Deccan Plateau

The Deccan Plateau is situated to the south of the Indo-Gangetic Basin. The Western Ghats Mountain Range is quite high and stops the humidity from the southwestern monsoon from arriving at the plateau. Therefore, the area gets negligible precipitation. The eastern segment of the Deccan Plateau is lying at a lower altitude, covering the southeast shoreline of India. The jungles are also comparatively arid but function to preserve the rainwaters to create torrents that supply rivers that move into valleys and subsequently into the Bay of Bengal.Majority of rivers in the Deccan Plateau run from the west to the east.

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The Godavari River and its confluents, including the Indravati River, irrigate the majority of the northern part of the terrain, ascending in the Western Ghats and running to the east in the direction of Bay of Bengal. The Krishna River, Tungabhadra River, and the tributaries of the Krishna River, which include the Bhima River, which also flows from the west to east, irrigate the middle segment of the plateau. The southernmost section of the plateau is irrigated by the Kaveri River, which has its source in the Western Ghats Mountain Range in Karnataka and twists to the south to penetrate the Nilgiri Mountains at Hogenakal Waterfalls into Tamil Nadu, subsequently creating the Sivasamudram Falls at the island township of Shivanasamudra, which is the second largest waterfall in India and also the 16th biggest in the world, prior to pouring into the Stanley Reservoir and the Mettur Dam that formed the reservoir. The river ultimately pours into the Bay of Bengal. The two major rivers, which don’t pour into the Bay of Bengal, are the Tapti and Narmada River. They have their sources located in the Eastern Ghats Mountain Range and pour into Arabian Sea. All rivers on the Deccan Plateau rely on the precipitation and become dehydrated in the summer months. The weather of the territory differs from semi-dry weather in the north to tropical in majority of the areas with separate moist and arid periods. Precipitations take place during the monsoon months from around June to October. The period between Marchs to June is quite arid and warm with temperatures going over 40°C on a constant basis. Deccan Plateau is a triangle-shaped plateau that encompasses the majority of areas of peninsular India. Its northern fringes are the Chota Nagpur Plateau and Satpura Range. Mountains, known as the Eastern and Western Ghats, create the other borders of the triangle and are joined at its summit by the Anna Malai, Nilgiri, and Cardamom hills. The mean altitude of the plateau is 600 meters (2,000 feet) over sea surface. The hillsides incline from 900 m (3,000 feet) in the west to 450 m (1,500 feet) in the east. The Deccan Plateau is densely inhabited. It has fertile soil and grows various crops, mostly cotton.

Geology of Peninsular Plateau

The volcanic basalt layers of the Deccan Plateau were formed as a result of the enormous volcanic outbreak in the Deccan Traps. This took place at the close of the Cretaceous era between 65 and 67 million years back. A number of paleontologists/fossilists believe that this volcanic outbreak might have sped up the extermination of the dinosaurs.

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Level after level was created due to the volcanic eruptions that continued for several thousand years. As the volcanoes became dormant, they left over an area of tablelands with characteristically huge expanses of plains similar to a table. The volcanic hotspot that created the Deccan Traps is supposed to be situated beneath the contemporary Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean. Usually, the Deccan Terrain comprises basalt stretching till Bhor Ghat close to Karjat. This is an example of extrusive igneous rock. In addition, in particular spots of the zone, you will see granite, which is a category of intrusive igneous rock. The dissimilarity between these two categories of rock is that basalt is created by volcanic eruption, i.e., on the crust of the earth (either emitted by a volcano or from huge cracks similar to those in the Deccan volcanic rocks – on the land) and on the other hand, granite is produced in the depth of the earth. Granite is a form of felsic stone, which suggests it is filled with quartz and potassium feldspar. This blend is continental in its lineage (it is the major blend of the continental crust). As it lost heat in a comparatively gradual manner, it features big observable crystals. In contrast, Basalt is mafic in its characteristics, which indicates it contains a good amount of pyroxene and on certain occasions, olivine. Both of them are loaded with minerals like magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). In terms of constitution, basalt is like mantle stones, suggesting that originated from the mantle and was not blended with the continental stones. Basalt is produced in locations that are stretching while granite is produced primarily in locations that are having a collision. As both categories of rocks are seen in the Deccan terrain, it shows two separate settings of composition.

The Deccan Plateau is affluent with minerals. Major mineral ores seen in this area are iron ore and mica in the Chhota Nagpur plateau and gold, diamond, and other precious metals in the Golconda area in Andhra Pradesh.

People of Deccan Plateau

The Deccan Plateau is home to various people and languages. “Gond” and “Bhil” citizens stay in the hills beside the northern and northeastern borders of the terrain and talk in different languages that come under both the Dravidian and Indo-European group of languages. The principal language of the northwestern segment of the Deccan Plateau in the Maharashtra state is Marathi, which is a type of an Indo-Aryan language. People who speak in Kannada and Telugu, the major languages of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh respectively, inhabit those states’ parts of the terrain. The major language of Tamil Nadu to the south of the Deccan Plateau is Tamil, and Malayalam in the state of Kerala. Kerala is famous for the mountains and beaches to the southwest.


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The city of Hyderabad is a key hub of Urdu language in the plateau; its neighboring zones also are home to a significant number of people who speak the Urdu language. The Urdu language conversed in this area is also named as “Deccani” or “Dakhni”. The principal harvest is cotton; nevertheless, rice, sugarcane, and other produces are also seen.Other than the states already named, the Chhattisgarh state is located in the northeast end of the plateau. Bangalore (also known as Bengaluru) is the biggest city in the Deccan Plateau and it is also the capital of Karnataka. Other important cities include Nagpur, Pune, and Aurangabad (in Maharashtra) and Hyderabad (in Andhra Pradesh).

Tourist Attractions on the Peninsular Plateau

Given below are the names of the prominent tourist attractions lying on the peninsular plateau:

Aurangabad Bangalore (Bengaluru) Badami Bidar Belgaum Calicut Bijapur Hampi Gulbarga Hyderabad Ooty Mysore

Biodiversity

The Deccan Plateau is famous for its biodiversity. The area is home to an exotic range of flora and fauna. Two of India’s most significant elephant conservation regions, the Anamalais-Nelliampathis and the Nilgiris-Eastern Ghats are located in this area. This zone is also famous for housing forests and ecoregions like the South Western Ghats Moist Deciduous Forests, South Western Ghats Montane Rain Forests, and South Deccan Plateau Dry Deciduous Forests. The plant life of the ecoregion is greatly controlled by weather. The lofty Western Ghats Mountain Range stops the humidity from the monsoon in southwest; consequently, the eastern Deccan Plateau and hillsides get very modest precipitation; yearly precipitation varies from 900 to 1,500 mm. The rising and falling hillsides have extremely superficial soils. The flora includes the following varieties:

Anogeissus latifolia Boswellia serrata Terminalia tomentosa

http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/forest.htm


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Acacia catechu Terminalia belirica Terminalia paniculata Albizzia amara Chloroxylon swietenia Hardwickia binata Cassia fistula Sterospermum personatum Dalbergia latifolia Diospyros Montana Pterocarpus marsupium Shorea talura Teak (Tectona grandis), though not seen frequently

One of the major varieties of this jungle, sandalwood (Santalum album), has been specifically done away with from majority of the forests in this eco region. The Deccan Plateau features the single largest elephant population in India. There are more than 6,000 elephants in this region. There are more than 260 varieties of birds and some of them are almost indigenous species. Two top-priority Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs) are located in this area and they are:

Periyar-Kalakad Dandeli-Bandipur

The eco region is home to 75 species of mammals. One, the seriously imperiled Salim Ali fruit bat, is almost indigenous specie. Other endangered mammals include the following:

Wild dog (Cuon alpinus) The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis) Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa macruora) Gaur (Bos gaurus)

In this eco region, two species, the lesser florican (Eupodotis indica) and Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) are endangered worldwide and necessitate consideration for protection. Other endemic and near-endemic bird and mammal species include the following:

Family: Pteropodidae, Species: Latidens salimalii Family: Common Name Species

Pycnonotidae, Yellow-throated bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus Timaliidae Rufous babbler Turdoides subrufus

http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/wildlife/wildlife-india.htm


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Threats in the area

There are several types of threats in the Deccan Plateau area and some of them are as follows:

Switch to cash crop cultivation areas Overgrazing by big flocks of domestic animals Unwarranted fuel wood gathering Mining Setting up of dams Colonization of relocated people Poaching (illegal hunting, capturing, or killing of animals) Industrialization

Protected/Conserved Areas Situated in the Plateau

Given below are the names of the protected areas that are lying in the plateau:

Marudhamalai Temple Perur Temple Thiromoorthy Temple Bhavani Bannerghatta Bilgiri Ranga Swamy Temple Ranganthittu Melkote Temple Vedanthangal Arabithittu Cauvery

Plant Communities

The flora of the region includes elements from tropical Indochina, temperate East Asia, the Pala arctic region and the Deccan Plateau. The low-lying areas along the Brahmaputra River, subject to floods during the monsoon, support mixed evergreen forests. Although most of these semi-evergreen forests have long since been converted into human uses, the vestigial patches —mostly in small protected areas—indicate that these forests were characterized by Syzygium, Cinnamomum, Artocarpus, Terminalia spp and Stereospermum spp. These forests also contain several Deccan elements, indicative of the geological origins of the region.The alluvial grasslands and savannas along the foothill valleys are among the tallest in the world. Characteristic species in these highly productive grasslands include Saccharum spontaneum, Phragmitis kharka, Arundo donax, Imperata cylindrica, Erianthus ravennae, Andropogon spp., and Aristida ascensionis. Annual silt deposition during monsoon floods rejuvenates these grasslands and promotes rapid regeneration.


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As the floodwaters recede, grasses such as Saccharum spontaneum and pioneer trees such as Trewia nudiflora and Ehretia laevis begin to colonize the area, and support high densities of a diverse herbivore community. The grasslands transition into the sal forests that flank the hillsides along the lower reaches of the river valleys, below 1,000 m. The lower hill slopes above 1,000 meters are cooler and less drought-stressed during the spring pre-monsoon season. Here, the subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests are dominated by tree taxa such as Castanopsis and Schimafrom subtropical East Asia. The eastern Himalayas temperate forests that grow at elevations where moisture tends to condense and remain in the air during the warm, moist growing season are among the most species-rich temperate forests in the world.

They are dominated by evergreen broadleaf trees (e.g. Quercus, Lauraceae) in the lower reaches, from about 2,000-2,500 meters, and mixed conifers (e.g Tsuga, Taxus) and winter-deciduous broadleaf species (e.g. Acer, Betula, Magnolia) in the upper reaches, from 2,500-3,000 meters.


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The drier, south-facing slopes support extensive stands of arboreal Rhododendron species that may co-occur with oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) or other ericaceous species such as Lyonia ovalifolia. These temperate forests support a rich epiphytic community, consisting of a variety of dicots, orchids, ferns and mosses. Bamboo (Arundinaria spp.) is dominant in the understory in places, especially where it provides early-successional ground cover following fire. Further upslope; subalpine conifer forests begin from about 3,000 meters and extend to 4,000 meters. In the eastern Himalayas, Tsuga, Picea or Larix dominate these forests between 3,000 meters to 3,500 meters and Abies dominates above 3,500 meters. Juniperus is widespread along the timberline, and may form dwarf krummoltz formations above 4,700 meters. The dry slopes and inner valleys support Pinus and Cupressus on basic limestone soils. Above the tree line the vegetation is a moist alpine scrub community of dense juniper and Rhododendron shrubberies that extend to about 4,500 meters. Plant richness in these alpine shrub and meadows is very high, especially on the shady north-facing slopes that are protected from extreme winter cold by an insulating layer of snow. South-facing slopes tend to be dominated by Kobresia sedge and forbs with scattered shrub species of Berberis, Rosa, Lonicera, and <Cotoneaster to about 4,500 meters. From 4,500 to 4,700 meters the vegetation consists of alpine meadows with a diverse assemblage of alpine herbs and smaller-statured woody shrubs, such as a variety of dwarf rhododendrons, and numerous alpine herbs such as Potentilla, Ranunculus and the alpine Saussure. Per glacial and subnival communities occur in the high alpine areas above 4,700 meters, where the short growing season, high winds, and unstable soils allow only specialized plants to survive. These include Androsace, Arenaria and Saxifraga, Meconopsis andPrimula. The latter two have their global centers of diversity in the eastern Himalayas. By about 5,500 to 6,000 meters, the nival zone, or permanent ice and bare rock, begins in some of the areas. Even at the highest elevations on Earth, microclimates may support small cushion-forming vascular plants, such as Arenaria bryophylla.


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The Easterly Tilt of the Deccan Plateau A reasder came across an old post of mine on the uplift history of the Western Ghats and asked: 1) What is the relationship between the Deccan volcanics and the easterly tilt of the Indian plateau? (i.e. the plateau covering the Deccan volcanics and the southern Indian peninsular region) The region south of the Tapi River covering the Deccan basalts and the southern Indian peninsula exhibits an easterly drainage with the rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Image below shows the Indian peninsular region with easterly drainage. The Deccan Plateau (in green) is the area covered by the Deccan basalts. South of this region is Precambrian terrain. Along the east coast there are Permian-Triassic and Cretaceous basins.


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The relationship between the Deccan volcanic and this easterly tilt is indirect. There are many plausible reasons for the easterly tilt of the Indian crust. , a) The breakup of Gondwanaland produced Permian-Triassic rift basins along what is now the eastern margin of India. Initially the sources of sediment being deposited in these basins were from the east and south i.e elevated regions now forming continental shelves of India and the continental margins of Australia and Antarctica. Beginning late Jurassic rifting produced the now western margin of India. This younger rifting event generated topography to the west and reversed sediment distribution patterns. The Late Jurassic and Cretaceous basins of south India received sediments from the west i.e. via an easterly drainage.

b) The rifting event that created the western margin of India also eventually triggered the Deccan volcanic episode. Post volcanism in the Cenozoic the Deccan region has titled to the east due to the Western margin undergoing uplift. This has been explained as a biostatic response to denudation unloading of the crust i.e. erosion has stripped material away from the Western margin forming the coastal plain and the steep Western Ghat escarpment. All that eroded sediment has been deposited within basins in the Arabian Sea. This removal of weight has led to the crust rebounding and tilting in an easterly direction. The schematic shows the development of an of easterly tilt(east to left) due to rift flank uplift and biostatic rebound. c) The eastern margin of India is older (about 130 my) than the western margin (about 65 my). The oceanic lithosphere in the Bay of Bengal is colder and denser and it is sinking and dragging down the peninsula region with it. d) The Bengal sediment fan i.e. the pile of sediment eroded from the Himalayas throughout the Cenozoic and deposited in the Bay of Bengal is weighing the crust down and exerting a dragging down effect on the Indian peninsular region. There is about 22 km of sediment at the mouth of the Ganges -Brahmaputra delta and about 8 km of sediment as south as Chennai. Likely all the above have acted in combination to produce the easterly tilt. 2) Why are the northern half of the Western Ghats composed of basalt and the southern half composed of gneiss? The reason why the southern parts of the Western Ghats are made of gneiss is that the Deccan lavas never erupted and flowed that far south. So the boundary between the basalts and the gneiss marks the southern limit of Deccan volcanism.


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Coach: 8 The Coasts & the Islands

Introduction COASTS: Where Sea Meets Land The coastal zone can be described as that part of the sea which is affected by land and that part of the land which is affected by sea. Coasts include more than just the sea shore or beach. They comprise habitats such as cliffs, rocky coasts, sandy coasts, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, backwaters, mangrove forests, mud flats, salt marshes, sea grass beds, and coral reefs. Salinity, waves and tidal actions are the major factors that affect the biodiversity of the coasts. The extent of the coastal zone varies with location and time! For example, near the Shravan Kavadia temple (in Lodai village, Bhuj District in Gujarat) there is a 0.7 ha land-locked patch of mangroves, which is located 100 km from the seashore. This is evidence that once this area may have been on the shoreline. In India, for regulation purposes, the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) 2011 Notification, states that coastal zone is 500 m on the landward side from high tide line and up to 12 nautical miles seaward from the low tide line. Coastal Space: ranges from 100 km landward to 50 m seaward Did you know? Every fourth Indian lives within 50 km of the seashore. 3 of the 4 metropolitan cities in India are located along the coast. 9 states and 4 Union Territories of India have a coastline.

ISLANDS: Surrounded by Sea An island is a landmass surrounded by water. The major island groups of India are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the lakshadweep islands. The Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu has 21 islands and Marine National Park, Jamnagar in Gujarat has 42 islands.

Island Types Continental: These lie on the continental shelf and are mostly volcanic in origin, e.g. Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra, and Greenland. Oceanic: These do not lie on the continental shelf. They may be volcanic in origin, e.g. Andaman, Nicobar. Some may be formed due to corals, e.g. Lakshadweep. Did you know? Mumbai is actually an archipelago (group or cluster) of 7 islands. It appears as a continuous land mass because of the land reclamation and rapid urbanization.


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Our coastline India has the world's seventh longest coastline. The coastline of India is 7516 km long. Of this, the mainland coastline is 5422 km, Lakshadweep coast line 132 km and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands coastline is 1962 km. Salt pans are a common feature of coastal states of India. These support the important salt industry. The Marina Beach in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, is the world's second longest beach. A Bay is a large body of sea water surrounded by land on three sides. The Bay of Bengal is an example. A Gulf is a large area of a sea or ocean partially enclosed by land. The Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat has the second largest tidal range in the world. Estuaries are water bodies where there is mixing of freshwater from river and salt water of the sea. Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems and abodes of rich biodiversity. A Lagoon is a shallow lake of salt water separated from sea by offshore islands, coral reef, sand bars or shingle spits.

Chilika Lagoon, Largest in India Chilika Lake in Odisha, spread over 1165 sq km, is the largest lagoon in Asia and second largest in the world, after the Patos Lagoon in Southern Brazil. It is a Ramsar Site, a wetland of international importance. Chilika is a unique assemblage of marine, brackish and freshwater ecosystems with estuarine characters. Chilika supports rich and varied wildlife – the highest density of the Irrawaddy Dolphins, 167 species of migratory and resident birds, etc. The lagoon includes the Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary (15.53 sq km of Nalaban area) and the rest is "Closed Area" under the provisions of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Chilika: A Success Story Chilika lagoon was designated as 'Ramsar Site' in 1981. Around the same time, ecological factors and human activities were putting severe pressure on the lagoon. This adversely affected the livelihood of the local community. To address these issues, the Chilika Development Authority (CDA) was formed in 1991 under the aegis of Forests and Environment Department, Odisha. Over the last two decades, the CDA has implemented a variety of measures e.g. catchment area treatment, de-siltation of lead channels, opening of mouth to the sea, fishery resource development, improvement of the ecosystem and overall eco-development programmes with the community. As a result the ecosystem has been restored to a great extent and there has been improved livelihood of the community. CDA got the international Ramsar Wetland Award and also the Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar, both in 2002.


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Amazing life in the sea Life can be found even in the deepest and darkest corners of the sea. About 97 per cent of all species found in the sea are invertebrates (animals without backbone). They range from primitive sponges (Spongilla) to the complex echinoderms (starfish). Planktons are microscopic organisms that provide the basic source of food for aquatic life-forms. Hints to the Past Balanoglossus is an “evolutionary link” between invertebrates and vertebrates. They have gill slits but no nerve cord. Ammonites (coiled marine molluscs) are an extinct group of marine invertebrates. Their fossilized shells are found in the Kali Gandaki valley of the Himalayas, indicating the presence of sea once upon a time in that area. Horseshoe Crab is known as a 'living fossil' because it is almost identical to the species present during the Triassic period (230 million years ago). It has nine eyes and copper-based blue colour blood. Did you know? Is 'Jellyfish' a fish? The jellyfish is not really a fish. They belong to the phylum Coelentrata, are found as free swimmers (moving with waves and currents), and have tiny stinging cells in their tentacles. Squids are the largest invertebrates on the earth. A giant squid's eyeball can be as big as a basketball! It can change its colour to suit its surroundings. The Humboldt squids are intelligent and hunt in groups exhibiting cooperation and communication.

Amazing Partners: The Clownfish and the Sea Anemone have a useful partnership. The Clownfish avoids its enemies by staying nestled among the Anemone's stinging tentacles. In return, it protects the Sea Anemone from its predators like butterfly fish. The Anemone also gets nutrition from the faeces of the Clownfish. This is an example of mutually beneficial relationship called symbiosis. Habitats and inhabitants: As the homes so the occupants. Diverse species have characteristic features that help them to live in their specific habitats like mud flats, estuaries, sandy beaches, mangroves, lagoons. Sea to Sand: Sea Turtles: Five species of sea turtles – Olive Ridley, Green Turtle, Hawksbill, Leatherback and Loggerhead – come to the Indian coasts for nesting every year. Gahirmatha in the state of Odisha is the world's largest rookery (mass nesting site) for Olive Ridleys.


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In the Mangroves: Mudskippers: These walking fish can breathe through their skin, crawl and jump on mud flats. Sundarban Tigers are well adapted to mangrove forests with a lean and athletic build. They prey on fishes, crabs, water lizards and other aquatic animals. Saltwater crocodile, the largest crocodile in the world, is also found in mangrove forests in estuaries. Its special ability to excrete salt is one of the adaptive features for living in the estuarine habitats. Guests from Abroad: The Indian Coasts is host to lakhs of migratory birds arriving from Siberia, Asia, Europe, Arabia and Mongolia. Full of fish 2546 species of fish have so far been recorded along the Indian coasts. The dominant group of vertebrates (animals with backbones) in the sea is made up of fishes although the marine vertebrates range from tiny fishes to giant whales. So special! The special aquatic adaptations like gills to extract oxygen and salt from water, streamlined shape of the body and fins help the fish swim swiftly in water. Some fishes migrate from river to sea and vice-versa for spawning (egg laying and sperm discharge). The 'Hilsa' swims up from sea to rivers and 'eel' migrates from freshwater rivers to sea for spawning. Keystone species A keystone species is a species that exerts major influence on the structure of the ecosystem. If its population dwindles the food web can be drastically disturbed. The Dugong (seacow), the State Animal of A&N Islands, is a keystone species in the seagrass ecosystem. Did you know? Dugongs and Dolphins are not fishes; they are mammals living in water. Whales are mammals of the deep sea, sometimes come close to the coast. Plants in the sea The base of the marine food web is invisible. Microscopic marine plants – phytoplankton – form the basis of the marine food web. Seagrass is the only flowering plant that can live underwater in the sea. Seagrass absorbs nutrients from coastal run-off, which helps stabilise sediment. This keeps the coastal waters clear. Seagrass beds are the feeding grounds for marine animals like dugongs, turtles, prawns and fishes. Seaweeds are macroscopic algae found largely in shallow coastal waters. They have specialized pigments for absorbing whatever minimal sunlight falls on the coastal waters. Hence they are found in different coloration and are accordingly classified into: Blue-Green Algae, Green Algae, Brown Algae and Red Algae.


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Seaweeds also have other adaptations like holdfasts instead of roots, stems and leaves, to hold firmly on any place; stipes to keep them upright, and leaf blades for photosynthesis. Did you know? Out of 58 varieties of sea grasses in the world, India has 12 varieties belonging to 6 genera. Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep islands are well known for sea grasses. Tsunami soldiers and more... Multipurpose Mangroves Mangroves are a group of specialized woody, flowering plants growing in intertidal region along creeks, estuaries and river deltas. They have stilt (aerial) roots for support and breathing during water logging. Following are some more adaptations Mangrove habitats are also a migratory path for catadromous fish (fish migrating from river to sea, e.g. eel) and anadromous fish (migrating from sea to river for breeding). Hilsa fish is an example of anadromous fish. Mangrove ecosystem services Food, fish resources, medicines, livelihoods Protection from floods, shoreline erosion, cyclones Support in nutrient cycling, topsoil formation and fertility Cultural & spiritual, Educational & scientific information, Recreation

Is Coral stone, plant or animal? Corals are tiny animals living in colonies in the sea. Each coral is called a polyp of a sea anemone and lives inside a cup of calcium carbonate. It has a mouth at the top surrounded by tentacles that help to capture food. Coral Reefs Coral reefs are colonies of tiny corals found in marine waters. They are very fragile ecosystems and indicate the health of the overall marine ecosystem. Global factors such as climate change, pollution caused by oil spills, pesticides, sewage and dredging are threatening the health of the reefs. Types of Coral Reefs Fringing reefs (grow close to the shore) Barrier reef: grows away from the shore, are separated by wide expanse of water Atoll (roughly circular ring of reefs) Did you know? About 60% of the coral reefs of the world are found in the Indian Ocean. Most of the coral reefs of the Indian Ocean are Atolls. Greatest coral diversity is found in the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Coasts and islands are facing threats from a variety of factors – human activity-related as well as natural.


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Livelihood gifts from sea There are 3322 fishing villages in India employing over 14 million people. About 50 per cent of the total marine fish production in India is from nearshore waters, caught by traditional fishermen. Essential Elements from the Sea Minerals like iodine, bromine, magnesium, calcium, silicon and tin are extracted from the sea water. Deposits of radioactive elements like thorium are found on the seashore of Kerala and Odisha. Materials extracted from sea sponges have antibiotic and antifungal properties. Salt of the Sea Salt production through salt pans is a common feature of all coastal states of India. The farmers of Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal cultivate more than 10 varieties of salt-tolerant paddy in saline low land areas. Over exploitation of fishery resources. Dredging and mining of shore sand leading to shore erosion and flooding. Pollution, oil spills, sewage and effluent disposal, hot water discharge from thermal power plants, coastal ground water over-exploitation, urbanization and industrial establishments that convert coastal habitats. Climate change impacts like increase in sea surface water temperature, sea level rise, changes in ocean currents, coral bleaching. Natural hazards such as tsunami, cyclones, storm surges, coastal flooding. Early Warning System Some species capture signals of the biological conditions in the environment. They give an early warning of the deteriorating health of the ecosystem, e.g. coral reefs, sponges, mussels, pearl oyster. These are known as bio-indicators. Haliclona tenuiramosa is a marine sponge which absorbs heavy metals present in sea water and, thus, a concentration of these metals in its tissues can indicate the level of pollutant load. Sea urchins are used as bio-sensors for the effects of ultraviolet radiation. Coasts under Threat There are 13 major and 185 minor ports along the coastline of India. The cumulative impact of port-related activities harms coastal biodiversity. Every day, about 18240 million (1824 crore) litres of untreated sewage is being discharged into the sea in India! Every day, about 34 million (3 crore and 40 lakh) tons of garbage and other solid waste is being released into the sea in India!


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Ted to Trounce Turtle Trap Turtles are often caught in fishing nets. To prevent this, a Turtle Excluder Device (TED) has been invented. TED is a frame installed in the trawl net used for fishing. It allows large animals like turtles to escape in case they are accidentally caught in the net. TED is extensively promoted by Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for use by marine trawl boat owners and fishermen. This has resulted in the conservation of endangered sea turtles significantly.

Lakshadweep: The Coral Islands

The word 'Lakshadweep' in Sanskrit means one lakh (laksha) islands (dweep). In fact, this island group includes 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. Some of these islands are made up of coral formations, and others of rocky formations and large lagoons. There is a continuous interaction of coral reef, lagoons and the sea. All these harbour a variety of plants and animals. The islands have no forests and no endemic plants. Most of the plants have been introduced from the Indian mainland and other countries. Coconut groves are the predominant vegetation. There are no dogs, no snakes on these islands! The coral reefs and lagoons have rich species diversity. The lagoon, reef and the deep sea provide the islanders with their basic needs - food, construction materials, and livelihood resources such as fishing and coconut cultivation. Common sea birds are Taratachi (Sterna fusca) and Common Noddy (Anous stolidus) Did you know? Each island is fringed by large lagoons on the western side and by rocky formations on the other three sides.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands About half of all the plants and animals found here are not found anywhere else in the world! The Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) islands have been isolated from the mainland for millions of years. This has led to the evolution of flora and fauna that are not found anywhere else. Plants and animals found in a particular area but not anywhere else in the world are called endemic species. There are 95 species of birds, 8 species of bats, 301 species of plants that are endemic to A&N islands.


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A&N are a group of 306 islands situated in the Bay of Bengal. Of these islands, 33 are inhabited, 88 are designated as sanctuaries and 6 areas as National Parks. Two of these are Marine National Parks.

Some Endemic Species Megapode: This bird is closely related to fowl (hens and cocks). The bird does not sit on its eggs. To provide warmth, it lays its eggs on ground and covers them with a mound of leaves and soil. Andaman Day Gecko: This emerald green reptile is found only in the Andamans. Andaman Water Monitor: Lives in fresh and salt water where it feeds on crabs, prawns and shelled creatures. Giant Robber Crab: With powerful jaws and legs, it can pluck a coconut from the tree, tear away the outer cover and feed on the flesh inside. Nicobar Crab-eating Macaque: It is endemic to the Nicobar Islands and prefers to live in mangroves and coastal forests. Andaman Padauk, or East Indian Mahagony, is valued for its toughness and use as timber. When freshly cut the wood is bright red, which fades over time to a rich brown. Visitors that stayed on: Animals brought to the islands by humans or transported by through natural factors or other animals are called introduced species. Some of these species are domestic dogs, cats, goats, spotted deer, house sparrows, rats, etc. Now, the unchecked population of these species has become a threat to the native (local) species. Did you know? 406 medicinal plants have been recorded in A&N islands. The islands have some of India's best nesting beaches for three species of marine turtles: Leatherback, Hawksbill and Green Turtles.

Further Reference Introduction

Coasts: Where sea meets the land “The part of the sea affected by land and that part of the land affected by the sea.”

The CBD refers to coastal and marine environments as those that contain diverse habitats such as mangrove forests, coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuaries in coastal areas, and hydrothermal vents that support marine life such as marine fish and invertebrates.

http://www.cbd.int/


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Islands, on the other hand, are defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment as “lands isolated by surrounding water and with a high proportion of coast to hinterland”; however, there is no single accepted definition of islands. Island biodiversity are known to be highly endemic and specialized with new characteristics and unusual adaptations that are shaped by evolutionary processes. The coast includes more than just the sea shore or beach. Coasts include a wide array of natural environments and communities. These include cliffs, rocky coasts, sandy coasts, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, back waters, mangrove forests, mud flats, salt marshes, sea grass beds, and coral reefs. Such diverse habitats often coexist. Salinity, waves and tidal actions are the major factors affecting the biodiversity of the coasts. The extent of the coastal zone varies with location and time. For example near the “Shravan Kavadia temple” (in Lodai village, Bhuj District in Gujarat) there is a 0.7ha land-locked patch of mangroves which is located 100 km. from the seashore. This is evidence that once this area may have been on the shoreline. The coasts are an enchanting world in themselves. Here you can see deserts of sand dunes, forests of sea grasses and mangroves, and spectacular coral reefs. The animal and plant life is incredible in its diversity, and in the amazing adaptations to the aquatic world. The myriad array of life forms range from luminescent bacteria and algae, to silky sponges; colorful coelenterates to mysterious mollusks; tentacle echinoderms to finned fishes and unique reptiles as well as marvelous marine mammals and migratory birds. The Indian coasts host more than 180 species of benthic algae, 14 species of sea weeds, 12 species of sea grasses, 108 species of sponges, 4 species of lobsters, 600 species of crabs, 103 species of echinoderms, 600 species of fin fishes and many more. India has a vast extent of coast line of about 8000 km spanning 13 maritime mainland states and Union Territories, which are home to a diversity of coastal and marine ecosystems, comprising nationally and globally significant biodiversity. It also supports almost 30% of its human population being dependent on the rich exploitable coastal and marine resources. The coastline of Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea continues to be a rich fishing ground in the south Asian region and India is one of the world’s largest marine product nations. Marine ecosystems such as estuaries, coral reefs, marshes, lagoon, sandy and rocky beaches, mangrove forests and sea grass beds are all known for their high biological productivity, which provide a wide range of habitat for many aquatic flora and fauna. It also provides important food resources and critically major services to human beings. Therefore, sustainability of these fragile ecosystems should be our primary concern.


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So far, we have largely looked the marine biodiversity as a source of commercial products instead of appreciating their ecological values and services which has resulted in over exploitation and several species are now in the verge of extinction. Moreover, human activities such as destructive fishing, shipping, coastal developments, discharge of untreated effluent from industries have caused considerable damage and pose a severe threat to the coastal and marine biodiversity. In addition to that, global warming due to climate change also poses major challenges to marine biodiversity. In view of the dangers faced by various anthropogenic activities in recent past, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India is committed to protect and conserve these endangered ecosystems. As a step towards achieving this goal, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India sponsored a two-day ‘National Consultation Workshop’ to identify the gap areas in research so that steps can be initiated to conduct important research programs on priority basis, which would strengthen the conservation Draft document for comments (Not for reference/circulations) and management of coastal and marine biodiversity in the country. The Wildlife Institute of India organized this workshop at Chennai. Six important following thrust research areas have been discussed in the consultation workshop. a. Landscape/Seascape/Ecosystem level research b. Habitat level research on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity c. Species level research on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity d. Development of Technology for Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Research e. Monitoring and Restoration Ecology f. Socio-economic and Policy-level Research More than 40 experts in various fields of coastal and marine biodiversity and forest managers from different parts of India have participated in the workshop (Annexure I). Participants belonged to various universities, research institutions, government organizations, national and international non-governmental organizations who are largely working for conservation and welfare of coastal biodiversity and communities respectively. After a brief introduction to the workshop, a key note address was delivered in each identified thrust areas by experts. After the key note addresses, six groups comprising 5-8 participants each have been formed for group work and discussion to achieve the workshop objectives. After the group works, identified research gaps in the respective thrust areas had been discussed with all the participants and then finalized.


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Significance of Indian coastal and marine biodiversity The sea around India is part of the great Indian Ocean and the Indian subcontinent forms a major physical division between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal of the Indian Ocean. Coral reefs are diverse and most vulnerable ecosystem in India. The reef bio composition is quite significant and includes 180 species of benthic algae, 14 species of seaweeds, 12 species of sea grasses, 108 species of sponges, 4 species of lobsters, 103 species of echinoderms, 600 species of fin fishes and also a good number of species of crabs, bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods each in Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar islands. In India, 208 species of hard corals belonging to 60 genera have been so far described and many more species would be described soon by the Zoological Survey of India. Highest diversity of corals has been recorded in Andaman and Nicobar islands. India is one among 17 mega biodiversity countries in the world and also ranked 14th among the 22 countries which contain the world's major mangrove areas. The Sundarbans make up the single largest contiguous block of mangrove forest in the world, with 40 percent of the area within in India and rest is in Bangladesh. Large sea grass beds are present in southern India in Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar. However, along much of the coast of western India dense sea grass beds are uncommon or not extensive, probably because of the degree of exposure and turbidity of these waters. There are some sea grass beds in the Locatives and they are possibly extensive around the Andamans and Nicobars. It is estimated that perhaps five percent of the sea grass beds of the Indian Ocean had been destroyed by dredging or infilling. About 844 species of marine algae are recorded from India. Of these, several species are exploited commercially on a large scale in the region. Marine invertebrate diversity is also high in India, and for some groups may show a similar trend to that for corals described above, however, there is not enough study in this group in India. Many invertebrates are harvested and are of economic importance; there is evidence that some mollusks and crustaceans have been overexploited, and species such as the coconut crab, horseshoe crabs, and certain mollusks are of conservation concern. As is the case elsewhere, the mangroves of the region have great economic value and have been heavily exploited. Both in western and southern India, and throughout the Bay of Bengal, much of the originally extensive mangrove stands have been removed due to urbanization.


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Prochordates in India is a very poorly studied group. Balanoglossus Ptychodera flava is a wormlike animal with a localized distribution and the Krusadai Islands of Tamil Nadu is one among the few places in India where this species occur. Ascidians such as Herdmania and Eceinascidia, and Amphioxus Branchiostoma lancelets are also occur in India but these proto chordates need more studies. Commercial and subsistence fisheries are important in India. Five of the seven species of sea turtles found worldwide are reported to occur in Indian coastal waters. These are the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta). Except for the Loggerhead, the remaining four species nest along the Indian coastline. In India the bulk of the catch is subsistence or artisanal. Hilsa is the main species have been exploited in the Bay of Bengal. The Bay of Bengal is particularly rich because of the nutrient input from the large rivers and there is extensive information available for the fisheries of this area through the Bay of Bengal Program on marine fishery resources. Significant proportion of World’s olive riddle populations migrate every winter to the Indian coastal waters to nest on beaches in Orissa, as well as along other parts of Indian coast. All the five species of sea turtles that occur in Indian coastal waters are protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), as well as listed in Appendix I of Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) which prohibits trade in turtle products by signatory countries. At present there exists no commercial or international trade of marine turtles or turtle products in India. However, incidental capture in trawls is a well-known cause of mortality for sea turtles and have been reported all over the world and India is not exception to this. Globally threatened marine and coastal bird species such as the Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus phillipensis and the Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus are found in India. Important Birds Areas (IBA) along coasts includes the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Coringa, Pulicat, and Chilka Lake etc. The seabirds of the region are poorly known and do not appear to be abundant in off-shore India, The Sundarbans are an important staging and wintering area for gulls and terns. Many of the atoll islands in the Laccadives-Chagos chain may have seabird colonies, such as Pitti and Baliapani in the Laccadives and several of the Chagos Archipelago islands. There are about 25 species of marine mammals known to occur in Indian water. Apart from larger cetaceans such as baleen, sperm whales etc., there is also a large number of small cetaceans occur in Indian Ocean, some of which are not well known, and many of which are harvested either intentionally or incidentally.


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The Indian Ocean populations of the humpback dolphin Sousa chine sis and the spotted dolphin Stenella attenuate are considered to be at risk; the distribution of the latter appears to be closely correlated with mangroves.

The distribution of the dugong extends over most of the region, but appreciable numbers are no longer found. The most important area for this species in the region, and possibly in the whole Indian Ocean, is the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and Gulf of Kutch in India, and Andaman and Nicobar islands.


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The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991, National Biodiversity Act, 2002 and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 have been enacted by India for the conservation of coastal and marine environment along with the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, which also provides for the establishment of wildlife Protected Areas by State Governments. So far, about 25 Marine Protected Areas have been established. The Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park, the Gulf of Mannar National Park and Wandoor Marine National Park are some of the important MPAs of India.

Threats to coastal and marine biodiversity Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most biologically and economically productive ecosystems in the world and the same is true for India where these ecosystems are both a source of livelihood as well as of a range of ecological services that are critical for the day to day well-being of millions of people particularly coastal communities. Despite their tremendous ecological and economic importance and the existence of a substantial policy and regulatory framework, India’s coastal and marine ecosystems are under increasing threat. Numerous direct and indirect pressures arising from different types of economic development and associated activities are having adverse impacts on coastal and marine biodiversity across the country. Major anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem degradation and destruction include habitat conversion to other forms of land use, overexploitation of species and associated destructive harvesting practices, the spread of invasive alien species, and the impacts of agricultural, domestic and industrial sewage and waste. Additionally, climate change is likely to have a growing impact on coastal and marine ecosystems, including a likely increase in extreme weather events as well as sea level rise, warming of the sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification. Coastal habitats are also subject to powerful natural weather phenomena, such as tsunami, cyclones, hurricanes and storms. Indirect drivers of ecosystem change include demographic, socio-political, cultural, economic and technological factors.

Major Research Activities So far, the major scientific areas of research in the coastal and marine biodiversity in India include Fisheries, Aquaculture, Seaweed and Mangrove research. The finfish fishery researches includes studies on perches, carangids, barracudas, mackerels, milkfish, mullets, tunas, sardines, scombroids, silverbellies, pomfrets, letherinids, groupers, sharks and rays. The shellfish fishery includes oysters, mussles, clams, prawns, lobsters and crabs.


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Research on culture of organisms of export value such as sea cucumbers, seahorses and ornamental fishes has also been carried out by institutions including the State and Central fisheries departments and academic institutions.

Research on corals, mangroves, sea grass and certain threatened fauna have also been carried out but in sporadic manner that too in selected sites. So far, majority of the research carried out in India has considered marine biodiversity as a commercial product and largely failed to appreciate their ecological vale.

Aquaculture research has been concentrated on pearl oysters, edible oysters, crabs, prawns, milkfish, ornamental fishes etc. Extensive research has also been carried out on the biology, ecology, biochemistry and production of seaweeds.

Moreover, recent threats such as climate change, invasive species, faster economic development etc are posing major challenges for conservation of marine biodiversity which need to be addressed immediately through scientific research.

Major requirements for marine biodiversity conservation research in India

Most importantly, coordination among all organizations/institutions who works for conservation of coastal and marine biodiversity and social welfare of coastal communities is required.

Moreover, documentation and data base of research information on marine biodiversity is also urgently required.

It is also important to develop a specialized higher educational field based program in marine ecosystem ecology with an emphasis on rigorous scientific research, hypothesis testing, taxonomy and conservation, based very much on models established by the M.Sc course in Wildlife Science at the Wildlife Institute of India or at National Centre for Biological Science. Human resource development to manage the Marine Protected Areas of India is also required immediately.


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In this connection, it is prudent to establish a new research institution to do this work.

Habitat level research on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity

Inter-tidal Mudflats – Studies to assess their ecological significance, restoration and dynamics. Corals - Studies to understand and analyze the connectivity within and between associated habitats. Detailed ecological study on corals associated micro-organisms and their responses to changing climate and various anthropogenic activities.

No Zoothanthellae, no coral. Information on the taxonomy of zoothanthellae, their role in the coral habitat and biology is poorly known. This gap has to be filled. Mangroves are considered as repository of biodiversity. Therefore an integrated study to record the diversity associated with mangroves has to be undertaken (to cite few- diversity of fungi, nematodes, amphipods, brachyuran crabs etc. is not known fully)


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Sea grass and lesser known mangrove species inventory: Sea grass beds and mangrove habitats provide feeding and breading habitat for many organisms, which will attract species towards it.

These fragile ecosystems need to be taken care of by long term monitoring of the lesser known species of mangroves and sea grasses. Research gaps on restoration of these habitats also need to be addressed.

Sites associated with rich biodiversity include sea grass beds and sea weed rich areas besides others. While the biodiversity of the above plants are known sufficiently, diversity of organisms associated with the above plants is poorly known. This gap has to be bridged. Documentation of biodiversity in intertidal rocky shoreline: The important research gap area in intertidal rocky shoreline is the documentation of biodiversity of symbiotic and associated micro flora.

Coastal Lagoon Ecology and Biodiversity: Lagoons are ignored for a longer period which should be studied in detail for their biodiversity, ecological services and livelihood interactions of local communities or stake holders. Habitats of threatened animals: Special habitats of certain threatened animals such as dugong, whale shark, sea horses, horseshoe crab need to be assessed and monitored.

Impact of coral bleaching on the biodiversity of corals and other associated organisms in coral reef ecosystems: The frequency of bleaching events has increased in the recent past in reefs world over. While large-scale coral mortality is the immediate result, species-wise mortality and the actual coral cover last is often not clearly understood. Secondly, the process and chances of recovery of coral species need to be monitored.

Thirdly and importantly, the impact of disappearance or the dramatic reduction in percent cover of a coral species – which in turn would influence the associates – need to be studied in a long-term basis.

Species level research on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity

Strengthening of taxonomic capacity: It includes current knowledge on taxonomy of inadequate marine fauna and flora. This is mainly due to dwindling population of taxonomists: many have retired and left no legacy. The current curriculum of education system (especially in Biology and Marine Sciences streams) is also to blame.

It is also mainly due to limited exposure to young researchers in the field of marine taxonomy and ecology. Thus there is an urgent need to build capacity in Taxonomy and Ecology of marine biota through series of training programs.

In addition to traditional taxonomic training, training on use of molecular tools including molecular markers and DNA bar-coding to strengthen/ confirm the morphological identity is necessary.


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Preparation and implementation of species recovery plan: Recently the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has decided to recover the highly threatened marine species using the ‘Species Recovery Plans’.

More species need to be included in this program and all the ‘Species Recovery Plans’ must be prepared with scientifically validated data. Therefore, required scientific information need to be collected for preparation of species recovery plans of threatened marine species.

Periodic assessment of threatened and endemic species: As a part of long term monitoring of population and distribution range of all threatened and endemic coastal and marine species, periodic assessment at the interval of five years need to carried out to periodically review the scheduled species of Wildlife (Protection) Act.

Periodic assessment of threatened and endemic species: As a part of long term monitoring of population and distribution range of all threatened and endemic coastal and marine species, periodic assessment at the interval of five years need to carried out to periodically review the scheduled species of Wildlife (Protection) Act. Ecological studies of endemic and threatened species of invertebrates and prochordates groups: Most of the invertebrate fauna in coastal and marine ecosystem are being commercially exploited for food, medicine and reparation of ornamental goods. As a result, the status of many endemic and threatened invertebrate biotas is unknown from scientific as well commercial perspectives.

The detailed studies need to be under taken for the status and distribution of the following groups: sea-cucumbers; sea anemones; starfish; sponges; Brachiopod; Placozoa; Pogonophora; Gnathostomulida; Echiura; Phoronida; Ctenophore; Kinoryhncha; Priapula; Loricifera; Echinodermata; Cycliophora; and of the endemic molluscan species. Studies are also necessary for poorly known meiofauna along the coast and intertidal mudflats.

It is also important to study the ecology of horseshoe crabs, giant or coconut crabs, estuarine crabs etc. Prochordates in India is a very poorly studied group. Balanoglossus Ptychodera flava is a wormlike animal with a localized distribution at Krusadai Islands of Tamil Nadu are among the few places in India where this species occur. Ascidians such as Herdmania and Eceinascidia, and Amphioxus Branchiostoma lanceolatus are also some of the the protochodates which need more studies.

Impact of global warming and climate change: the effect of global climate change and global warming brings changes in trophic dynamics, abundance and distribution of fauna in various trophic levels and it also one of the causative for coral bleaching phenomena. Studies have been held on the long term impacts of climate change on marine fauna, including microbes, coral reefs and mitigation / prevention of coral bleaching.


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Marine Mammals: Status survey and monitoring of marine mammals especially, fishing cats and smooth coated otters in coastal and mangrove habitats and Dugong population in West coast & East coast (in particular Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands). Coastal and Oceanic Birds: Base on birds of coastal and sea birds along the Indian coast line are inadequate. An ecological survey and long term monitoring of coastal and sea birds along West coast & East coast and identification and protection of nesting and feeding grounds of migratory birds in coastal areas are essential. The other research gaps are: study on flamingo’s habitats in Gujarat; ecological studies of terns in Lakshadweep bird sanctuary and identification of important habitats for shore birds. Ecological studies on marine reptiles: Very few species of marine reptiles are represented from the coastal and marine habitats of India, which include salt water crocodiles, sea snakes, Leatherback turtles, Hawksbill and Green turtles along the west, east coast and Islands. These species are facing severe threat due to improper fishing gears and various coastal developments. In order to conserve these species, it is essential to study their ecology and home range. Long term monitoring and Ecological studies on lesser known fish species: though we have very good historical documentation of marine fisheries resources in the country, still there are lots of gaps existing in lesser known fish taxa. The important gap areas are: status and diversity of sea-horse population along the Indian coast; exploration of enzymic and non-enzymic anti-oxidants from by catch fishery; bait species anagements; status survey of whale sharks and other threatened elasmobranchs (ecological study with state of art technologies). Life history and biology of threatened are mainly due to endemic and commercially important fishes with special reference to their egg and larval stages. Diseases: Research on marine wildlife diseases especially mammals, corals, moll scans, etc. Tridacnidae: Habitat specialist and long lived species of these giant clams need to be studied intensively and required continuous monitoring. During 2010, they underwent massive bleaching thus threatening the entire population especially in Lakshadweep, which needs to be studied immediately.


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Coastal People Coastal settlement In spite of its economic and historical importance, because of the arid climates, lack of fresh water resources and inhospitable environmental conditions, the coastal area population is very small. Only 5% of the national population resides in the coastal area. Historical evidence suggests that more islands were inhabited in the past and many more used at least as temporary locations from which marine resource harvesting was conducted. To support their livelihoods most coastal population depend on artisanal fishing and livestock production. These communities are usually involved in a variety of fishing practices such as shell fish collection, commercial fishing and the recently growing sea cucumber collection. Moreover, in some places, crop production with irrigation also complements the livestock rearing activities. Unlike those in the north, southern dwellers are the most actively engaged in fishing and are considered fisheries dependent communities. Half of the total fishing communities (representing about 30,000 people) are estimated to be engaged in fishing and processing dried marine products (snail nail, shark fin, dried mullets, sea cucumbers) for export. For them fishing is an inherited economic tradition that closely attaches them to the sea. Fishermen use traditional boats known as Houri, Sambuk or Canoes and very primitive fishing gear such as hand line and gill nets. Moreover, fishing is a stereotypic occupation reserved only for men. By the culture of all tribes, women are not allowed to engage in fishing except to collect nails and shells in collection areas adjacent to their residences.

Fresh Water Resources Diverse climatologic, topographic, and geologic features characterize the hydrology and the hydrogeology of the eastern escarpment and the coastal plains. Climatologic factors such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity directly affect the rate at which water enters and leaves the river systems that flow to the coast and to the groundwater basins and aquifers located along the coast. The average rainfall is very low along the coast, from 100 to 200 mm every year. This is far below the limit of 600-700 mm which is usually considered to be necessary to cause a substantial recharge of groundwater in this hot climate. Therefore, fresh groundwater is found only underneath the larger ephemeral rivers crossing the coastal plain, also known as “wadis”. There is no comprehensive study on the groundwater and surface water resources and the development potential for the coastal plains of Eritrea.


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Only localized hydro-geological and geophysical characterization of aquifers, which are commonly done for the purpose of identifying groundwater sources for community water supply projects are available and their coverage is very limited to describe the coastal groundwater sources. In relation with water, the coast can be divided in four domains: - The main cities - The coastal zone north and south - The islands

Agricultural activities Agriculture forms one of the main economic bases for the coastal communities and most importantly, the majority of the coastal communities’ agricultural practices rely on livestock which is the single most economically viable sector. Soils and soil association Areas suitable for agriculture are usually concentrated in the southern central highlands and in the South-West part of the country. However, soil shallowness and permeability reduces the advancement of agricultural in significant portions of these areas. Shallowness is mostly the result of intensive farming and subsequent soil degradation, especially in the highlands. Soils around the coastal zone have dusty and salty natures and are unfavorable for agricultural practices. They are very poor, being described as highly saline solonchaks with no agricultural potential. However, where temporary rivers carve through the mountains to the coastal plains, fertile alluvial soil support the livelihoods of local communities through seasonal cultivation. Little research has been carried out on coastal erosion and sea intrusion. Nevertheless, in relation with the low level of sediment transported by rivers, one can expect spontaneous transformation of the coast structure, and subsequently effect on oceanographic conditions (tides, waves, currents, storms). Some areas have already been identified as more sensitive to coastal erosion and sea intrusion such as the Gurgussum area and the low-lying areas of Massawa used for salt extraction. Thus, taking the dynamic nature of coastal structures and the associated environmental changes into account, coastal infrastructure development plans and human settlement plans should be properly worked out and considered in future planning. Cultivation Agriculture in the coastal areas is essentially dependent on irrigation. Rain-fed cultivation is practically non-existent due to the fact that the amount of rain that falls in the coastal areas is not enough to support cultivation. Farming is hinged upon agro-pastoralism practices, whereby crop production (mainly sorghum) is only possible when supplemented by spate irrigation.


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A characteristic of the system is the yearly migration of people and livestock to the highland areas as of mid-April and returning to the “wadis” as of mid-September to engage in cultivation. Sorghum being the major crop, when moisture levels permit, the sorghum crop is collected and a second harvest of grain is possible. When the floods are particularly good, farmers may plant maize instead of sorghum because of the greater yields that can be achieved. Minor crops include maize, finger millets, sesame, groundnut, beans cotton and vegetables. Moisture availability limits the productivity of crops and pests such as stink bugs, army worm, stalk borer, locust and aphids are important threats affecting agricultural harvests. To support local farmers’ production the Ministry of Agriculture has been developing diversion schemes. The intention is to harness the flash floods that come from the nearby mountains and use them efficiently and effectively over the extensive cultivable lands. In other areas, spate irrigation is practiced by the traditional method. Livestock and Rangeland The livestock industry in the coastal areas is founded on migratory patterns, roaming from place to place in search of food and water over existing natural rangelands. Herders predominantly rear the small ruminants, and to a lesser extent cattle, camels and donkeys. In general, the coastal area harbors 28% of the total livestock population of the country, and stands second to the western lowlands. It has been reported that vegetation cover of the rangeland is deteriorating because of the high pressures inflicted upon it by the excessively large numbers of livestock. The desirable carrying capacity of cattle is 1.4/ha, whereas for sheep it is 7.0/ha. But these thresholds have been exceeded by over 200% resulting in the depletion of available forage biomass. Moreover, the value of rangelands is diminishing, as the desired grass species are being replaced by the less desirable ones. To rehabilitate the severely affected rangelands, the MoA under the National Livestock Development Project, is piloting a rangeland development. By ameliorating the range condition the project will serve the communities administrative region with a better rangeland for animal grazing. Traditional Conservation Practices The Afar people have traditional beliefs against cutting trees and the killing of wild animals. According to their belief, cutting the entire canopy of a tree would entail anger and wrath from the heavens, and the killing of wild animals in particular the grazers and browsers, is the direct cause for drought; they believe in ‘God gives rain for the sake of wild animals, and if all wild animals are decimated, there will be no rain.’


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Coach: 9 Climate Change, Water and Biodiversity Introduction 1. What is the climate change? Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The Earth's climate is influenced by many factors, such as the amount of greenhouse and aerosols in the atmosphere, the amount of energy coming from the sun or the properties the Earth's surface. Changes in those factors, through human-related or natural processes, have a warming or a cooling effect on the planet because they alter how much of this solar energy is retained or reflected back to space. 2. How is climate changing and how has it changed in the past? What changes have been observed so far in climate? Nature normally tries to maintain its stable level through many ways, observations of previous years indicates changes but they are either due to natural cycles or natural disasters. Remarkable changes are results of anthropogenic activities. Intergovernmental panel on climate change studies various aspects of climate change all over the globe. Their analysis report provides improvements in terms of data, geographical coverage, understanding of uncertainties, and variety of measurements and allows better understanding of how climate is changing in space and time. The warming of global climate is unequivocal and is evidenced by numerous observations of increasing air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level. Eleven of the last twelve years (1995 -2006) rank among the 12 warmest years ever recorded since global surface temperatures are measured (1850). Over the last 100 years, (1906–2005) there has been an increase in surface temperature of 0.74°C, which is larger than the 0.6°C increase given in the TAR for the 1901-2000 period. And the warming trend over the last 50 years (0.13°C per decade) is nearly twice that for the last 100 years. Temperatures in the higher atmosphere and in the oceans (to depths of at least 3000m) have also been rising, along with the water vapor content of the atmosphere.


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Mountain glaciers, snow cover and ice caps have declined on average in both hemispheres, contributing in part to the rise of global sea level. The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have also contributed to the observed rise of sea level, which amounted to 17cm in total over the course of the 20th.century. There is observational evidence of an increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic since about 1970, with limited evidence of increases elsewhere. Global GHG emissions due to human activities have grown since pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004. How has climate changed in the past? Studies of past climate have allowed inferences to be made about past changes in global climate on time scales ranging from a few decades to millions of years. The uncertainties related to these conclusions on past climate generally increase with time into the past. This information on past climate shows that the overall temperature of the last half century is unusual in at least the previous 1300 years. The last time that the climate was significantly warmer than now for an extended period (about 125,000 years ago, during the last interglacial period), reductions in polar ice volume led to 4 to 6 meters of sea level rise. It is very likely that a significant part of temperature variability in the Northern hemisphere during the past seven centuries prior to 1950 is due to volcanic eruptions and changes in the intensity of solar radiation. What is causing the present-day changes in climate? Most of the observed increase in global temperature since then is very likely due to the observed increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations due to human activities. Human activities now clearly affect other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental-average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns. It is likely that these increases in greenhouse gas concentrations alone would have caused more warming than observed, had volcanic and human-induced aerosols not offset some of the warming that would otherwise have taken place. In addition to green house gases, human population is extracting nature for their luxury. These processes lead to pollution and loss of forest all over world. Directly it don't seem to effect nature, but by the course of time a day has arrived that all changes are apparent as disturbance in geochemical cycles, water cycle etc. 3. How is the climate going to change in the future? What are the projected changes in temperature for the 21st century? According to a series of emission scenarios, global temperature is projected to increase by about 0.2°C per decade for the next two decades. Previous projections had suggested a warming of 0.15 to 0.3°C per decade for 1990 to 2005.


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Best estimates for globally average surface air warming between the 1980s and the 2090s in the selected scenarios range from 1.8°C (likely range is 1.1°C to 2.9°C) to 4.0°C (likely range is 2.4°C to 6.4°C). Uncertainties are related to model differences and to differences in energy use scenarios. What are the other projected changes for the 21st century? Global average sea level is projected to rise by 18 to 59 cm by the end of the 21st century (2090-2099), depending on the scenario. However, models used to date do not include uncertainties about certain climate mechanisms because of lack of knowledge. For instance, projections of sea level rise do not take into account the fact that the flow of ice from the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica could be faster in the future than they were in recent years. These changes could increase the projections by 10 to 20 cm, maybe even more, but understanding is still too limited to include them in the models with any level of certainty. Geographical patterns in climate changes are expected to remain similar to those observed over the past several decades. Warming is expected to be greatest over land and at most high northern latitudes and smallest over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean. Other projected changes include: increased acidification of the oceans caused by increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere; shrinking snow cover and sea ice, and decreased permafrost; increasingly frequent hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation events more intense tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes); a moving of extra-tropical storm tracks towards the poles, with consequent changes in wind, precipitation, and temperature patterns; greater amounts of precipitation in high-latitudes and less rain in most subtropical land regions; and a slowing of the Atlantic Ocean circulation. What changes are projected on the longer term? Warming and sea level rise caused by human activities will continue for centuries, even if greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized, because of the long timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks. Warming is expected to affect the carbon cycle, resulting in even higher carbon concentration in the atmosphere, but the magnitude of this is uncertain. If greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere were to stabilize in 2100 at levels temperature of about 0.5°C would still be expected around 2200. Under this A1B scenario, the thermal expansion of the oceans alone would lead to an increase of 30 to 80 cm of global sea level by 2300, and this rise would continue over many centuries after that. The melting of the Greenland ice sheet is projected to continue and to contribute to sea level rise after 2100. If it were to keep melting for millennia until Greenland ice disappeared completely, global sea level would rise by about 7m. The vulnerability of the ice sheets to warming could be increased by dynamical processes related to ice flow (not included in current models but suggested by recent observations) thereby increasing future sea level rise.


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Current global model studies project that the Antarctic ice sheet will remain too cold for widespread surface melting and is expected to gain in mass due to increased snowfall. Both past and future human emissions of carbon dioxide will continue to contribute to warming and sea level rise for more than a millennium, due to the long time it takes for this gas to disappear from the atmosphere. 4. What impacts of climate change have already been observed? In all regions of the world observations show that many natural systems are being affected by regional climate change, particularly by temperature increases. Snow and ice are melting and frozen ground is thawing. The number of glacial lakes is increasing and so is ground instability in permafrost regions. The flow of rivers that are followed by melting snow and glaciers has increased, and the temperature of lakes and rivers has risen. Spring events such as migrations are starting earlier and the geographical spread of species is extending towards the poles. In addition, the CO2 emitted by human activities has caused an increase of ocean acidity, with poorly understood but potentially important negative impacts. Evidence accumulated over the past five years indicates that changes in many physical and biological systems are linked to the warming caused by human activities. Most of the warming observed since 1950 is very likely due to the increase of greenhouse gases generated by human activities. In most cases, when long term measurements revealed significant environmental change, the change went in the direction that would be expected as a result of a warming climate. Regions with significant changes are also the ones experiencing significant warming. Model projections have linked the changes in some physical and biological systems to the warming induced by human activities. Despite limitations and gaps in knowledge, there is sufficient evidence to conclude with high confidence that over the last three decades the warming induced by human activities has had a measurable impact on many physical and biological systems. Some impacts of regional climate change are only emerging at this stage. They remain difficult to discern because they also depend on factors other than climate or because some adaptation has taken place. Temperature increases could for instance already have affected agricultural and forest management, the number of heat related deaths, the spread of vectors of disease such as insects carrying malaria.


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Recent changes are beginning to have effects, for instance mountain settlements are at risk of floods due to melting glaciers, the growing season in the Sahelian region of Africa is shortening, and damage from coastal flooding is increasing.

5. What impacts are expected in the future? Changes in Weather: Heat and heat waves A) What's happening? The IPCC reports that hot days, hot nights, and heat waves all have become more frequent globally in the last 50 years. Europe's 2003 heat wave, which resulted in more than 40,000 deaths, was the hottest in 150 years of modern record keeping, and possibly the hottest in 500 years, by some estimates. There is at least double the risk of such deadly heat waves occurring in Europe compared to what it would be if we were not adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, according to a 2004 study in the journal Nature. Sacramento, California, saw its warmest overnight low on record (84 °F, or 27°C) during a July 2006 heat wave that killed more than 100 people across the state. The city's previous record for warmest low was 79°F (26°C). Many other western U.S. cities also saw their hottest day or night ever reported. B) What can we expect? By the 2040s, the average summer in Europe may be similar to the scorching one of 2003, according to the Nature study cited above. A report by two NCAR scientists found that Chicago's heat waves could become 25% more frequent by the 2080s. Nighttime lows during the worst heat waves in the U.S. South and West are projected to warm by more than 5°F (3°C). Rain, snow, and drought A) What's happening? On average, precipitation has increased globally over the last century, including over the United States. Days with heavy rain and snow are becoming more frequent over most of the globe's land areas, including North America, according to IPCC Working Group I. Despite this, the global extent of drought has more than doubled worldwide since the 1970s, according to an NCAR study. The more precipitation/more drought paradox is because rising temperatures allow more water to evaporate from oceans (adding extra moisture to the air for rain or snow),but that warming also draws moisture out of the ground, worsening drought wherever it's not raining. B) What can we expect? By the 2080s, most land areas north of latitude 40°N, from Europe to the northern U.S. states and Canada, will see a jump in the number of days with precipitation greater than 0.40 inch (1 centimeter), according to NCAR research. The same NCAR report found that dry spells could lengthen significantly across the western United States, southern Europe, eastern Brazil, and several other areas.


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Stormy weather A) What's happening? The strongest U.S. tornadoes have not become more frequent in the last 50 years. Reports of weaker tornadoes are increasing as more people watch for them. Based on data since the 1970s, the most intense hurricanes (those ranked Category 4 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson scale) make up an increasing fraction of tropical cyclones worldwide. Sea-surface temperatures have increased in the parts of the Atlantic and Pacific where warm water fuels hurricanes over the last century. The warming is more likely due to human-produced climate change than natural cycles, according to research reported in June and September 2006. B) What can we expect? Research continues on the effects of climate change on tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and hurricanes. The trends should become clearer as the length of observation records grows. Because extremes are by definition rare, it takes a long time to gather enough data to make definitive statements. Computer models of the global climate cannot directly simulate tornadoes and other small-scale weather features. More progress will emerge as fine-scale models that depict hurricanes and severe storms are linked to global simulations, as with the Nested Regional Climate Model now being developed at NCAR. Changes in ecosystems Even gradual warming can have dramatic impacts on ecosystems. By crossing important thresholds, such as when freezing or thawing occur, small shifts in climate can transform the way plants, animals, and landforms interact. The polar and mountainous regions of Earth are especially vulnerable to climate change. The huge amounts of snow and ice in cold regions act as natural air conditioners—not because they're frozen, but because their light-colored surfaces span vast areas, reflecting most of the sunlight that hits them. If the ice melts, the darker surface underneath (whether land or sea) absorbs much more of the sunlight, like asphalt paving does on a hot day. That helps to speed further warming and melting in what's known as a positive feedback loop. Many plants and animals survive within a narrow range of very specific climate conditions. As climate zones shift, some plants and animals are adapting, but others are less-well equipped to do so.


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Polar and mountainous regions A) What's happening? During recent summers, the ice that covers the Arctic Ocean has been retreating further than ever measured. The extent of Arctic ice in September 2006 was only about 80–85% of what it was in the 1980s and 1990s. Many glaciers on the coasts of Greenland and West Antarctica are melting at an accelerating clip. When ice shelves and glacier tongues break away from the coast (as in the spectacular Larsen B collapse of 2002), it allows the ice upstream to flow more quickly toward the sea. A major chunk of Antarctica's Wilkins Ice Shelf collapsed in the spring of 2009 and is being monitored for further losses. For time lapse video of melting glaciers around the world, see the Extreme Ice Survey website. Over frigid and desolate East Antarctica, the ice cover may be increasing as temperatures warm and snow becomes heavier. Ironically, this increased precipitation could also be related to global warming. Permafrost (permanently frozen soil) is thawing in parts of Canada, Alaska, and Siberia. The impacts include building and road damage, sinkholes, and "drunken forests" in and near such cities as Fairbanks, Alaska, and Irkutsk, Russia. The thawing is destabilizing both modern and traditional ways of life in Arctic regions. Glaciers are also retreating in multitude and tropical mountains such as the Andes, Himalayas, and Alps. Based on the available data, this appears to be mainly due to gradual warming, but in some cases—such as Mt.Kilimanjaro in Africa—reduced precipitation may be a more significant factor. B) What can we expect? Summer sea ice in the Arctic could decrease dramatically by the 2020s, according to climate-model studies that also suggest virtually ice-free Arctic summers are possible by 2040. The ice loss threatens the survival of polar bears and other Arctic species. The melting of ice from Greenland, West Antarctica, and glaciers elsewhere will add to sea-level rise, which could range from 7 to 24 inches by 2100 according to the IPCC's most recent estimates. However, some aspects of melting that could speed glacial loss are not fully represented in models or in the IPCC's own estimates because they remain poorly understood. An NCAR study in 2006 found that the Arctic's summer warmth by 2100 could match that of 130,000 years ago, when sea levels were rising to 20 feet above today's levels.


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Even if levels rise far less than that, a 2009 study suggests the coastal United States and particularly the northeast from New York up through Canada, is especially vulnerable. Most of the world's permafrost could thaw by the end of this century, an NCAR study found in 2004.Tropical and multitude glaciers will continue to retreat. Some projections show, for example, that the namesakes of Glacier National Park could be gone by 2030. Plant life A) What's happening? Huge swaths of forest in Canada, Alaska, and Russia have been ravaged over the last decade by forest fires, fed by record summer heat and drought. These fires add large amounts of carbon dioxide, which is also the major human produced greenhouse gas, to the atmosphere. However, a 2006 study found that high-latitude fires may have an overall cooling effect in the long term, as snowfall on the newly exposed ground reflects winter sunlight for many years afterward. As the climate warms, forests are also moving north into land that was once Arctic tundra. These trees will act to warm the climate by darkening the surface. In some northern high latitudes, the growing season is up to two weeks longer than in the 1950s. Sakura, Japan's most common species of cherry blossom now blooms five days earlier. Some plant species are moving northward in search of the cooler climate they need to reproduce. Warmer winter nights and fewer cold snaps in New England have helped reduce yields of maple syrup. This climate-related decline is one of several factors involved in shifting syrup production from the United States to Canada over the last 40 to 50 years. B) What can we expect? Periods of high fire risk will continue to lengthen across northern forests, with large increases in the areas burned, according to the IPCC. New England's climate will no longer support maple trees by later this century. Agriculture will continue to be affected by changes in growing season, precipitation patterns, number of frost days, number and intensity of heat. C) Can't we just plant more trees? Planting trees is one suggested response to climate change, because trees absorb carbon dioxide, the most abundant greenhouse gas produced by human activity, as they grow. But new research shows that, depending on where they grow, some forests can intensify global warming, rather than easing it. At higher latitudes, such as Canada and Russia, snow cover reflects sunlight back into space, which helps cool the region.


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But trees block the process and so contribute to warming. In the tropics, forests catch rainfall and evaporate it back into the air, helping cool that region’s multitudes, where the bulk of the United States is located, tree planting appears to have little overall effect on climate, even when the carbon absorption is taken into account. Wildlife A) What's happening? Some animal species are already shifting toward higher elevations or higher latitudes, as warming intersects with other natural and human-produced environmental change. A landmark 2003 survey found that more than a third of 677 species examined had been affected by climate change, moving an average of 3.7 miles pole ward per decade and/or 20 feet up in elevation. Pika, diminutive rodents found in mountainous parts of North America and Asia, has disappeared from more than half of their range in the U.S. Great Basin in the last century. A 2006 report based on 800 scientific studies concludes that many species cannot keep pace with climate change and face extinction.Warmer ocean temperatures, most evident during El Niño events, have weakened or killed off coral species during "bleaching" incidents. Warming waters and related changes are also helping push some algae, plankton, and fish species pole ward. Another threat to coral reefs arises from changes in the chemistry of ocean water that make the water less alkaline as it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Scientists are investigating the potential harm to marine life from this process of ocean acidification. A reduction in the intensity of winter cold snaps is expanding the range where some insects can flourish. Mountain pine beetles and spruce budworm have invaded forests across western North America. More than 30% of amphibian species have been recognized as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered. There are multiple causes, including the interaction of warming temperatures with rainfall cycles and seasonality, as well as ozone depletion, pollution, and other environmentally induced stresses.Bird species never before noted in the traditional knowledge of the Inuit people, such as robins and sparrows, are now being observed in the far north. B) What can we expect? Many species now stressed by climate change will continue to be affected. According to the IPCC, some 20–30% of plant and animal species assessed thus far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if the global average temperature warms more than about 2.7–4.5°F (1.5–2.5°C), which may occur by later this century. Temperature and precipitation change will influence the territory of mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects.


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For some ailments, such as malaria, the areas of prevalence may expand in some regions and contract in others. Climate is one of many factors influencing insect-borne diseases. Scientists are working to better understand a variety of issues involving climate and health. Coral reefs are expected to continue declining as ocean temperatures warm and ocean chemistry becomes less alkaline. 6. How do people adapt to climate change? What are the current adaptation strategies?

– The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines adaptation as the "adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities" Humans need to adapt to the impacts of climate change, for instance through technological solutions such as coastal defenses and changes in consumption habits.

– Some adaptation of human activities to both observed and anticipated climate change is already taking place. For instance, climate change is taken into account in coastal defense projects in the Maldives and the Netherlands.

– Other examples include prevention of glacial lake outburst flooding in Nepal, water management strategies in Australia, and government responses to heat waves in some European countries.

– Behavioral changes such as the modification of consumption habits, as well as policy and managerial solutions. While the limits to adaptation are not yet known, it is not expected that adaptation alone will be sufficient to cope with all projected impacts as they increase in magnitude.

What makes populations vulnerable to climate change?

– The vulnerability of natural environments and human societies to climate change can be exacerbated by factors such as poverty, pollution, conflicts, or epidemics such as AIDS.

– Future vulnerability will depend not only on the changes in climate but also on the development path chosen. However, climate change itself can become an obstacle to development, slowing down progress and potentially preventing the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG).

What are the relative roles of mitigation and adaptation? Many impacts can be avoided, reduced or delayed by mitigation, which mainly aims to reduce greenhouse gases emissions. However even the most severe mitigation measures cannot completely avoid impacts of climate change in the next few decades.

– Measures to adapt to impacts also have their limits. There is therefore a need for or mix of strategies that includes mitigation, adaptation, technological development (to enhance both adaptation and mitigation) and research (on climate science, impacts, adaptation and mitigation).


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7. What are the current trends in greenhouse gas emissions? Since pre-industrial times, increasing emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activities have led to a marked increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Between 1970 and 2004, global emissions have increased by 70%. Over this period, emissions from the energy and transport sectors have more than doubled. Global greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluorinated greenhouse gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6). The gases are each weighted by their global warming potential and the total is expressed in Giga tones of carbon dioxide equivalents (GtCO2-eq). In 2004, total greenhouse gas emissions due to human activities reached 49 Giga tones of carbon dioxide equivalents (GtCO2-eq) and CO2 alone represented 77% of the total. 8. What actions can be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions? What is the cost of mitigation?

– Mitigation measures aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and can help avoid, reduce or delay many impacts of climate change.

– Mitigation measures entail a certain cost. However, they also provide economic benefits by reducing the impacts of climate change and the associated costs.

– In addition, they can bring economic benefits by reducing local air pollution and energy resource depletion. The mitigation potential can be assessed either by looking at technological and regulatory options for specific sectors ("bottom-up"), or by looking at the economy asa whole ("topdown").

– Both bottom-up and top-down studies indicate that there is substantial economic potential for the mitigation of global greenhouse emissions over the coming decades, that could offset the projected growth of global emissions or reduce emissions below current levels.

– Even if the benefits of avoided climate change are not taken into account, there are a number of opportunities whose benefits, such as reduced energy costs and reduced local pollution, equal or exceed their costs to society.

– Just by implementing those mitigation measures, emissions of greenhouse could be reduced by about 6 GtCO2-eq per year in 2030 (for reference, emissions in 2000 were 43 GtCO2-eq).

How can changes in lifestyle and behavior patterns contribute?

– Changes in lifestyles and consumption patterns that emphasize resource conservation can contribute to developing a low-carbon economy that is both equitable and sustainable. Education and training programmers can lead to the acceptance of energy efficiency and bring significant reductions in greenhouse emissions: In buildings, changes in occupant behavior, cultural patterns and consumer choice can reduce energy consumption.


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– In cities, urban planning and education can reduce car usage and promote efficient driving habits.

– In industrial organizations, staff training, reward systems, regular feedback, and documentation of existing practices can reduce energy use.

What are the co-benefits of mitigation? Not only does mitigation measures help reduce or delay impacts of climate change, they also have other beneficial effects, for instance on energy use and local air pollution Reduced air pollution resulting from the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions could have substantial health benefits and thereby offset part of the cost of mitigation.Mitigation actions can also improve energy security and agricultural production while reducing pressure on natural ecosystems. How can different sectors reduce emissions? For different sectors of human activities a number of key technologies and practices are currently commercially available Energy Supply: Energy infrastructure investments decisions will have long term impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, because of the long life-times of energy infrastructure. They can create opportunities to achieve emission reductions by 2030, notably through: investing in the reduction of energy consumption rather than in new energy supply infrastructure switching from coal to gas; nuclear power, although safety, weapons proliferation and waste management remain constraints; renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind, geothermal and bio energy); combined heat and power generation, application of Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technologies.

– An increase in the price of fossil fuel could make low-carbon alternative more competitive, but could also lead to the use of high-carbon alternatives such as oil sands and heavy oils.

Transport: There are multiple mitigation options in the transport sector, such as more fuel efficient vehicles, hybrid vehicles, cleaner diesel engines, bio fuels, shift from road transport to rail and public transport, alternatives such as cycling and walking, and urban planning that reduces the need for road transport. However, mitigation efforts may be counteracted by the growth in the sector as well as barriers such as consumer preferences and lack of policy frameworks. Buildings: Energy efficiency options for new and existing buildings could considerably reduce CO2emissions with net economic benefit, though many barriers against tapping this potential remain. Available options include efficient lighting, appliances, heating and air conditioning, improved insulation, solar heating and cooling, as well as recycling or using alternatives for fluorinated gases in refrigeration.


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Industry: The mitigation potential is highest in energy intensive industries. Methods include the use of more efficient electrical equipment, heat and power recovery, recycling, and control of non-CO2gas emissions. Many industrial facilities in developing countries are new and include the latest technology. However, upgrading the many older, inefficient facilities remaining in both industrialized and developing countries could deliver significant emission reductions Agriculture: Agricultural practices collectively can make a significant contribution at low cost by increasing the amount of carbon stored away in soil (carbon sinks), by reducing methane and nitrous emissions, by producing crops for energy use, by improving rice cultivation techniques and livestock and manure management to reduce methane emissions and by improving fertilizer application to reduce nitrous oxide emissions. However, biomass production for energy may compete with other land uses and have both positive and negative impacts on the environment and on food security. Forestry: Forest-related mitigation activities such as a forestation, reforestation, improved forest management, reduced deforestation, and use of forestry products to re place fossil reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help capture CO2 from the atmosphere. Such efforts can also improve sustainable development entail lies in the tropical regions, and could notably be achieved by reducing deforestation. Waste: The post-consumer waste sector is a small contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions (<5%), yet it can contribute to mitigation efforts at low cost through landfill methane recovery, waste incineration with energy recovery, composting, recycling, and waste minimization. Large-scale geo-engineering options, such as ocean fertilization to remove CO2 directly from the atmosphere, or blocking sunlight by bringing material into the upper atmosphere, remain largely speculative and unproven, with the risk of unknown side-effects. What are the longer term implications of mitigation actions? In order to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by 2100 or beyond, emissions would have to stop increasing and then decline. The lower the stabilization level aimed for, the more quickly this decline would need to occur. Mitigation efforts over the next two to three decades will have a large impact on the stabilization level in the longer term. To achieve low stabilization at less than 490 ppm CO2-eq (Category I) would imply that emissions stop increasing and start declining before 2015. This could lead to a global mean temperature increase of about 2 to 2.4°C above pre-industrial levels. On the other hand, a delayed decline in emission, for instance starting between 2060 and 2090, could lead to a stabilization level of up to 1030 ppm CO2-eq (Category VI) which could lead to a global mean temperature increase of about 4.9 to 6.3°C above pre-industrial levels.


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These stabilization levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can be achieved by deploying currently available technologies and technologies that are expected to be commercially available in the coming decades. Increased energy efficiency measures, as well as world-wide investments and deployment of low-emission technologies and research into new energy sources will be necessary to achieve stabilization. It will require effective incentives for the development, acquisition, deployment and diffusion of technologies and for addressing related barriers. By 2050, for low stabilization levels, estimates indicate that mitigation efforts could lead to a global GDP reduction of up to 5.5%. However, costs may differ significantly between regions. 9. How can governments create incentives for mitigation? What are the implications of different policy instruments? A wide variety of policy tools can be applied by governments to create incentives for mitigation action taking into account national circumstances and interactions between policies. Experience from various countries and sectors show there are advantages and drawbacks for any given policy instrument. It is important to consider environmental effectiveness of policies and instruments, their cost effectiveness, institutional feasibility and how costs and benefits are distributed. Examples of policies and instruments:

– Integrating climate policies into broader development policies makes implementation easier. Regulations and standards generally provide some certainty about emission levels, but they may not encourage innovation and the development of new technologies.

– Taxes and charges can set a "carbon price" (a cost for each unit of greenhouse gas emissions) and be an effective mitigation incentive, but cannot guarantee a particular level of emissions.

– Tradable emission permits establish a "carbon price".

– The volume of allowed emissions determines their environmental effectiveness, while the way permits are allocated determines who bears the costs. Fluctuation in the "carbon price" makes it difficult to estimate the total cost of complying with emission permits.

– Subsidies and tax credits can provide financial incentives for the development and diffusion of new technologies. Though sometimes costly, they are often critical to overcome barriers. Voluntary agreements between industry and governments are politically attractive, raise awareness, and have played a role in the evolution of many national policies. Only a few of them have led to measurable emission reductions.


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– Awareness campaigns may positively affect environmental quality by promoting informed choices and possibly contributing to behavioral change. However, their impact on emissions has not been measured yet. Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D) can stimulate technological advances, reduce costs, and enable progress toward stabilization.

– Economic instruments, government funding or regulation that lead to a "carbon price" (a cost for each unit of greenhouse gas emissions) could create incentives for producers and consumers to significantly invest in products, technologies and processes reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

– Government support through financial contributions, tax credits, standard setting and market creation is important for effective technology development, innovation and deployment.

– Effective transfer of technology to developing countries requires appropriate financial, institutional, policy, legal and regulatory frameworks.

– The impact of the Kyoto protocol's first commitment period 2008-2012 on global carbon emissions is expected to be limited.

– However, notable achievements of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate (UNFCC) and its Kyoto protocol are the establishment of a global response to the climate problem, stimulation of an array of national policies, the creation of an international carbon market and the establishment of new institutional mechanisms that may provide the foundation for future mitigation efforts.

How is climate change mitigation linked to sustainable development? Switching to more sustainable development paths can make a major contribution to change mitigation, but implementation may require overcoming multiple barriers. Climate change and other sustainable development policies often benefit each other, though not always. There is a growing understanding of the possibilities to choose and implement mitigation options in several sectors to create synergies and avoid conflicts with other aspects of sustainable development. For instance, climate change policies related to energy efficiency and renewable energy are often economically beneficial, improve energy security, and reduce local air pollution. Reducing both loss of natural habitat and deforestation can have significant benefits for biodiversity, soil and water conservation, and can be implemented in a socially and economically sustainable manner. No matter how stringent the mitigation measures, some impacts of climate change are unavoidable and adaptation will be necessary. Sustainable development can increase the capacity for both adaptation and mitigation, and reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. Gaps in knowledge remain regarding some aspects of mitigation of climate change, especially in developing countries. Additional research addressing those gaps would further reduce uncertainties and thus facilitate decision-making related to mitigation of climate change.


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10. Global warming or climate change: Which is it?

Two scientists are credited with the discovery more than 100 years ago that increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere warms the entire planet. French researcher Jean Baptist Fourier and Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius. Their identification of what came to be called the greenhouse effect applies to both natural and human-produced additions of CO2. As measurements of atmospheric CO2 levels showed steady increases after World War II (see what the average global temperature is now?). Earth system scientists looked for a corresponding rise in global average temperatures, basing their studies on the physical laws governing the greenhouse effect. By the early 1980s, climate scientists were calling this atmospheric response global warming. Not every place on Earth was expected to warm at the same rate, and rising temperatures were not the only impacts anticipated. Boosting Earth's temperature and adding more acidity to the oceans creates wide-ranging effects that are changing all the "normal" weather and climate conditions on which we've based our agriculture, industry, and social system. So some researchers talk about global climate change to convey that the situation is far more complex than temperature alone. To some ears, "climate change" sounds less ominous than "global warming," so the question of how best to convey the seriousness of the problem continues. Suggestions have included "global water crisis," "global fever," or "climate crisis."

https://www2.ucar.edu/climate/faq/global-warming-or-climate-change-which-it

http://www2.ucar.edu/climate/faq/what-average-global-temperature-now


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11. Why should India be concerned about Climate Change? Indians should be concerned about climate change since this phenomenon might have substantial adverse impacts on them. Not all possible consequences of climate change are yet fully understood, but the three main ‘categories’ of impacts are those on agriculture, sea level rise leading to submergence of coastal areas, as well as increased frequency of extreme events. Each of these pose is serious threats to India. However, these are long term issues.

– The overriding immediate concern for India should be the fast pace at which negotiations are taking place on the climate front.

– India’s main energy resource is coal.

– With the threat of climate change, India is called upon to change its energy strategy based on coal, its most abundant resource, and to use other energy sources (e.g. oil, gas, renewable and nuclear energy) instead, which may turn out to be expensive.

– Thus, an immediate issue is to come up with a better negotiation strategy such that we have more freedom to decide which type of energy we use, how we generate power, how to reduce methane emissions by agricultural practices or forestry and so on.

– Negotiations are important for us as a means to reduce or postpone future vulnerability by getting the developed countries to reduce their emissions.

It is generally believed that the sink projects such as growing trees for a forestation and so on are some of the most attractive options. India has some 100 million hectares of wasteland and degraded forests on which such projects may be started. However, several major considerations may be important.


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a) The trees fix carbon only during the growing periods. After reaching maturity, they are carbon neutral.

b) Thus, the carbon sink projects can create liabilities for the host country through committed land use.

c) If at the end of maturity forests are removed, it may appear in the statistics of land use change of India. If the wood is burnt, will the CO2 generated be the liability of India?

d) If the forests are left intact, it may have implications if the opportunity costs of land become high in the meantime. However, only if the country had taken a careful long term decision to create green cover on a permanent basis, may such projects be considered.

e) In the cases where the forest is removed or burnt, the global environment does not benefit as it would have merely postponed the problem. The liabilities are reduced only if energy crops are grown that will replace fossil fuels, for example, for wood based methanol, or wood-based power generation. However, who claims the credit, the one who supported the plantation or the one who uses it to replace fossil fuels?

f) Another difficulty relates to the measurement of carbon sequestered. This is not an easy task. All kinds of fudging are possible and there would be incentives to do so. One may also note that a forestation projects involve very little technology and hence very little technology transfer.

12. What's a normal climate?

Climate varies across space and time, so climate is studied on a variety of spatial and time scales. To interpret today's atmospheric conditions, we need a reference period of average, or "normal," climate to compare it against. How long is long enough to define the average climate for a city, state, or region? The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service calculates a 30-year average once a decade. The current "normal" (issued July 1, 2011) are based on data from 1981 to 2010. It notes that "Normal was not designed to be metrics of climate change." When it comes to climate on a global scale, the "normal" reference period depends on which climate components scientists want to study. For example, many scientists compare average global temperatures, precipitation, and other variables for the 20th and 21st centuries with the 30-year averages for 1870 to 1899, before major industrialization produced large quantities of greenhouse gas.

http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/normals/usnormals.html

http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/normals/usnormals.html#CLIMATECHANGE


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Coach: 10 Climate Change, Global Challenges Introduction 1. What is the greenhouse effect?

The Earth’s greenhouse effect is a natural occurrence that helps regulate the temperature of our planet. When the Sun heats the Earth, some of this heat escapes back to space. The rest of the heat, also known as infrared radiation, is trapped in the atmosphere by clouds and greenhouse gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. If all of these greenhouse gases were to suddenly disappear, our planet would be 60°F colder and would not support life as we know it.

Without the so-called greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water, Earth would be too cold to inhabit.

These gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb and emit heat energy, creating the greenhouse effect that keeps our planet's temperature livable. Water is the most plentiful greenhouse gas on the planet, accounting for about 60% of the current greenhouse effect.

Even ozone helps trap some of the heat that makes life on Earth possible, but the "ozone hole" is a separate issue not directly related to global warming.

Too much of a good thing Since the industrial revolution, people have burned vast amounts of coal, petroleum, and other fossil fuels to create heat and power. This releases carbon dioxide, the most plentiful human-produced greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. On average, carbon dioxide lasts more than a century in the atmosphere. As a result, CO2 is well mixed around the globe. Measurements collected atop Hawaii’s Mauna Loa and other locations show a steady rise in global carbon dioxide concentrations since 1958.

https://www2.ucar.edu/climate/faq/what-greenhouse-effect

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.html&edu=high

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/physical_science/chemistry/methane.html&edu=high

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/climate/nitrogen_airpollution.html&edu=high



http://www2.ucar.edu/news/what-does-ozone-hole-have-do-climate-change



http://scrippsco2.ucsd.edu/graphics_gallery/other_stations/global_stations_co2_concentration_trends.html




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The result: more heat is trapped in Earth's atmosphere instead of radiating out into space. These concentrations have increased by 35% since pre-industrial times, according to the World Meteorological Organization. Other, less prevalent greenhouse gases have increased at different rates. Methane, for example, virtually leveled off after 1999 at 155% above its pre-industrial level, but began climbing again in 2007. The relationship between Earth's water cycle and global warming creates a well-known feedback loop.

Warmer temperatures cause more water to evaporate from land and oceans into the atmosphere. The added water vapor then contributes to warmer temperatures, completing the feedback loop. This is just one of many feedbacks in the Earth system that climate scientists are studying to improve projections of future climate change.

http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/gaw/ghg/GHGbulletin.html

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/climatechange/7289698/Climate-change-could-be-accelerated-by-methane-time-bomb.html




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2. What does the ozone hole have to do with climate change?

There are a few connections between the two, but they are largely separate issues. First, it's important to know that ozone plays two different roles in the atmosphere. At ground level, "bad ozone" is a pollutant caused by human activities; it's a major component of health-damaging smog.

The same chemical occurs naturally in the stratosphere, and this "good ozone" acts as a shield, filtering out most of the ultraviolet light from the Sun that could otherwise prove deadly to people, animals, and plants.The ozone hole refers to the seasonal depletion of the ozone shield in the lower stratosphere above Antarctica.

It occurs as sunlight returns each spring, triggering reactions that involve chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and related molecules produced by industrial processes. These reactions consume huge amounts of ozone over a few weeks' time. Later in the season, the ozone-depleted air mixes with surrounding air and the ozone layer over Antarctica recovers until the next spring. Other parts of the globe have experienced much smaller losses in stratospheric ozone. Because of international agreements to limit CFCs and related emissions instituted with the Montreal Protocol, it's expected that the ozone hole will be slowly healing over the next few decades. The ozone hole does not directly affect air temperatures in the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface, although changes in circulation over Antarctica related to the ozone hole appear to be changing surface temperature patterns over that continent. Ozone is actually a greenhouse gas, and so are CFCs, meaning that their presence in the troposphere contributes slightly to the heightened greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gas responsible for present-day and anticipated global warming, however, is carbon dioxide produced by burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heating, and transportation. Higher up, the loss of stratospheric ozone has led to some cooling in that layer of the atmosphere. An even larger effect comes from carbon dioxide, which acts as a cooling agent in the stratosphere even though it warms the atmosphere closer to ground level. This paradox occurs because the atmosphere thins with height, changing the way carbon dioxide molecules absorb and release heat.

Together, the increase in carbon dioxide and the loss of ozone have led to record-low temperatures recently in the stratosphere and still higher up in the thermosphere. Far from being a good thing, this cooling is another sign that increasing levels of carbon dioxide are changing our planet's climate.

https://www2.ucar.edu/climate/faq/what-does-ozone-hole-have-do-climate-change

http://www.ucar.edu/research/pollution/ozone.jsp

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/interior/greenhouse_effect.html&edu=high

http://www.ucar.edu/research/climate/warming.jsp

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3. What are the most important greenhouse gases? Where are they coming from and how have they changed?

Many greenhouse gases, like water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2), occur naturally. Fuel burning and other human activities are adding large amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases to the natural mix at a faster rate than at any other time on record. Other important greenhouse gases produced by human activity include

Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), Per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Since 1750, atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4 and N2O have increased by over 36 percent, 148 percent and 18 percent, respectively. Scientists have concluded that this is due primarily to human activity. There is an important difference between the CO2 produced by nature and that emitted by human activities. While nature produces about 30 times more CO2 than human activity, the carbon emitted by nature is part of a finely balanced cycle. The emissions by humans are over and above the natural balance, and consequently result in a net increase in the concentrations of atmospheric CO2. Since the industrial revolution about 850 billion tones of CO2 have been emitted due to combustion of fossil fuels, oil, coal and natural gas. An additional 370 billion tones have been added through changes in land use and deforestation. Every year humans emit around 25 billion tones of CO2 into the atmosphere, which equals approximately 48,000 tones every minute. Some estimates show that a reservoir of 37, 000 billion tones of CO2 is buried in the ground as oil, coal and gas. The largest portion of this CO2reservoir is in coal, and the second largest is in natural gas. This is a chilling reminder of what is in store for the planet, should we decide to continue to burn fossil fuels without any restrictions. Experts estimate that emission of 2,500 billion tones of CO2 - a mere 7% of the existing stock of fossil fuels - will result in a doubling of pre-industrial concentrations of CO2.

4. How will a warming climate and climate change affect the polar ice sheets, sea

levels, and sea ice?

Polar ice sheets (such as those on Greenland and Antarctica) are some of the largest surface features on our planet. Any changes to them, however small, could have far-reaching effects. Polar ice sheets potentially will accumulate more snow and ice because of an increase in precipitation. However, overall melting due to global warming is expected to reduce the size and extent of the polar ice sheets.


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Melting of polar ice and land-based glaciers is expected to contribute to sea level rise. The IPCC projects a six inch to two foot rise in sea level during the 21st century. Sea level rise may be greater if there are sudden increases in ice sheet melt. Such increases have already been observed but their effects have not yet been incorporated into current projections of sea level rise.

The stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is of particular concern. A sudden collapse of the ice sheet could raise sea levels 16 to 20 feet. The IPCC is unable to estimate the likelihood or timing of such a collapse, however, due to incomplete understanding of all the processes affecting this ice sheet. In addition to the ice sheets, sea ice is also melting. Though the melting of floating sea ice that covers part of the Arctic Ocean does not affect sea level, sea ice is important for wildlife and for keeping the region cool by reflecting sunlight back to space. If the Arctic loses the reflective surface of ice and then the dark Arctic Ocean absorbs more heat, the northern regions may warm even more rapidly. 5. How might global warming and climate changes affect my health and well-

being? Because global temperatures, precipitation, sea levels and the frequency of some extreme weather are expected to increase, climate change could affect you in many ways. Our health, agriculture, forests, water resources, energy, coasts, wildlife and recreational opportunities would all react to climate changes. Scientific results suggest that climate changes may affect you in the following ways:

Health: Longer, more intense and frequent heat waves may cause more heat-related death and illness. There is virtual certainty of declining air quality in cities since greater heat can also worsen air pollution such as ozone, or smog. Insect-Bourne illnesses are also likely to increase as many insect ranges expand. Climate change health effects are especially serious for the very young, very old, or for those with heart and aspiratory problems. Conversely, warmer winter temperatures may reduce the negative health impacts from cold weather. Agriculture and Forestry: The supply and cost of food may change as farmers and the food industry adapt to new climate patterns. A small amount of warming coupled with increasing CO2 may benefit certain crops, plants and forests, although the impacts of vegetation depend also on the availability of water and nutrients. For warming of more than a few degrees, the effects are expected to become increasingly negative, especially for vegetation near the warm end of its suitable range.

Water Resources: In a warming climate, extreme events like floods and droughts are likely to become more frequent. More frequent floods and droughts will affect water quality and availability.


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For example, increases in drought in some areas may increase the frequency of water shortages and lead to more restrictions on water usage. An overall increase in precipitation may increase water availability in some regions, but also create greater flood potential.

Coasts: If you live along the coast, your home may be impacted by sea level rise and an increase in storm intensity. Rising seas may contribute to enhanced coastal erosion, coastal flooding, loss of coastal wetlands, and increased risk of property loss from storm surges.

Energy: Warmer temperatures may result in higher energy bills for air conditioning in summer, and lower bills for heating in winter. Energy usage is also connected to water needs. Energy is needed for irrigation, which wills most likely increase due to climate change. Also, energy is generated by hydropower in some regions, which will also be impacted by changing precipitation patterns. Wildlife: Warmer temperatures and precipitation changes will likely affect the habitats and migratory patterns of many types of wildlife. The range and distribution of many species will change, and some species that cannot move or adapt may face extinction. Recreational opportunities: Some outdoor activities may benefit from longer periods of warm weather. However, many other outdoor activities could be compromised by increased beach erosion, increased heat waves, decreased snowfall, retreating glaciers, reduced biodiversity and changing wildlife habitats.

6. What is the difference between the greenhouse effect, global warming and climate change?

These terms are often used to describe the same problem, but actually relate to cause and effect, or problem and consequence. The greenhouse effect is the cause and global warming and climate change are the consequences. The greenhouse effect causes an accumulation of heat (or energy) in the Earth's atmosphere. The global climate must then adjust to deal with that extra accumulation of energy, and these adjustments result in global warming and climate changes. Global warming results from an increase in the temperature of the Earth's lower atmosphere. Climate changes result from alterations to regional climatic events such as rainfall patterns, evaporation and cloud formation. 7. Does the greenhouse effect occur naturally?

Yes, it does. The greenhouse effect is a natural process which made life on Earth possible. Without naturally occurring greenhouse gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, the Earth's surface temperature would be 33°C cooler - a chilly -18°C rather than the tolerable 15°C. It is estimated that the Earth's average temperature has risen by 0.5 to 0.6°C since 1880 because of emissions of greenhouse gases from human activity.


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The main sources of these emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, are the combustion of large amounts of fossil fuels in the energy and transport sectors, deforestation and the use of intensive farming methods. When we talk about the greenhouse effect we mean the ENHANCED effect which is caused by the increase of greenhouse gases from human sources.

8. Ice Sheets: facts, Importance and Climate change effect; what is an ice sheet?

The Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets contain more than 99 percent of the freshwater ice on Earth. An ice sheet is a mass of glacial land ice extending more than 50,000 square kilometers (20,000 square miles). The two ice sheets on Earth today cover most of Greenland and Antarctica. During the last ice age, ice sheets also covered much of North America and Scandinavia. Together, the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets contain more than 99 percent of the freshwater ice on Earth. The Antarctic Ice Sheet extends almost 14 million square kilometers (5.4 million square miles), roughly the area of the contiguous United States and Mexico combined. The Antarctic Ice Sheet contains 30 million cubic kilometers (7.2 million cubic miles) of ice. The Greenland Ice Sheet extends about 1.7 million square kilometers (656,000 square miles), covering most of the island of Greenland, three times the size of Texas.

How do ice sheets form?

– Ice sheets form in areas where snow that falls in winter does not melt entirely over the summer. Over thousands of years, the layers of snow pile up into thick masses of ice, growing thicker and denser as the weight of new snow and ice layers compresses the older layers.

– Ice sheets are constantly in motion, slowly flowing downhill under their own weight. Near the coast, most of the ice moves through relatively fast-moving outlets called ice streams, glaciers, and ice shelves. As long as an ice sheet accumulates the same mass of snow as it loses to the sea, it remains stable.

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Why are ice sheets important? Ice sheets contain enormous quantities of frozen water. If the Greenland Ice Sheet melted, scientists estimate that sea level would rise about 6 meters (20 feet). If the Antarctic Ice Sheet melted, sea level would rise by about 60 meters (200 feet).

– The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets also influence weather and climate. Large high-altitude plateaus on the ice caps alter storm tracks and create cold down slope winds close to the ice surface.

– In addition, the layers of ice blanketing Greenland and Antarctica contain a unique record of Earth’s climate history.

Has climate change started to affect Earth's ice sheets? The mass of ice in the Greenland Ice Sheet has begun to decline. From 1979 to 2006, summer melt on the ice sheet increased by 30 percent, reaching a new record in 2007. At higher elevations, an increase in winter snow accumulation has partially offset the melt. However, the decline continues to outpace accumulation because warmer temperatures have led to increased melt and faster glacier movement at the island's edges.

– Most of Antarctica has yet to see dramatic warming. However, the Antarctic Peninsula, which juts out into warmer waters north of Antarctica, has warmed 2.5 degrees Celsius (4.5 degrees Fahrenheit) since 1950.

– A large area of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is also losing mass, probably because of warmer water deep in the ocean near the Antarctic coast. In East Antarctica, no clear trend has emerged, although some stations appear to be cooling slightly. Overall, scientists believe that Antarctica is starting to lose ice, but so far the process has not become as quick or as widespread as in Greenland.

What can ice sheets tell us about Earth’s climate history? Scientists extract ice cores from ice sheets and ice caps, studying them to learn about past changes in Earth’s climate. Ice sheets are made up of layers of snow and ice that collected over millions of years.

– Those layers contain trapped gases, dust, and water molecules that scientists can use to study past climates.

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Coach: 11 Energy Conservation How do mobile network work? Science Express: Journey so far Energy Conservation Energy conservation in India: Introduction India has made rapid strides towards economic self-reliance over the last few years. Impressive progress has been made in the fields of industry, agriculture, communication, transport and other sectors necessitating growing consumption of energy for developmental and economic activities. If India is to achieve the targeted growth in GDP, it would need commensurate input of energy, mainly commercial energy in the form of coal, oil, gas and electricity. However, India’s fossil fuel reserves are limited. The known reserves of oil and natural gas may last hardly for 18 and 26 years respectively at the current reserves to production ratio. India has huge proven coal reserves (84 billion tonnes), which may last for about 200 years but the increasing ash content in Indian Coal as well as associated greenhouse gas emissions are the major concern. Energy being an important element of the infrastructure sector has to be ensured its availability on sustainable basis. On the other hand, the demand for energy is growing manifold and the energy sources are becoming scarce and costlier. Among the various strategies to be evolved for meeting energy demand, efficient use of energy and its conservation emerges out to be the least cost option in any given strategies, apart from being environmentally benign. The steps to create sustainable energy system begin with the wise use of resources, energy efficiency is the mantra that leads to sustainable energy management. Energy Demand and Supply On the energy demand and supply side, India is facing severe shortages. 70% of the total petroleum product demand is being met by imports, imposing a heavy burden on foreign exchange. Country is also facing Peak power and average energy shortages of 12% and 7% respectively. To provide power for all, additional capacity of 100,000 MW would be needed by 2012, requiring approximately Rs.8000 billion investments. Further, the per capita energy consumption in India is too low as compared to developed countries, which is just 4% of USA and 20% of the world average. The per capita consumption is targeted to grow to about 1000 kWh per year by 2012, thus imposing extra demand on power system.


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Importance Of Energy Conservation In a scenario where India tries to accelerate its development process and cope with increasing energy demands, conservation and energy efficiency measures are to play a central role in our energy policy. A national movement for energy conservation can significantly reduce the need for fresh investment in energy supply systems in coming years. It is imperative that all-out efforts are made to realize this potential. Energy conservation is an objective to which all the citizen in the country can contribute. Whether a household or a factory, a small shop or a large commercial building, a farmer or a office worker, every user and producer of energy can and must make this effort for his own benefit, as well as that of the nation.

Progress Made In Energy Conservation In India The progress made by India in energy conservation can be seen in the following three areas: A. POLICY AND INSTITUTONAL B. END –USERS C. TECHNOLOGY A. Policy and Institutonal Recognizing the fact that efficient use of energy and its conservation is the least-cost option to mitigate the gap between demand and supply, Government of India has enacted the Energy Conservation Act – 2001 and established Bureau of Energy Efficiency. The mission of BEE is to develop policy and strategies with a thrust on self regulation and market principles, within the overall framework of the EC Act with the primary objective of reducing energy intensity of the Indian economy. The EC Act provides for institutionalizing and strengthening delivery mechanism for energy efficiency services in the country and provides the much-needed coordination between the various entities. Important features of Energy Conservation Act include: Standards and Labeling

Evolve minimum energy consumption standards for notified equipment and appliances.

Prohibit manufacture, sale and import of equipment and appliances not confirming to standards.

Introduce mandatory labeling to enable consumers to make informed choice This program will initially focus on energy policy issues of energy efficiency improvement in unorganized sectors such as domestic and agriculture sectors through improvement of designed energy efficiencies of energy consuming appliances and providing this information on comparative basis in the form of energy labels.


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Designated Consumers

Schedule to EC Act provides list of 15 energy intensive industries and other establishments to be notified as designated consumers (DC). DCs to appoint or designate energy managers.

Get energy audits conducted by accredited energy auditors and Implement techno-economic viable recommendations.

Comply with norms of specific energy consumption fixed, and

Submit report on steps taken

This program will initially focus on energy policy issues of energy efficiency improvement in organized sectors such as energy intensive industries and commercial sector through establishment of energy management system, capacity building of energy professionals, implementation of energy audits, establishments of specific energy consumption norms and support to consumers on providing information on authentic energy data Energy Conservation Building Codes

Central Government to prepare guidelines on ECBC

To be modified by States to suit local climatic conditions

To be applicable to new buildings having connected load of 500 kW or more

Promotional Provisions to support EC Act Various promotional provisions in support of the EC Act have, been initiated by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, which are briefly explained below: 1. Indian Industry Program for Energy Conservation (IIPEC) This voluntary program of sharing of best practices, undertaking and specific energy consumption targets has full acceptance in the 8 sectors of industry including aluminium, cement, chlor-alkali, fertilizer, pulp & paper, petrochemicals, refinery and textile sector. Best practices have been recorded and published through CDs and also incorporated in BEE’s website which is being updated periodically for use of designated consumers. 2. Voluntary EC Policy Declaration by Indian Industry Industries have been approached to declare their top management commitments on energy conservation. 44 industrial units under the National Campaign on Energy Conservation 2005 declared their energy management policies and have committed to reduce their specific energy consumption levels. 3. Small Group Activities on Energy Conservation BEE supports designated consumers in improving their energy efficiency through launch of voluntary programs .BEE launched Small Group Activity focused on energy conservation in 4 industrial units in textile and cement sector. Feedback received from the units indicates that about 5 % savings through housekeeping and no cost measures are possible through this concept.


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4. National Energy Conservation Awards Industrial units have been motivated through National Energy Conservation Award scheme. Electricity savings achieved by the participating industrial units resulted in saving in avoided capacity equivalent to 250 MW. Response from the first time introduced schemes for Government Buildings and Commercial. Buildings (Private Sector) were also encouraging. In total, 32 buildings establishment participated (16 each in both types of establishments)

Whenever we save energy, we not only save money, we also reduce the demand for such fossil fuels as coal, oil, and natural gas. Less burning of fossil fuels also means lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), the primary contributor to global warming, and other pollutants.

We do not have to do without to achieve these savings. There is now an energy efficient alternative for almost every kind of appliance or light fixture. That means that consumers have a real choice and the power to change their energy use on a revolutionary scale.

The average American produces about 40,000 pounds of CO2 emissions per year. Together, we use nearly a million dollars worth of energy every minute, night and day, every day of the year. By exercising even a few of the following steps, you can cut your annual emissions by thousands of pounds and your energy bills by a significant amount!

Home appliances

1. Turn your refrigerator down. Refrigerators account for about 20% of Household electricity use. Use a thermometer to set your refrigerator temperature as close to 37 degrees and your freezer as close to 3 degrees as possible. Make sure that its energy saver switch is turned on. Also, check the gaskets around your refrigerator/freezer doors to make sure they are clean and sealed tightly.

2. Set your clothes washer to the warm or cold water setting, not hot. Switching from hot to warm for two loads per week can save nearly 500 pounds of CO2 per year if you have an electric water heater, or 150 pounds for a gas heater.

3. Make sure your dishwasher is full when you run it and use the energy saving setting, if available, to allow the dishes to air dry. You can also turn off the drying cycle manually. Not using heat in the drying cycle can save 20 percent of your dishwasher's total electricity use.

4. Turn down your water heater thermostat. Thermostats are often set to 140 degrees F when 120 is usually fine. Each 10 degree reduction saves 600 pounds of CO2 per year for an electric water heater, or 440 pounds for a gas heater. If every household turned its water heater thermostat down 20 degrees, we could prevent more than 45 million tons of annual CO2 emissions - the same amount emitted by the entire nations of Kuwait or Libya.


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5. Select the most energy-efficient models when you replace your old appliances. Look for the Energy Star Label - your assurance that the product saves energy and prevents pollution. Buy the product that is sized to your typical needs - not the biggest one available. Front loading washing machines will usually cut hot water use by 60 to 70% compared to typical machines. Replacing a typical 1973 refrigerator with a new energy-efficient model, saves 1.4 tons of CO2 per year. Investing in a solar water heater can save 4.9 tons of CO2 annually.

Home Heating and Cooling

1. Be careful not to overheat or overcool rooms. In the winter, set your thermostat at 68 degrees in daytime, and 55 degrees at night. In the summer, keep it at 78. Lowering your thermostat just two degrees during winter saves 6 percent of heating-related CO2 emissions. That's a reduction of 420 pounds of CO2 per year for a typical home.

2. Clean or replace air filters as recommended. Energy is lost when air conditioners and hot-air furnaces have to work harder to draw air through dirty filters. Cleaning a dirty air conditioner filter can save 5 percent of the energy used. That could save 175 pounds of CO2 per year.

Small investments that pay off

1. Buy energy-efficient compact fluorescent bulbs for your most-used lights. Although they cost more initially, they save money in the long run by using only 1/4 the energy of an ordinary incandescent bulb and lasting 8-12 times longer. They provide an equivalent amount of bright, attractive light. Only 10% of the energy consumed by a normal light bulb generates light.

The rest just makes the bulb hot. If every American household replaced one of its standard light bulbs with an energy efficient compact fluorescent bulb, we would save the same amount of energy as a large nuclear power plant produces in one year. In a typical home, one compact fluorescent bulb can save 260 pounds of CO2 per year.

2. Wrap your water heater in an insulating jacket, which costs just $10 to $20. It can save 1100 lbs. of CO2 per year for an electric water heater, or 220 pounds for a gas heater.

3. Use less hot water by installing low-flow shower heads. They cost just $10 to $20 each, deliver an invigorating shower, and save 300 pounds of CO2 per year for electrically heated water, or 80 pounds for gas-heated water.

4. Weatherize your home or apartment, using caulk and weather stripping to plug air leaks around doors and windows. Caulking costs less than $1 per window, and weather stripping is under $10 per door. These steps can save up to 1100 pounds of CO2 per year for a typical home. Ask your utility company for a home energy audit to find out where your home is poorly insulated or energy inefficient.


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Getting around

1. Whenever possible, walk, bike, car pool, or use mass transit. Every gallon of gasoline you save avoids 22 pounds of CO2 emissions. If your car gets 25 miles per gallon, for example, and you reduce your annual driving from 12,000 to 10,000 miles, you'll save 1800 pounds of CO2.

2. When you next buy a car, choose one that gets good mileage. If your new car gets 40 miles per gallon instead of 25, and you drive 10,000 miles per year, you'll reduce your annual CO2 emissions by 3,300 pounds.

Reduce, reuse, and recycle

1. Reduce the amount of waste you produce by buying minimally packaged goods, choosing reusable products over disposable ones, and recycling. For every pound of waste you eliminate or recycle, you save energy and reduce emissions of CO2 by at least 1 pound. Cutting down your garbage by half of one large trash bag per week saves at least 1100 pounds of CO2 per year. Making products with recycled materials, instead of from scratch with raw materials, uses 30 to 55% less for paper products, 33% less for glass, and a whopping 90% less for aluminum.

2. If your car has an air conditioner, make sure its coolant is recovered and recycled whenever you have it serviced. In the United States, leakage from auto air conditioners is the largest single source of emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which damage the ozone layer as well as add to global warming. The CFCs from one auto air conditioner can add the equivalent of 4800 pounds of CO2 emissions per year.

Home Improvements When you plan major home improvements, consider some of these energy saving investments. They save money in the long run, and their CO2 savings can often be measured in tons per year.

1. Insulate your walls and ceilings. This can save 20 to 30 percent of home heating bills and reduce CO2 emissions by 140 to 2100 pounds per year. If you live in a colder climate, consider superinsulating. That can save 5.5 tons of CO2 per year for gas-heated homes, 8.8 tons per year for oil heat, or 23 tons per year for electric heat. (If you have electric heat, you might also consider switching to more efficient gas or oil.)

2. Modernize your windows. Replacing all your ordinary windows with argon filled, double-glazed windows save 2.4 tons of CO2 per year for homes with gas heat, 3.9 tons of oil heat, and 9.8 tons for electric heat.

3. Plant shade trees and paint your house a light color if you live in a warm climate or a dark color if you live in a cold climate. Reductions in energy use resulting from shade trees and appropriate painting can save up to 2.4 tons of CO2 emissions per year. (Each tree also directly absorbs about 25 pounds of CO2 from the air annually.)


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Business and community

1. Work with your employer to implement these and other energy-efficiency and waste-reduction measures in your office or workplace. Form or join local citizens' groups and work with local government officials to see that these measures are taken in schools and public buildings.

2. Keep track of the environmental voting records of candidates for office. Stay abreast of environmental issues on both local and national levels, and write or call your elected officials to express your concerns about energy efficiency and global warming.

Conservation of Petroleum Products & Environmental Issues (India) A very high priority is attached by the Government to conservation of petroleum products in view of the need to reduce ever increasing gap between demand for and indigenous supply of crude oil and petroleum products. Overall Strategy Of Promotng Oil Conservation Government has initiated various steps to promote conservation of petroleum products in the transport, industrial, agricultural and domestic sectors. These include adoption of measures and practices which are conducive to increase fuel efficiency and training programme in the transport sector; modernization of boilers, furnaces and other oil operated equipments with efficient ones and promotion of fuel efficient practices and equipment in the industrial sector; standardisation of fuel officient pumpsets and rectification of existing pumpsets to make them more energy efficient in the agricultural sector and development as well as promotion of the use of fuel efficient equipment and appliances like kerosene and LPG stoves in the household sector. These activities are promoted and coordinated by the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) and Oil Marketing Companies under the guidance and supervision of Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas. Multi Media Mass Awareness Campaign An important promotional activity is the multi-media campaigns for creating mass awareness about the need for conserving petroleum products and for informing and motivating users to take concrete steps to actually conserve such products. Oil Marketing Companies have also been playing an important role in using various media for creating mass awareness. Oil Conservation Week Going by the experience of the first 011 Conservation Week, 011 Conservation Week was organised during each of the subsequent years by the Oil Sector as a whole in close coordination with the concerned Ministries/Departments of the Union Government, State Governments, Public Sector Undertakings, Chamber of Commerce etc., throughout the country to enlarge the base of mass awareness.


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A number of activities apart from multimedia mass awareness and education campaign, were organised during the 011 Conservation Week. During the Oil Conservation, approximately 120000 activities were organised, apart from other programmes. Lubricants Upgradation Plan In view of the excellent potential for conservation of liquid fuels and lubricating oils through quality upgradaton of automotive lubricants, an action plan to produce and sell high grade lubricants to the ex tent of about 2.50 lakh tonnes per year to replace lubricants of lower efficiency in a phased manner was formulated and Oil Companies were directed to implement It. Oil Companies have implemented it fully.

Inter Fuel Substitution Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is used as a fuel in transport sector in many countries. The advantages that it is safe and clean burning fuel, besides being environment friendly fuel- It has been established that exhaust emissions like hydrocarbons and cart>on monoxide are significantly reduced as compared to other fuels. Toxic emissions such as lead and sulphur are completely eliminated. Existing petrol vehicles can use CNG by fitting a conversion kit. The CNG converted vehicles, have the flexibility of operating either on pdtrol or on CNG. An experimental programme to use CNG as fuel in transport sector in the country was initiated by GAIL'N. Under this programme CNG is made available by GAIL in Delhi, Mumbai and Baroda. The supply of CNG in Mumbai is now managed by Mahanagar Gas Nigam Ltd. CNG is also available in Surat, where it is made available by a private company. The average cost of converting a petrol car to CNG is about Rs.35, 000. There are about 5500 CNG converted petrol vehicles in Mumbai and about 1000 such vehicles in Delhi. Four CNG dispensing, retail outlets on rnother-daughter concepts have been set up in Delhi. Under this system, Natural Gas is compressed and filled into truck mounted cascades (basket of cylinders) in the mother compressor station and transported to daughter units for dispensing to CNG vehicle. The mother station initially set up in Ghaziabad has been relocated and brought near to Delhi at Sarai Kale Khan. At present there are five daughter and four on-line dispensing retail outlets in Delhi. The efforts made by DTC to run few diesel vehicles on CNG was discontinued as it has not product encouraging results due to very high cost of conversion, maintenance problems due to complicated technology, very low rate of substitution of diesel by CNG, lower price of diesel as compared to CNG etc. Feasibility of Ethanol/Mothanol as automotive fuel It has been established that 3% of methanol and 5% of ethanol can be blended with petrol and used in vehicles Without any modification of engine.


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At the instance of the Prime Minister's office, a committee under the Chairmanship of Secretary (Food) was set up in August, 1996 by Ministry of Food to explore the possibility of ethanot produced from Sugar cane being blended with gasoline to substime petrol. The report of the committee is awaited- Earlier, test marketing of 3% Methanol blended gasoline was undertaken in Baroda but was discontinued due to technical problems. In pursuance of a direction from Supreme Court, Gas Authority of India Ltd. Has committed to supply propane to a private company for running 50 three wheelers on propane, under pilot project. Substitution of Kerosene in Textile Printing A programme to replace the use of kerosene in textile pigment printing with synthetic thickeners has been under implementation. The objective is to achieve 40 to 50% conservation of kerosene in this application which would not necessitate any significant technological changes to be made by the textile industry. The respective State Governments were advised to reduce quota of kerosene for pigment pending of textiles sold in the domestic markets.

Petroleum Conservation Research Association It is a part of the Government's response to the oil crisis of early seventies. The Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) was set up in 1976 to undertake studies for identifying the potential and to make recommendations for achieving conservation of petroleum products in various sectors of the economy. The PCRA was also entrusted with the task of sponsoring R&D activities for the development of fuel-efficient equipment/devices and running a multimedia campaign for creating mass awareness for the conservation of petroleum products. The Oil marketing Companies have also been making efforts to promote oil conservation to give a greater thrust to oil conservation efforts and provide support and effectiveness of the PCRA etc. A Conservation Cell was established In the Ministry in July, 1989. The major activities of the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) are the creation of mass awareness on the need for the conservation of petroleum products, promotion of measures to, curb wasteful practices and improve the oil use efficiency of equipment, devices and vehicles, and research and development for improving oil use efficiency in various other end uses.

How does Mobile Network Work? Introduction With the technology rapidly advancing, mobile phone users and people living within close range of the mobile phone base stations have become increasingly concerned over the potential harmful effects of radiofrequency radiation produced by these devices to their health. There is a great deal of misunderstanding and misinformation on the issue of safety and radiation.


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The telecommunications industry is experiencing a robust growth on a global scale. Since the introduction of mobile phones in the mid-1980s, there has been a significant increase in the number of mobile phone users and installations of base stations. As of August 2011, statistics from the Wikipedia show that there are over 1 billion subscribers in India alone. Mobile phones, sometimes known as cellular phones or handsets, form an integral part of modern telecommunications and are fast becoming a social lifestyle. We cannot even begin to think of a life without our phones. In some parts of the world, they are the most reliable or the only phones available. In others, mobile phones are very popular because they allow people to maintain constant and continuous communication without hampering their freedom of movement. The growth in mobile networks over the next few years will come from remote parts of the world. Moreover, the service providers are under tremendous pressure to deliver the solutions in an efficient manner and somehow make network available. Not only does it have to be available, it must be up and running 24X7 because it is an essential service. No other service, be it healthcare or basics like water supply is available 24 hours a day.

Demystifying Radio Waves What is popularly known as mobile phone radiation is the same as radio waves. Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic waves. It is by using radio waves that television and radio stations broad-casting towers transmit images and sound to televisions and radios. The same is the case with communication system for police and fire brigade, military radars and communication equipment for aircrafts, ships and satellites. To ensure that it is P1 that comes out of the transistor radio – and not the police’s internal conversation – different frequencies are used. Mobile phones also use radio waves to transmit between mobile antennas and phones. Various radio waves in our daily lives Since the beginning of time humans have been surrounded by electromagnetic waves of many different frequencies. The sun’s visible light is part of the electromagnetic waves. 100 years ago humans started using waves for radio broadcasting and 50 years ago for television. More and more waves are used for the shown purposes. What are Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)? Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) are invisible lines of force that surround any electrical device. Power lines, electrical wiring, telecommunication equipments and electrical equipment all produce EMF.


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The electric field strength is measured in units of volts per meter (V/m). Magnetic fields result from the flow of current through wires or electrical devices. Magnetic fields are measured in units of gauss (G).

Non-ionizing Radiation Radio waves for mobile phones which belong to the lower frequency band have very low energy content. Therefore the waves are not strong enough to remove electrons from atoms or molecules and thus cause ionization. Radio waves can therefore not alter a molecule’s basic structure. They belong to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum called non-ionizing. The low frequency of the non-ionizing radiation means that a molecule is not fundamentally changed. But when the waves become very powerful they can heat a body up. In connecting with mobile towers the heating does not take place until you move unnaturally close to the source. The international levels are set far below the heating point. Ionizing Radiation What is called ionizing radiation belongs to the higher frequency ranges – e.g. x-rays and gamma radiations. The ionizing radiation can cause damage to genes and can damage DNA molecules which are the cell’s basic structure and determine the individual cell’s function. E.g. ionizing radiation (30,000 THz -), Soft and hard x-ray radiation (X-ray equipment and technical scientific instruments), gamma radiation (radio activity, space outside the atmosphere).


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1) How does a mobile phone system work?

– The individual mobile phone operates by communicating with a fixed installation known as a base station or a telecommunications tower. Since the mobile phone and its base station is a two-way radio, they produce radiofrequency (RF) radiation as a means of communicating and expose the people near them to RF radiation.

2) Why is there a great concern on the health effects of a mobile phone system?

– Moreover, radiofrequency is an abstract subject and is not easily understood by people. The term ‘radiation’ often conjures fear and scare. A tremendous amount of publicity generated in the mass media has also caused great concern among members of the public.

– Millions of people around the world use mobile phones as a communication tool every day. Base stations or telecommunication towers are continuously being erected. Because of this, scientists worldwide are concerned about the potential health risks associated with the use of this device. Even small adverse effects on health could have major public health implications.

3) How does radiation behave?

– Radiation behaves in the same manner as light. It travels in a straight line and when it collides with an object, it can do three things — it can pass right through (transmission), it can bounce off (reflection), and it can be absorbed.

– It readily reduces its energy as it moves away from its source where radiation is produced.

– This means that a person will receive less exposure if he/she stays indoors compared to staying outside or keep a distance compared to standing close to the source.

4) Is natural radiation dangerous?

– We are being continuously exposed to many sources of natural radiation. Of these sources, the sun is the most familiar to us as it produces infrared radiation, visible light, and ultraviolet light.

– The other sources are cosmic radiation that consists of high energy particles and rays that originate from outside our earth, terrestrial radiation that comes from naturally occurring radioactive materials in the earth’s crust, and internal radiation from radioactivity that is naturally present in our bodies.

– Of these, only the ultraviolet light from the sun can be considered ‘dangerous’.

– Over-exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet light can cause premature aging of the skin and cause sunburn, which has been linked to skin cancer.

– Although the nature of cosmic, terrestrial, and internal radiation is inherently hazardous and can cause cancer, these sources are not normally dangerous to us as the levels present naturally are sufficiently low that the risk is negligible.

5) What is a mobile phone? Does it emit large quantities of RF radiation?


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– A mobile or cellular phone is a low-power, single-channel, and two-Antenna way radio. It contains a Transmitter, transmitter and a receiver. It emits RF radiation to transmit information to the base station.

– It also acts like a receiver of information, in a similar manner as a transistor radio.

– The handset battery limits the power of transmitted radiation, which is similar, if not smaller than, that of a torchlight.

– The radiation emitted by the antenna is insufficient to cause any significant heating of tissues in the ear or head, although a rise in skin temperature may occur as a result of placing the mobile phone too close against the ear or head thus restricting the airflow.

6) Besides the RF radiation from a mobile phone system, are there any other RF sources that I am exposed to?

– Yes. You are exposed to RF radiation originating from paging and other communications antennas such as those used by the fire, police and emergency services that operate at similar power levels as base stations, and often at a similar frequency. In many urban areas, television and radio broadcast antennas commonly transmit higher RF radiation levels than the mobile phone base stations.

7) What are mobile phone base stations and how do they work?

– Mobile phone base stations are also known as base transceiver stations or telecommunications towers. They are low-power, multi-channel two-way radios.

– Antennas, which produce RF radiation, are mounted on either transmission towers or roof-mounted structures.

– These structures need to be of certain height in order to have a wider coverage. When you communicate on a mobile phone, you are connected to a nearby base station. From that base station your phone call goes into the regular fixed-line phone system.

– As the mobile phones and their base stations are two-way radios, they produce RF radiation to communicate and therefore expose the people near them to RF radiation. However, as both the phones and the base stations have low-power (short range) transmitters in them, the RF radiation exposure levels are generally very low.

8) Is there health risks associated with living or working near a base station?

– The consensus of the international scientific community is that the power from these mobile phone base station antennas is far too low to produce health risks as long as people are kept away from direct contact with the antennas.

– You have to know the difference between antennas and towers. It is the antennas that you need to keep your distance from and not the towers that hold the antennas.


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– You also need to be aware of the many different designs of mobile phone base stations that vary widely in their power and characteristics, as well as their potential for exposing people to RF radiation.

9) How safe are the base stations?

– In Malaysia, base stations are installed in compliance with the stringent guidelines set by the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission and the Ministry of Housing and Local Government, which conform to international standards and best practices of safety. In addition to local standards the following international agencies are the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

10) Is there a scientific basis for these RF radiation safety standards?

– Yes. Over the past few decades, scientists have been researching the biological effects of RF radiation on animals and humans. The results were published in scientific journals and have been extensively reviewed by international organizations.

11) Do mobile phone base station antennas meet the safety standards?

– Yes. With proper engineering design, installation and regulatory control, mobile phone base station antennas can meet all the national and international safety standards.

12) What can the consumers do to influence the sitting of base stations?

– Mobile operators should comply with the guidelines and standards set by the relevant regulatory bodies. Base station sites must offer good signal coverage and be accessible for maintenance. While RF radiation levels around base stations are not considered a health risk; sitting decisions should take into account aesthetics and public sensibilities.

– However, as consumers, you too have a role to play. You can influence the decision to locate or site the base stations in your area. Sitting base stations near kindergartens, schools and playgrounds may need special consideration. Open communication and discussion between the mobile phone operators, local councils and the public during the initial planning stages for a new base


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station, can help create public understanding and greater acceptance of a new facility.

13) What are the international organizations doing regarding the health effects of RF radiation?

– Public concern in many countries regarding mobile phones and base stations has resulted in a number of international and national organizations and independent expert groups being requested by governments to carry out detailed reviews of the research literature.

The World Health Organization International Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) Project was started in 1996.

– An important result of this work has been the development of a detailed agenda of research needs, which has driven the establishment of new research programmers around the world.


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– It aims to harmonize the safety standards for all countries in the world. The Project has also helped develop a series of public information documents on EMF issues.

14) What are the effects of RF radiation?

– RF radiation can cause the heating of tissues that leads to an increase in the body temperature. This is known as the thermal effect. Although the body has its effective ways of regulating its temperature, nevertheless, if the RF exposures are too high, the body may no longer be able to cope.

– There is some discussion about other effects caused by RF radiation other than by thermal effect. However, no evidence is established yet. The scientific community and international bodies acknowledge that further research is needed to improve our understanding in some of these areas.

– At the moment, there are insufficient and inconclusive scientific findings to prove any adverse health effects caused by RF radiation.

15) How safe is the mobile phone system? Can it cause cancer and other illnesses?

– Some studies have also examined the possibility of a link between RF radiation exposure and cancer. The results to date have been inconclusive. While some experimental data may suggest a possible link between exposure


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and cancer formation in animals exposed under certain specific conditions, the results have not been independently reproduced.

– In fact, other studies have failed to find evidence for a causal link to cancer or any related condition. Further research is underway in several laboratories to help resolve this issue.

– In recent years, publicity, speculation, and concern over claims of possible health effects due to RF radiation from base stations and mobile phones have prompted many research organizations to investigate the potential health effects from the use of mobile phones.

– To date, there is inconclusive scientific evidence to prove that the mobile phone system can lead to cancer or a variety of other health effects, including headaches, dizziness, memory loss or birth defects.

16) What is the advice for children using mobile phones?

– The scientific evidence does not show a danger to mobile phone users, including children and teenagers. If you want to take steps to lower the exposure to RF radiation, the measures described above could also apply to children and teenagers.

– Reducing the time of mobile phone use and increasing the distance between the user and the RF radiation source will reduce the RF radiation exposure. In December 2000, the United Kingdom government recommended limiting the use of mobile phones by children as a precautionary measure.

– It was, however, noted that no evidence exists to suggest that using a mobile phone causes brain cancers or other health effects.

– The U.K. Stewart Report states: ‘If there are currently unrecognized adverse health effects from the use of mobile phones, children may be more vulnerable because of their developing nervous system, the greater absorption of energy in the tissues of the head, and a longer lifetime of exposure.

– In line with our precautionary approach, we believe that the widespread use of mobile phones by children for non-essential calls should be discouraged. We also recommend that the mobile phone industry should refrain from promoting the use of mobile phones by children.’

Science Express: Journey So Far Flagged off on 30 oct 2007 by the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Sign and German Chancelllor Dr. Angela Merkel, Science Express exhibition train covered over 68,000 km across the country during its four phases.


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With over 63.60 lakh visitors at its 220 halts in over 801 exhibition days, Science Express is now the largest, longest and most visited mobile science exhibition in India. Students visiting the exhibition have enjoyed learning about cutting-edge research in science; explained through interesting audio-visual exhibits and interactive tools. Science express have successfully completed its four phases till now, and each time have receive tremendous response across location of India.

Coach: 12 Legacy of Science Express Introduction


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This coach is dedicated to science & technology development in India. The coach focuses on inventions and discoveries in India as well as Indian contribution to Science. India is now one of the most powerful knowledge hubs. Today India has all the kinds of infrastructural assets in Science and Technology. This coach outlines the contribution of India in the field of Science and Technology, from the invention of ‘zero’ to launch of satellite Chandrayaan – 1.

‘Science Express’ is an innovative science exhibition mounted on a specially designed train. The 16 coach AC rake was especially fabricated for Department of Science & Technology (DST), Govt. of India by the Rail Coach Factory Kapurthala. Majority of the exhibits have been designed & developed by Max Planck Society (MPS), Germany, a Noble laureate powerhouse. Objective One of the major objectives of this unique classroom-on-wheels is to nurture curiosity amongst our youth and encourage them to pursue higher studies and careers in science. This flagship venture of National Council for Science & Technology Communication (NCSTC), DST, also attempts to develop scientific temper amongst the masses. Further, it strives to take modern research out of the lab and reveal just how relevant science is to everyday life. The visitors of this state-of-the-art exhibition can learn how science enables the society to face the global challenges of the 21st century. It was inaugurated on 30th October 2007. It visited over 220 locations, covering 68,000 km in 801 exhibition days and visited by more than 63.36 lakh visitors. The coaches have exhibits on the following: - On the way to the Big Bang - Climate Change - Nanocosmos - Global challenges - Building blocks of life - Spaceship earth - From ‘gene to organism’ - Our home in the cosmos - Architecture of the mind - The universe - The world of senses - Science and technology in India - Technologies of future - The Joy of Science All the themes of the coaches were presented in such a form that they can be narrated in a story form, from birth to death of the Universe.

On the way to the big bang The coach no. 01, “On the way to Big Bang”, creates the first impact on the visitor about the awesome science exhibition and the curiosity to know further and reach till the universe. This coach is a representation of the universe according to inflationary cosmology. Here the smallest particle of matter and its energy, elementary particles, the fundamental forces, Higgs field, matter and antimatter are


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discussed and more stress is upon the world's largest accelerator- Large Hadron Collider designed by CERN in Geneva which would answer the mysteries of the universe. The ongoing project of CERN the International Linear Collider (ILC) is the world's longest linear accelerator so far being built. ILC is at its technical design phase-2 and technical design report is to be released by 2012. Further in precise the topics are explained through visual media, the visuals contain the related information to the sub-topics. Even the information is put up into panels in the coaches. The same pattern is followed in all the 12 coaches by Max Planck Society, Germany. The following coach - on the way to the big bang contained information on the following:

Search for the Beginning

Large Hadron Collider

Matter & Antimatter

Not always around in circles

Big Bang in the lab

Smallest particles and highest energies

XFEL X-ray LASER

Electrons on a slalom course

Mini-accelerator

Higgs Boson

Super cold atoms & ultra short light pulses

Time microscope

Crash test for atoms

Paul trap

Filming a molecule

FAQs 1. What are elementary particles? How are they classified?

– Formally it was believed that electrons, protons and neutron are indivisible particles and thus they are building blocks of universe, but due to the advancement of technology in particle physics new concept has evolved. Elementary particles are one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made.

– All elementary particles are either bosons or fermions (depending on their spin). The spin-statistics theorem identifies the resulting quantum statistics that differentiates fermions from bosons. Particles normally associated with matter are fermions, having half-integer spin; it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made.

Fermions: Quarks — up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom Leptons — electron neutrino, electron, muon neutrino, muon, tau neutrino, tau Bosons: Gauge bosons — gluon, W and Z bosons, photon Other bosons — Higgs boson, graviton


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2. What is big bang?

– The Big Bang theory is the dominant scientific theory about the origin of the universe. According to it, the universe was created 13.73 billion years ago with an uncertainty of 120 million years. The big bang was initially suggested because it explains why distant galaxies are traveling away from us at great speeds. The theory also predicts the

– Existence of cosmic background radiation (the glow left over from the explosion itself).

3. Who proposed the big bang theory?

– Big Bang theory was proposed by George Lemaitre. He carried out research on” A homogeneous universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae”.

4. What are higgs particles?

– The Higgs particle is as yet a hypothetical particle invoked to explain why the carriers of the electroweak force (the W and Z bosons) have mass. Quantum electrodynamics requires the photon to have zero mass (which is good because indeed it does), but early attempts to develop and electroweak theory also required the bosons to be mass less, (which is bad because then they would be as abundant as the photon in the universe, which indeed they are not).

– If there is an otherwise undetectable field filling the universe (now called the Higgs field), it could have associated with it a previously unknown kind of boson, the Higgs particle, which has mass. This would allow any photon-like particle to become massive by swallowing up a Higgs boson. It is possible, but not proven, that all-massive particles get their mass this way.

5. What is quark gluon plasma?

– Quarks are one of the families of fermions, the basic constituents of matter. Gluons are bosons, carriers of the strong force that bind quarks together into hadrons such as protons or neutrons.

– In the ordinary matter that makes up us and the world in which we live, quarks are never free of other quarks or gluons when nuclei collide and the energy density of the particles produced is sufficiently high, then a quarkgluon plasma could be produced qgp is believed to have been the state of matter under the extreme pressure and temperature conditions that prevailed in the first 10 microseconds after the Big Bang.

– Though highly transient -- a QGP quickly cools and reverts to the ordinary state of matter -the QGP in its brief existence, set the stage for the combinations of particles that make up our universe today. QGP is also thought to be the state of matter in the dense cores of neutron stars. Creating a QGP in particle accelerators could yield new insights into how our universe was formed and a better understanding of the behavior of atomic nuclei.

Nanocosmos


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Nano technology is field of applied science whose theme is to control an atom at molecular scale. Nano means 9; i.e. molecules or atoms are studied at 10-9 meter scale which is equal to ten thousandth time of our hair diameter. Nanotechnology, also called molecular manufacturing, is, “a branch of engineering that deals with the design and manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built at the molecular level of matter".

– The goal of Nano technology is to be able to manipulate materials at the atomic level to build the smallest possible electro-mechanical devices, given the physical limitations of matter.

– It has been said that, "A nanometer is a magical point on the length scale, for this is the point where the smallest man made devices meet the atoms and molecules of the natural world". Much of the mechanical systems we know to build will be transferred to the molecular level as same atomic analogy.

– Materials that can be made at nano scale, give them the potential to have some very interesting properties which sharply differ from ones characteristic for bulk materials. In the nano scale regimes neither quantum chemistry nor classical laws of physics hold.

– It is this scale where many properties of materials are controlled by phenomena that have their critical dimensions at the nano scale. By being able to fabricate and control the structure of nano particles, the designers can influence the resulting properties and, ultimately, design materials to give desired properties. The electronic properties of the material in consideration can be controlled at this scale. This phenomenon forms the basis for modern electronics industry.

– A host of properties depend on the size of such nano scale particles including magnetic properties, melting points, specific heats and surface reactivity. Furthermore, when such ultra fine particles are consolidated into macroscopic solids, these bulk materials sometimes exhibits new properties e.g. enhanced elasticity).

Following were the topics discussed in coach no.02

Exotic phenomena

Superconductor

Polymers and Dendrimers

Customized material

Synchrotron

Nan tubes

Liquid magnets

Electronics and photonics

Electron gas

FAQs

1. What is nano technology?

– Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale or Nanotechnology refers to a field of applied science whose theme is the control the matter on an atomic and molecular scale.


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– Generally nanotechnology is approximately 100 nanometers or smaller and involves developing materials or devices within that size. One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10-9 of a meter.

2. What is atomic force microscope?

– The atomic force microscope (AFM) or scanning force microscope (SFM) is a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscope, with demonstrated resolution of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.

– It overcomes the limitations of Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) that it can only image conducting or semi conducting surfaces.

3. What is scanning tunneling microscope?

– Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is a powerful technique for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM Zurich), the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.

– STM probes the density of states of a material using tunneling current. For STM, good resolution is considered to be 0.1 nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm depth resolution. The STM can be used not only in ultra high vacuum but also in air and various other liquid or gas ambient, and at temperatures ranging from near 0 Kelvin to a few hundred degrees Celsius.

4. How does STM work?

– The STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. When a conducting tip is brought very near to a metallic or semi conducting surface, a bias between the two can allow electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them.

– For low voltages, this tunneling current is a function of the local density of states (LDOS) at the Fermi level, E, of the sample. Variations in current as the probe passes over the surface are translated into an image. STM can be a challenging technique, as it requires extremely clean surfaces and sharp tips.

Building Blocks of life If we try to go to the bottom of all living creatures in world, we will find some basic units which actually make the whole world. In nature, most interesting molecules are the ones, which are connected with life. The Cell Theory states that all living things are made of cells, which are the basic units of life, and those cells come from other cells. Not all the cells present in the body are alike. The structure of living being are complex and of various shape and size. It has different kind of interaction within the body. If we try to categorize all component of cell they can be divided into carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid. To better understand the process in the living cells it is necessary to know more than the physical structure of macromolecule; knowledge of their interaction in large group and they are subjected to which change are also necessary.


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– How do enzymes ensure reaction? Which imbalance leads to diseases? to what extent the cells repair themselves. are very important source to develop new medical agents. Now a day's new analysis and detection methods research into the three-dimensional structures of these molecules and their function in the living cells is progressing. With the help of these method various functioning of these molecule could be known.

– Various complicated reactions along with their products and by products together constitute life and the study of these reactions together as one functioning unit would be called biology. So here, special emphasis is given to those molecules whose interactions are greatly influencing the various processes inside the cell.

The following were the topics discussed in the coach no.03

Molecular medicine and biomaterials

Artificial vesicle

Artificial dental enamel

Quantum Dots

The smallest is the cell

Molecular motors

Cell division

Cell adhesion

Biological structure Harmful protein

Protein-protein-interaction

Gene to organism This coach says about how gene interaction leads to the formation of a individual. All leaving beings are developed from a single cell. Even then we get a verity of organism around us. These variations among the organism are nothing but the interaction of genes. Every organism surrounding us has same genetic material i.e. DNA and RNA, in some cases. All information of a life is encoded in the genetic material. Therefore these genes and the genetic interaction are responsible for all kind of functioning in the life time of an organism in all aspects of growth, development, aging, disease etc. Therefore the study of genome has been in progress. Human genome project has been partially completed with the findings of up to 28000-35000 genes. Now a day’s scientists are trying to find the genetic cause of different disease; by which human being frequently suffering. These diseases are mainly the cardiovascular disease, cancer, AIDS etc. With the help of genomic study it is now possible to find the actual cause of a disease and thereby it could be possible to develop some new natural therapy to cure these diseases. E.g. - the stem cell therapy is the most modern invention in the field of medical science. Where molecular cause of the disease has to be find out so that it would be possible to search for some natural compatible source to cure the disease. The overall focus of this coach is to give an idea about the medicinal and molecular research. Following were the topics discussed in the coach no.04


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Direction and control

Genomics

Human genome project

Hox gene

Protection and defense

Phagocytosis

Stem Cell

Living Antibiotic

Retrovirus

Birth and Development

DNA repair

Fluorescence in-situ hybridization

Plants in cancer research

FAQs 1. What is gene and genome? A gene is a locatable region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a unit of inheritance, which is associated with regulatory regions, transcribed regions and/or other functional sequence regions.

– The physical development and phenotype of organisms can be thought of as a product of genes interacting with each other and with the environment colloquially, the term gene is often used to refer to an inheritable trait which is usually accompanied by a phenotype as in ("tall genes" or "bad genes") -- the proper scientific term for this is allele.

– In cells, genes consist of a long strand of DNA that contains a promoter, which controls the activity of a gene, and coding and non-coding sequence. Coding sequence determines what the gene produces, while non-coding sequence can regulate the conditions of gene expression. When a gene is active, the coding and non-coding sequence is copied in a In biology the genome of an organism is its whole hereditary information and is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA).

– This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA. The term was adapted in 1920 by Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany.

– The Oxford English Dictionary suggests the name to be a portmanteau of the words gene and chromosome, however, many related -ome words already existed, such as biome and rhizome, forming a vocabulary into which genome fits systematically.

– More precisely, the genome of an organism is a complete genetic sequence on one set of chromosomes; for example, one of the two sets that a diploid individual carries in every somatic cell.

– The term genome can be applied specifically to mean that stored on a complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the "nuclear genome") but can also be applied to that stored within organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome.

– When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been “sequenced," typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autopsies and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes.


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– Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite read from the chromosomes of various individuals? In general use, the phrase "genetic makeup" is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics.

2. What is mechanism of RNA synthesis? Or what is transcription of gene?

– Transcription is the process by which an mRNA template, encoding the sequence of the protein in the form of a tri nucleotide code, is transcribed from the genome to provide a template for translation.

– Transcription copies the template from one strand of the DNA double helix, called the template strand.

– Transcription can be divided into 3 stages: Initiation, Elongation and Termination, each regulated by a large number of proteins such as transcription factors and co activators that ensure the correct gene is transcribed in response to appropriate signals.

– The DNA strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction and the mRNA is transcribed in the 5' to 3' direction by the RNA polymerase.

Architecture of Mind There are many things which still remain at the center of interest of research of research workers life: How do we understand? What is memory? How to increase memory? Why do we forget? What are the factors involved when messages are released? How the signals are released and how are they coordinated? How signal molecules activate the circuits present in a cell? These questions lay the foundations of neuroscience and the basic discussion in this coach is about the structure and function of the brain and nervous system. The coach has information on: Signal Transmission Multiple sclerosis Parkinson’s disease Complex Communication Neurological disorder These questions lay the foundations of neurosciences. The basic work of all neurobiology is to study the nervous system structure and its development. Many model organisms are used for this study for more discoveries to be made. The main aim of neurology is to understand the physical, chemical and physiological basis of the brain's ability to process information and to know and understand the molecular basis for perception, memory, experience, language, etc. The research field is rapidly expanding due to modern tools and methods available today. Scientists are working on diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, migraine,


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epilepsy, mental retard ness, amnesia, etc. with the help of various methods like magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, total internal reflection microscopy, nuclear power microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, electroencephalography, electron microscopy, etc. Following were the topic discussed in the coach no.05

Development of the brain

Synapse

Signal transmission

Astrocytes

Degeneration and regeneration

Tau protein

Multiple sclerosis

Parkinson

From molecule to thinking

Sense of word

Complex communication

Anesthesia

FAQs 1. What are Tau proteins? Tau proteins are microtubule-associated proteins that are abundant in neurons in the central nervous system and are less common elsewhere. Tau proteins interact with tubulin to stabilize microtubules and promote tubulin assembly into microtubules. Tau has two ways of controlling microtubule stability: is forms and phosphorylation. Six tau iso forms exist in brain tissue, and they are distinguished by their number of binding domains. Three iso forms have three binding domains and the other three have four binding domains. The binding domains are located in the carboxy-terminus of the protein and are positively-charged (allowing it to bind to the negatively charged microtubule). The iso forms with four binding domains are better at stabilizing microtubules than those with three binding domains. The iso forms are a result of alternative splicing in exons 2, 3, and 10 of the tau gene. Phosphorylation of tau is regulated by a host of kinesis. For example, PKN, a serine/threonine kinase. When PKN is activated, it phosphorylates tau, resulting in disruption of microtubule organization. Hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein (tau inclusions), can result in the self-assembly of tangles of paired helical filaments and straight filaments, which are involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies.

– Tau protein is a highly soluble microtubule-associated protein (MAP). In humans, these proteins are mostly found in neurons compared to non-neuronal cells.

– One of tau's main functions is to modulate the stability of axonal microtubules.

– Tau is not present in dendrites and is active primarily in the distal portions of axons where it provides microtubule stabilization but also flexibility as needed.

– This contrasts with STOP proteins in the proximal portions of axons which essentially lock down the microtubules and MAP2 that stabilizes microtubules in dendrites. The tau gene locates on chromosome 17q21, containing 16 exons.


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2. What is alpha-synuclein? Alpha-synuclein is a synuclein protein of unknown function primarily found in neural tissue, where it is seen mainly in presynaptic terminals. It is predominantly expressed in the neocortex, hippocampus, substantia nigra, thalamus, and cerebellum. It is predominantly a neuronal protein, but can also be found in glial cells. Alpha-synuclein is specifically upregulated in a discrete population of presynaptic terminals of the songbird brain during a period of song-acquisition-related synaptic rearrangement.

– Normally an unstructured soluble protein, alpha-synuclein can aggregate to form insoluble fibrils in pathological conditions characterized by Lewy bodies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy.

– Alpha-synuclein is the primary structural component of Lewy body fibrils. In addition, an alphasynuclein fragment, known as the non-Abeta component (NAC), is found in amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease.

– A single molecule study in 2008 suggests alpha-synuclein exists as a mix of unstructured, alpha-helix and betasheet rich conformers in equilibrium. Mutations or buffer conditions known to improve aggregation strongly increase the population of the beta conformer, thus suggesting this could be a conformation related to pathogenetic aggregation. In rare cases of familial forms of Parkinson's disease there is a mutation in the gene coding for alpha-syncline.

– Three point mutations have been identified thus far: A53T, A30P and E46K. In addition, duplication and triplication of the gene appear to be the cause of Parkinson’s disease.Antibodies against alpha-synuclein has replaced antibodies against ubiquitin as the gold standard for immunostaining of Loewy bodies.

3. What is migraine and what are its causes and symptoms? Migraine is a sever recurring vascular headache; usually affecting one side of head.The signs and symptoms of migraine vary among patients. What a patient experiences before, during and after an attack cannot be defined exactly. The four phases of a migraine attack listed below 1. The prodrome, which occurs hours or days before the headache. 2. The aura, which immediately precedes the headache. 3. The pain phase. 4. The postdrome. Prodrome phase This phase may consist of altered mood, irritability, depression or euphoria, fatigue, yawning, excessive sleepiness, craving for certain food (e.g., chocolate), stiff muscles (especially in the neck), constipation or diarrhea, increased urination, and other vegetative symptoms. Prodrome phase This phase may consist of altered mood, irritability, depression or euphoria, fatigue, yawning, excessive sleepiness, craving for certain food (e.g., chocolate), stiff muscles


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(especially in the neck), constipation or diarrhea, increased urination, and other vegetative symptoms. Aura phase The migraine aura is comprised of focal neurological phenomena that precedes or accompany the attack. Symptoms of migraine aura can be visual, sensory, or motor in nature.

The World of Senses We human beings are the unique creation of the nature, having variety of skills like ability to speak, communicate with complex language and to think about the past and the future. Therefore we have a well define cultural as well cognitive skill which makes us unique. But from where do we get all these skills how does our brain develop up to that level that makes us the human unique. This all are complex phenomena. To understand this phenomena research are very important in the field of human evolution i.e. how do the modern human have evolved from a very primitive type. This will give the outline of continuous arise of complexity in the construction of human brain.

– Extremely complex processes are work while we smell, think, and feel, in different part of our brain. These processes require many different interactions of many neurons. Now with the advancement in imaging method it is now possible to trace which part of the brain is active during various processes. Many things are still out of the reach of the scientist that how does we recognized and distinguish faces and how is language processed in the brain.

– Therefore researches are focusing on more and more complex cognitive process and structure. Now research has revealed that for every process in the brain some genes are responsible. Due to the genetic interaction all these process are going inside the brain. Depending up on different genetic variability difference in intelligence, perception is found in different individual.

– To trace this type of differences in different genetic background some integrative methods are developed, which will allow observation of the extensively branched neural network and development of functional organization in the brain. The main goal of this method is to see changes in ion and molecular concentration, both of which are involved in signaling processes.

Following were the topics discussed in his coach no.06

The origin of man

Human evolution

Culture of Chimpanzee

Cognition and behavior

Speech gene

Otolith

Evolution of hearing

Window to the brain

MRT (Magnetic resonance tomography)

EEG (Electroencephalography)

Serial Block Phase Electron Microscope


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FAQs

1. What is cognition? Cognition is used in different ways by different disciplines. In psychology, it refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions. This description tends to apply to processes such as memory, attention, perception, action, problem solving and mental imagery. 2. Why does depression occur? Depression or depressed refer to expected and pathologically chronic or severe levels of sadness, perceived helplessness, disinterest, and other related emotions and behaviors. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) states that a depressed mood is often reported as being: "depressed, sad, hopeless, discouraged, or 'down in the dumps'." In traditional colloquy, "depressed" is often synonymous with "sad," but both clinical and non-clinical depression can also refer to a conglomeration of more than one feeling. Such a mixture can include (but is not limited to) anger, fear, anxiety, despair, guilt, apathy, and/or grief, in addition to what many people would describe as typical "sadness."

Depression (mood), a lack of positive affect

Colloquially, Adjustment disorder with depressed mood, previously known as Reactive depression.

Major depressive disorder a clinical diagnosis of a state of intense sadness

Melancholic depression a sub-type of clinical depression characterized by an inability to feel pleasure combined with physical agitation, insomnia, or decreased appetite.

3. What is FOXP2 gene? FOXP2 ("forkhead box P2") is a gene that is implicated in the development of language skills, including grammatical competence. The FOXP2 protein sequence is highly conserved. Similar FOXP2 proteins can be found in songbirds, fish, and reptiles such as alligators. Aside from a poly glutamine tract, human FOXP2 differs from chimp FOXP2 by only two amino acids, mouse FOXP2 by only 3 amino acids, and zebra finch FOXP2 by only 7 amino acids. Some researchers have speculated that the two amino acid differences between chimps and humans led to the evolution of language in humans. Others, however, have been unable to find a clear association between species with learned vocalizations and similar mutations in FOXP2. Both human mutations occur in an axon with no known function. It is also likely, based on general observations of development and songbird results that any difference between humans and non-humans would be due to regulatory sequence


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divergence (affecting where and when FOXP2 is expressed) rather than the two amino acid differences mentioned above. 4. What is positron emission tomography? Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule. Images of tracer concentration in 3-dimensional space within the body are then reconstructed by computer analysis. In modern scanners, this reconstruction is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the same session, in the same machine. If the biologically active molecule chosen for PET is FDG, an analogue of glucose, the concentrations of tracer imaged then give tissue metabolic activity, in terms of regional glucose uptake. Although use of this tracer results in the most common type of PET scan, other tracer molecules are used in PET to image the tissue concentration of many other types of molecules of interest. PET is both a medical and research tool. It is used heavily in clinical oncology (medical imaging of tumors and the search for metastases), and for clinical diagnosis of certain diffuse brain diseases such as those causing various types of dementias. PET is also an important research tool to map normal human brain and heart function.

Technologies of the Future From data to knowledge How technology helps us to improve our life processes and how can we increase the potential of our technology? Researchers are still on to improve technology for better future. This coach throws light on our advanced technology what it is! & how it is! As we all know we are using our technology as a data storage device but are these technologies enough for storing tremendous data? The answer is no; so we require extremely sensitive measuring instruments; like super computing system through which we can understand the complex process occur in space, in living cells, in living organism and in our surrounding environment. Sensors are now a day’s designed in such a way that it could solves the mysteries of network communication, like pathways of different nerves in brain. Following were the topics discussed in the coach no.07

Supercomputer and teraflops

NEVISAT images

Multi particle system

The high art of Abstraction

Viscoelasticity

Quantum geometry

Dielectric resonator

Sensors for invisible


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Sensors CCD chips

FAQs 1. What is a supercomputer? The definition of a supercomputer has been the subject of numerous doctoral theses. The term "supercomputer" is most often credited to Dr.George Michael of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the late Dr.Sydney Fernbach, then with Control Data Corporation, in the late 1960's. The term "supercomputer" was moved into the everyday vernacular by the late Mr. Seymour R.Cray with his designs including the Control Data 6600, Control Data 7600, and Cray-1, Cray-2, Cray-3, and Cray-4 systems.

– Seymour, who he preferred to be known as, designed the computer systems that were the workhorses of industry, academia, and government technical/scientific projects from the mid-1960's until his untimely death in 1996.

As a result, one of the popular definitions of a supercomputer is "any computer Seymour Cray designed."

– A lighthearted ategorization credited to Gordon Bell and Don Nelson (circa 1989) proposed that any computer weighing over 1 ton was supercomputer. Today, all real supercomputers weight over 1 ton, but not all computers weighing over 1 ton is true supercomputers in the traditional sense.

– In a general case, a supercomputer is a computer far more powerful than that available to the vast majority of users. Supercomputers are commonly used to process a single application using all of memory, and all of the processors, rather than simply processing a large workload of smaller applications.

– For instance, an SX-5/16 supercomputer is the equivalent of thousands of personal computers, but even an infinite number of personal computers could not perform the same computational services as an SX-5/16.Why? Mainly because of memory bandwidth.

– A single SX- 5/16 has 1 terabyte per second of memory bandwidth available, whereas the fastest personal computer today can move no more than a few hundred megabytes per second, no matter how many processors are configured. Imagine trying to configure in the order of 5000 personal computers to execute a single application reliably.

2. What are supercomputers used for? A supercomputer is used for the following major applications:

Climate Prediction

Computational Chemistry

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Crash Analysis

Cryptography


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Nuclear Simulation

Materials Analysis and Design

Pharmaceutical Research

Seismic Processing and Oil Exploration

Simulations of Transportation Networks (Real Time)

Structural Analysis

Weather Forecasting

3. How does a supercomputer differ from a personal computer? Supercomputers are expensive and typically cost from $100,000's to many $1,000,000's. Most require environmentally controlled computer rooms. Supercomputers do not have sound, graphics boards, keyboards, etc.

– There is an implicit requirement that access to a supercomputer is from a workstation or personal computer that is connected to the supercomputer via a network. Supercomputers today all use variants of the UNIX operating system; there are no known projects to port Microsoft products to any true supercomputer.

– What programming languages are used on supercomputers? FORTRAN is the mainstay of scientific and technical programming. The FORTRAN language is well suited to describe simulations in such a way that a FORTRAN compiler can perform exceptionally efficient victimization and credible parallelization with minimal requirements on the developer.

– C is becoming more common for use in supercomputer applications, but is currently a far distant second to FORTRAN.

– Languages such as C++ and Pascal are counterproductive as they tend to be quite difficult to optimize for the characteristics of supercomputer processors. Supercomputers operate most efficiently on arrays of numbers, while most applications written in C++ or Pascal operate on single values.

The Space ship earth The space ship earth, the space ship is an adjective given to the earth. Because the earth is also a part of the universe and which is in the space. As an astronaut travel to the space by a space ship likewise we are also traveling around the sun on the earth as on a space ship. Life is only possible on earth because of the co existence of various systems and their relationship between each other. Therefore a flow of energy exists and a food chain is maintained among them. All living component of the earth is very important to bring about the balance of the system. Various activities of the organism in the system contribute their efforts to keep the system healthy. While the system is disturbed by various external factors the system loses its resilience capacity and thereby natural calamities results. These are shown by the various activity of the earth like volcano, earthquake etc. But the real factors of all these processes are yet to be fully understood. Hence many researches are going regarding the various activity of the earth. Due to the


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anthropogenic activity various anomalies are going in the system. One of the most discussed phenomena is the Global warming. The cause of global warming can be attributed to various activity of human being. At this age of scientific advancement we people are using many amenities for a luxurious life at the cost of polluting the environment and emission of green house gases etc. Therefore we must know how we can protect our earth system as well as the earth’s own protective systems. Thus we can co-exist with the system without harming the earth's protective system. Following are the topics discussed in this coach number.10

Global cycle, Carbon cycle, Bacterial reef, Coral reef

Ecosystem and biological diversity

Adaptation, Genetic diversity, Chemical ecology

Sulfur pearl, Magnetosphere

Adaptive Particle Imaging Detectors

Air pressure, Aerosol Following are important and interesting facts about our planet. Basically earth comprises of

Lithosphere, Hydrosphere Atmosphere, Biosphere

The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is composed of a number of different layers as determined by deep drilling and seismic evidence (Figure 10h-1). These layers are:

The core which is approximately 7000 kilometers in diameter (3500 kilometers in radius) and is located at the Earth's center.

The mantle which surrounds the core and has a thickness of 2900 kilometers.

The crust floats on top of the mantle. It is composed of basalt rich oceanic crust and granitic rich continental crust.

FAQs 1. What is Ecosystem? Ecosystem is a place where nature has created a unique mixture of air, water, soil, and a variety of living organisms to interact and support each other. It is the living community of plants and animals of any area together with the nonliving components of the environment such as soil, air, and water. The living, biotic factors, and the non-living, biotic factors, interact with each other in such a manner that it results in the flow of energy between them. In a particular ecosystem the biotic community consists of the birds, reptiles, mammals, insects and other invertebrates, bacteria, plants, and other living organisms. Sunlight, wind, water and soil comprise a biotic community. 2. What is the Reaction Mechanism of Ozone Layer Depletion?


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Ozone layer depletion: Ozone layer is one of the protective layers at the stratosphere due to the presence of this layer the harmful radiation cannot come to the earth. But due to the high concentration of at the troposphere level and their intact property they don't dissociate at troposphere and eventually they rise to the stratosphere and react with the ozone, thereby form oxygen atom. A single molecule of ozone can destroy 105 molecules of ozone. 3. What is Carbon Credit? Carbon credits are generated by enterprises in the developing world that shift to cleaner technologies and thereby save on energy consumption, consequently reducing their greenhouse gas emissions. For each ton of carbon dioxide (the major GHG) emission avoided, the entity can get a carbon emission certificate which they can sell either immediately or through a futures market, just like any other commodity. This trade is carried out under a UN mandated international convention on climate change to help rich countries reduce their emissions. Moreover it is the permit that allows the holder to emit one ton of carbon dioxide. Credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced their green house gases below their emission quota. Carbon credits can be traded in the international market at their current market price. The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol. Its goal is to stop the increase of carbon dioxide emissions. For example, if an environmentalist group plants enough trees to reduce emissions by one ton, the group will be awarded a credit. If a steel producer has an emissions quota of 10 tons, but is expecting to produce 11 tons, it could purchase this carbon credit from the environmental group. The carbon credit system looks to reduce emissions by having countries honor their emission Quotas and offer incentives for being below them. 4. How the Bacterial Reefs are formed? Bacterial reef: Some aquatic bacteria feed on methane. In this process they produce a considerable amount of carbon dioxide and calcium carbonate. These calcium carbonates deposited on the sea bed and produce the coral reef like structure. These are known as bacterial reef.

Our Home in the Cosmos Beyond the reign of earth's magneto sphere their lies interplanetary space. This space is full of solar wind: electromagnetic wave fields and particle showers, radiating from the Sun at the center of the planetary system, with this there are eight planets and their 166 known moons; four dwarf planets and their four known


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moons; and billions of small bodies, including asteroids, Kuiper belt objects, comets, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust. Sun is parent star of Solar system and planetary scientist want to know how the sun works:

– What sorts of activity go on there?

– How are highly charged particles heated and dispersed in powerful pulses?

– Which energy transformation result in the heating of suns corona and emission of solar wind?

The researcher also keeps an eye on the influence of the sun on the earth: they investigate the ways in which the sun affects the communication and navigation system here on earth, as well as its long term effect on climate change. Studying the sun, however, also entails gaining knowledge about the planets, their atmosphere and moons, and the formation and development of these bodies. This history of solar system and planets can be gleaned, among other things, from comets and meteorites. There is one another big question ahead of scientist that is life possible on any other planet in solar system? A prerequisite to answering of such questions, in addition to using powerful earth bound telescopes, is exploring the space and planets with space probes. Following were the topics discussed in this coach number.11

Formation and development

Orion Nebula

ALMA Radio telescope

Protoplanetary Disks

Planets, Moons, Meteorites

Evidence of life on Mars

Mars rover

Comets

Sun and space weather

Solar flare

LASCO coronagraph

Sunspot

FAQs

1. What are constellations? A constellation is a group of stars that are connected together to form a figure or picture. The term is also traditionally and less formally used to mean any group of stars visibly related to each other, if they are considered as a fixed configuration or pattern in a particular culture.

– The entire sky (half of which is above the horizon at any moment) is divided into 88 constellations. The constellations and their borders have nothing to do with science. The stars in a particular constellation are not necessarily related to one another, nor are they even near each other in space.

– The constellations recognized by astronomers in the northern sky come from ancient Greek and Roman mythological star-pictures. The southern


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constellations were named by the first Western mariners to explore southern waters.

– Other cultures have their own constellation patterns, which do not necessarily match "classical" ones. Constellations cover much too broad an area of sky.

2. How is the color of a star cluster linked to its age? Measuring a star cluster's color yields information about its age. A newly formed cluster of stars contains stars of all colors, but it appears blue because its hot, blue stars outshine all the others. These blue stars are relatively short lived compared to the cluster's dimmer, redder stars. The blue stars die off over a period of a few hundred million years, but the redder stars continue to shine for billions of years. Therefore, as a star cluster ages, its color gradually shifts from blue to red. The oldest, reddest star clusters we have found are over 10 billion years old. 3. What is a supernova and what can it tell us about the universe? A supernova is the explosive death of a star, which unleashes a burst of light through the cosmos. Supernovas happen in two different ways: When massive stars run out of fresh nuclear fuel, there is no more pressure to sustain them against their own weight.

– The central part of such a star then collapses. The outer layers of the star fall in on the core and then rebound in a tremendous explosion.

– Matter piling up on the compressed core of an already-dead star, known as a white dwarf, can reach sufficient density to trigger a thermonuclear explosion.

– These violent deaths occur about once a century in a typical spiral galaxy like our Milky Way. Every 200-300 years we discover a supernova that happens to be bright and close enough to be visible to the unaided eye.

– The last supernova seen in our galaxy was discovered in 1604. When visible to the eye they appear in the sky as a "new" (Latin: "nova") star.

– A supernova observed in the "nearby" Large Magellan Cloud (an irregular galaxy outside of our Milky Way galaxy) in 1987 was the first one visible to the unaided eye since 1604.

– Supernovas blaze so brightly that they can be seen at years.

– Light from these distant supernovas can tell us how the behavior of the universe has changed during the several billion years of the light's journey to Earth distances of up to 10 billion light years.

4. What is the solar system? The solar system consists of a central star, the Sun, and all of the smaller celestial bodies that continuously travel around it.

– The smaller bodies include eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, which are they orbited by more than 60 moons. (Only Mercury and Venus have no moons.)


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– In addition, the solar system contains millions of rocky asteroids and billions of icy comets. All of these objects are held together in a group by the Sun's gravity.

5. How did the solar system form? The planets, asteroids and comets in the solar system are loose objects left over from the formation of the Sun.

– Originally the gas and dust that would become the Sun was the core of a cloud much larger than the solar system, probably several light-years across. (One light-year is equal to approximately 6,000,000,000,000 miles.)

– The core was slowly rotating at first, but as it collapsed it spun faster, like a spinning ice-skater pulling in his arms. The rotation prevented the material at the core's equator from collapsing as fast as material at the poles, so the core became a spinning disk.

Coach: 13 VASCSC – Joy of Science Hands-on lab

Teacher’s Training


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The first part of coach 13 has a training facility which will be used for orientation and capacity building of teachers at respective locations. The training contents will improve environment education, hands-on approaches in teaching and also learning science. Some training program in mathematics will also be conducted to celebrate national year of mathematics.

VASCSC Joy of Science – Hands-on lab The second part of coach 13 “Joy of Science” is most fascinating of the coaches. This hands-on-lab is set up and managed by VASCSC. In this lab groups of 20-25 students will perform varies experiments and activities to better understand difficult concepts in bio-diversity conservation, climate change, water conservation, ecology and science. Some activities will also be dealing with mathematics to celebrate national year of mathematics.

Platform Activities Several activities will be done on platform to engage the students; who are waiting for the turn to enter exhibition.

Out Reach Activities Some outreach activities will be conducted in nearby schools for the students who are not able to visit the train. The “Joy of Science” is most fascinating of the coaches. This hands-on-lab is set up and managed by VASCSC. Children can perform practical experiments and Hands-on activities in this section in subjects like Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. Some exciting experiments and activities based on high school curriculum, facilitated by Science Communicators, are performed here.

FAQs – Collected from Science Express Journey 1. Is Cactus a Medical plant? How? Ans. Yes. Some plants such as lavender, chamomile and parsley, are famous for their medicinal and nutritional benefits but a startling member of the medically useful


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plants list is the cactus plant. Read on to learn how useful certain cacti are for your health. All cactus plants aren't edible. The two main cactus species that are medically useful and suitable for human consumption are: The Prickly Pear or Opuntia and The Pitaya Fruit. Medical benefits of The Prickly Pear are as mentioned below:

Treating constipation and acting as a natural laxative Strengthening the immunity of the body Reducing and preventing inflammation in muscles along the body, from those in

the gastrointestinal tract to the muscles in the bladder Reduces cholesterol levels in the body Stabilizes glucose and insulin levels in the body Acts as a source of anti-oxidants Helps treat gastric ulcers Can be applied topically to heal wounds, scrapes and insect bites Helps in reducing the effects of drinking too much alcohol

Medical benefits of The Pitaya Fruit:

This fruit is low in calories but fibrous in content, making it ideal food for dieters. It is also rich in poly-saturated fats, which are healthy fats needed by the body.

It is rich in minerals and vitamins like Vitamin C, calcium and phosphorus. Eating this fruit is said to encourage the release of toxins and harmful chemicals

from the body. It also controls and aids in regulating blood sugar levels in patients of diabetes. It is a valuable source of natural anti-oxidants. This fruit is quickly absorbed and metabolized by the body, when eaten, so the

pitaya can be used as a natural Vitamin C supplement instead of a pill. It has a reducing effect on cholesterol and blood pressure levels in the body,

hence proving its usefulness for those suffering from high blood pressure and diabetes.

2. What is the purpose of rosary pea? What is ts medicinal value? Ans. Rosary Pea is a twining herb, with long, pinnate-leafleted feathery leaves. Its flowers are rose to purple in color, growing at the end of a stalk. On the other hand, fruits are short pods, containing hard, shiny, scarlet and black seeds. The herb is also identified as Gunja in Sanskrit and some Indian languages. Native to Indonesia, the plant is mostly found in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. If proper care is not taken while growing it, the plant might becomes weedy and invasive in the areas where it has been introduced. Medical Uses & Benefits of Rosary Pea


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Rosary pea roots are used for treating gonorrhea, jaundice and

haemoglobinuric bile. The oil extracted from seeds of the herb is said to promote the growth of

human hair. The herb is also used as an abortifacient, laxative, sedative and aphrodisiac. The leaves of Rosary pea are used to make tea, which is known to be useful

in treating fevers, coughs and colds. The white seeds of the herb are used in the Siddha medicine, to make oil that

is regarded as an equivalent of the present-day Viagra. The seeds of Rosary pea have anodyne, antimicrobial, diuretic, emetic,

expectorant, febrifuge, hemostat, purgative, and refrigerant properties.

The seeds, after being converted to vermifuge paste, can be applied topically, in case of sciatica, stiffness of shoulder joints and paralysis.

In some traditional medicines, the herb is used to treat scratches, sores and wounds caused by dogs, cats and mice.

The paste of its roots is often used in the treatment of abdominal pains and tumors.

The juice derived from the paste of the leaves and seeds of rosary pea can be used to treat grey hair.

Caution

The seeds of Rosary pea are highly poisonous. In the powdered form, they have been known to disturb the uterine functions and also prevent conception in women.

If consumed raw, the seeds can result in nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain and diarrhea, and burning in throat, initially. Later on, ulcerative lesions of mouth and esophagus might result.

Eye damage, conjunctivitis and even blindness might result from coming in contact with an infusion of the seed extracts.

3. Details for “Big Four”snakes of India. Ans. The four Venomous snake species of India are known as Big four snakes, responsible for causing the most snake bites. Listed as below:

Indian cobra: Naja naja, probably the most famous of all Indian snakes.

Common krait: Bungarus caeruleus Russell's viper: Daboia russelii. Saw-scaled viper: Echis carinatus

4. How come there is a ozone hole in Antarctica where there is neither population nor pollution?

Ans. The Earth's atmosphere is continuously stirred over the globe by winds. As a result, ozone-depleting gases get mixed throughout the atmosphere, including Antarctica, regardless of where they are emitted. The special meteorological

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conditions in Antarctica cause these gases to be more effective there in depleting ozone compared to anywhere else. Human emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons (bromine-containing gases) have occurred mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. About 90% have been released in the latitudes corresponding to Europe, Russia, Japan, and North America. Gases such as CFCs and halons, which are insoluble in water and relatively unreactive, are mixed within a year or two throughout the lower atmosphere. The CFCs and halons in this well-mixed air rise from the lower atmosphere into the stratosphere mainly in tropical latitudes. Winds then move this air poleward - both north and south - from the tropics, so that air throughout the global stratosphere contains nearly equal amounts of chlorine and bromine. In the Southern Hemisphere, the South Pole is part of a very large land mass (Antarctica) that is completely surrounded by ocean. This symmetry is reflected in the meteorological conditions that allow the formation in winter of a very cold region in the stratosphere over the Antarctic continent, isolated by a band of strong winds circulating around the edge of that region. The very low stratospheric temperatures lead to the formation of clouds (polar stratospheric clouds) that are responsible for chemical changes that promote production of chemically active chlorine and bromine. This chlorine and bromine activation then leads to rapid ozone loss when sunlight returns to Antarctica in September and October of each year, which then results in the Antarctic ozone hole. As the figure below depicts, the magnitude of the ozone loss has generally grown through the 1980s as the amount of human-produced ozone-depleting compounds has grown in the atmosphere. Similar conditions do not exist over the Arctic. The wintertime temperatures in the Arctic stratosphere are not persistently low for as many weeks as over Antarctica, which results in correspondingly less ozone depletion in the Arctic.

5. Why is so that the Rann of Kutch has white sand? Ans. The Rann of Kutch is having white sand due to its bright white salt, in the state of Gujarat along the west coast of India. On any winter night, this white desert lights up with the reflection of the moon and the millions of stars that twinkle in its sky. There’s nothing but the white desert as far as you can see, nothing but you and the vastness of the desert. White sand beaches/deserts usually form in tropical or subtropical climates near coral reefs. Coral, crushed seashells, and the skeletal material of marine organisms that live and die near the reef provide the calcium carbonate that becomes the white sand. Some tiny marine organisms that contribute to white sand beaches are halimeda, echinoderms and foraminifera.


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Coral reefs can be eroded into sand in two ways. The first is bioerosion, which is

caused by animals such asfish, worms, urchins and sponges. These animals break

down coral into sediment as an indirect result of their grazing or boring activities. For

example, the parrot fish eats coral and the calcium carbonate from the coral passes

through the digestive system of the parrot fish.

The waste that the parrot fish expels is one of the major sources of fine white sand.

The second way that coral reefs can be eroded into sand is mechanical erosion. This

type of erosion is caused by the force of waves hitting the shore or abrasion by

pebbles in the water.

In deserts, wind forces the grains of sand to rub against each other, making desert

sand particles very smooth and round. The strong desert winds cause waves in the

sand much like the waves in the ocean. The White Sands National Monument is not a

beach, but a huge desert full of large, white dunes in the Tularosa Basin in the

southern part of New Mexico.

The dunes are composed of a unique type of white sand made of gypsum. Gypsum is

not found on beaches because it is water-soluble. Rain dissolves the gypsum, but

there is no outlet to the ocean from the Tularosa Basin. The water instead drains into

the ground or evaporates, leaving the gypsum in crystallized form. The crystals are

then eroded into sand-sized particles. Unlike the sand of most beaches, which is

made of quartz, the gypsum sand does not heat up in the sun. People are able to

walk barefoot on it without burning their feet. 6. Explain the life cycle of Jelly fish.

Ans. During their life cycle, jellyfish experience an alternation of generations in

which one generation (the medussa) reproduces sexually and the next generation

(the polyp) reproduces asexually. The medusa form is the dominant and most

recognized form of the jellyfish. Overall, the basic stages in the life cycle of a jellyfish

include:

egg and sperm

planula larva

polyp (or scyphistoma)

polyp hydroid colony (or strobilating scyphistomata)

ephyra

medusa

Egg and Sperm

Jellyfish reproduce sexually so adult jellyfish are either male or female. Both sexes

have reproductive organs called gonads. The gonads in males produce sperm, in

females they produce eggs. When jellyfish are ready to mate, the male releases

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sperm through its mouth opening located on the underside of its bell. The

fertilization of eggs in the female jellyfish depends on the species.

In some species, the female's eggs attach themselves to brood pouches located on

the upper part of her oral arms surrounding her mouth. Then when she swims

through the male's sperm the eggs become fertilized. In other species of jellyfish, the

eggs are retained inside her mouth and the male's sperm swims into her stomach

where it fertilizes the eggs. The fertilized eggs later leave the stomach and attach

themselves to the female's oral arms.

Planula Larva

After the fertilized eggs have undergone embryonic develoment, they hatch and the

free-swimming planulae that emerge then leave the female's mouth or brood pouch

and set out on their own. The planula larva is a short-lived stage in the jellyfish's life

cycle. A planula is a tiny oval structure whose outer layer is lined with minute hairs

called cilia.

The cilia beat together to propel the planula through the water, but the motion of

the cilia does not carry the planula far; instead ocean currents are responsible for

transporting planulae long distances. The planula floats for a few days at the surface

of the sea. It then drops downward to settle on a solid substrate where it attaches

itself and begins its development into a polyp.

Polyp (or Scyphistoma)

After settling to the sea floor, the planula larva attaches itself to a hard surface and

transforms into a polyp (or scyphistoma). This polyp stage in the jellyfish life cycle is

a sessile stage, so called because the polyp is stationary and remains attached to a

single spot on the sea floor. A polyp is cylindrical and stalk-like in form. At its base is

a disc that adheres to the substrate and its top is a mouth opening surrounded by

small tentacles. The polyp feeds by drawing food into its mouth.

It grows and begins to bud new polyps from its trunk. As it does, the polyp develops

into what is called a polyp hydroid colony (or strobilating scyphistomata). Members

of the polyp colony are linked together by feeding tubes. The entire polyp hydroid

colony, like the originating polyp, is sessile. The polyp colony can grow for several

years. When polyps within the colony reach an adequate size, they are ready to

begin the next stage in the jellyfish life cycle.

Ephyra and Medusa

When the polyp hydroid colony is ready to transform, the stalk portion of its polyps

begin to develop horizontal grooves. These grooves continue to deepen until the


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polyp resembles a stack of saucers. The topmost groove matures the fastest and

eventually buds off as a tiny baby jellyfish also known as an ephyra. 7. How fiber is derived from Plastic?

Ans. Plastic optical fiber (POF) (or Polymer optical fibre) is an optical fiber which is

made out of plastic. Traditionally PMMA (acrylic) is the core material, and

fluorinated polymers are thecladding material. Since the late 1990s however, much

higher-performance POF based on perfluorinated polymers (mainly

polyperfluorobutenylvinylether) has begun to appear in the marketplace.

In large-diameter fibers, 96% of the cross section is the core that allows the

transmission of light. Similar to traditional glass fiber, POF transmits light (or data)

through the core of the fiber. The core size of POF is in some cases 100 times larger

than glass fiber.

POF has been called the "consumer" optical fiber because the fiber and associated

optical links, connectors, and installation are all inexpensive. Due to the attenuation

and distortion characteristics of the traditional PMMA fibers are commonly used for

low-speed, short-distance (up to 100 meters) applications in digital home appliances,

home networks, industrial networks (PROFIBUS, PROFINET), and car networks

(MOST). The perfluorinated polymer fibers are commonly used for much higher-

speed applications such as data center wiring and building LANwiring.

Several standardization bodies at country, European and WW levels are currently

developing Gigabit communication standards for POF aimed towards Home

networking applications. It is expected the release at the beginning of 2012. [3] The

future Gigabit POF standard is based on multilevel PAM modulation a Frame

structure, Tomlinson-Harashima Precoding and Multilevel coset coding modulation.

The combination of all these techniques has proven to be the most efficient way of

achieving low cost implementations at the same time that the transmission

theoretical maximum capacity of the POF is approached.

For telecommunications, the more difficult-to-use glass optical fiber is more

common. This fiber has a core made of germania-doped silica. Although the actual

cost of glass fibers are similar to the plastic fiber, their installed cost is much higher

due to the special handling and installation techniques required.

One of the most exciting developments in polymer fibers has been the development

of microstructured polymer optical fibers (mPOF), a type of photonic crystal fiber.

POF fiber also has applications in sensing. It is possible to write Fiber Bragg grating in

single and multimode mode POF. There are advantages in doing this over using silica

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladding_(fiber_optics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROFIBUS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROFINET_IO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Oriented_Systems_Transport

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network

http://www.vde.com/EN/DKE/STD/PROJECTS/POF/Pages/default.aspx

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_crystal_fiber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_Bragg_grating


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fiber since the POF can be stretched further without breaking; some applications are

described in the PHOSFOS project page.

POF in short:

PMMA & Polystyrene are used as fiber core, with refractive indices of 1.49 &

1.59 respectively.

Generally, fiber cladding is made of silicone resin (refractive index ~1.46).

High refractive index difference is maintained between core and cladding.

POF have high numerical aperture.

Have high mechanical flexibility and low cost.

http://sicilianskis.dk/_backup/PDF/corn_to_plastics_poster.pdf

8. What are the economical benefits of Mangroves? Ans. Mangrove forests are extremely important coastal resources, which are vital to our socio‐economic development. A vast majority of human population lives in coastal area, and most communities depend on local resources for their livelihood. The mangroves are sources of highly valued commercial products and fishery resources and also as sites for developing a burgeoning eco‐tourism (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). The mangrove forests have been shown to sustain more than 70 direct human activities, ranging from fuel‐wood collection to fisheries. Economic Benefits The mangroves supply forestry products (firewood, charcoal, timber, honey etc.) and fishery products (fish, prawn, crab, mollusk etc.). Due to high calorific values, mangrove twigs are used for making charcoal and firewood. One ton of mangrove firewood is equivalent to 5 tons of Indian coal, and it burns producing high heat without generating smoke. The mangrove wood with high content of tannin is used as timber for its durability. The pneumatophores are used to make bottle stoppers and floats. Nypa leaves are used to thatch roofs, mats and baskets. Shells of mangrove molluscs are used to manufacture lime. Mangroves attract honey bees and facilitate apiculture activities in some areas. For instance, the Sundarbans provide employment to 2000 people engaged in extracting 111 tons of honey annually and this accounts for about 90% of honey production among the mangroves of India (Krishnamurthy, l990). In Bangladesh, an estimated 185 tons of honey and 44.4 tons of wax are harvested each year in the western part of the mangrove forest (Siddiqi, l997). The best quality honey is produced from Aegialitis rotundifolia and Cynometra ramiflora. The bulk of honey seems to come from Ceriops. Mangroves and especially Avicennia form cheap and nutritive feed forbuffaloes, sheep, goats and camels. These animals are allowed to graze in mangrove areas and camels are periodically taken to uninhabited islands with a good mangrove cover for grazing. This is very common in India, Pakistan, Persian Gulf region and Indonesia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHOSFOS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_aperture

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Mangrove extracts are used in indigenous medicine; for example, Bruguiera species (leaves) are used for reducing blood pressures and Excoecaria agallocha for the treatment of leprosy and epilepsy. Roots and stems of Derris trifoliata are used for narcotizing fishes, whereas Acanthus ilicifolius is used in the treatment of rheumatic disorders. Seeds of Xylocarpus species have antidiarrhoeal properties and Avicennia species have tonic effect, whereas Ceriops produce hemostatic activity. Barks of Rhizophora species have astringent, antidiarrhoea and antemetic activities. Tender leaves of Acrostichum are used as a vegetable and a beverage is prepared from the fruits of Sonneratia spp. Extracts from mangroves seem to have a potential for human, animal and plant pathogens and for the treatment of incurable viral diseases like AIDS. The mangroves provide seeds for aquaculture industries. To cite an example, 40,000 fishers get an annual yield of about 540 million seeds of Penaeus monodon for aquaculture, in the Sundarban mangroves of West Bengal (Chaudhuri and Choudhury, 1994). Apart from these direct products, the mangrove ecosystems provide a number of ecological services. Ecological Services Much of the ecological service of mangroves lies in protecting the coast from solar UV‐B radiation, ‘green house’ effects, and fury of cyclones, floods, sea level rise, wave action and coastal erosion. Mangrove swamps act as traps for the sediments, and sink for the nutrients. The root systems of the plants keep the substrate firm, and thus contribute to a lasting stability of the coast. The ecosystem provides a source of food, breeding grounds and nurseries for many food fishes and shellfishes, and they do very often encourage and attract other kinds of wildlife. They further help in offering protection to other associated flora and fauna of the ecosystems including the islands. The mangrove ecosystems are highly productive and comparable to good agricultural land. Benefits of mangroves are 25 fold higher than that of paddy cultivation. Reducing the ‘green house effects’ Mangroves are known to remove CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. This perhaps reduces the problems that go with the ʹgreen house gases’ and global warming. They fix greater amounts of CO2 per unit area, than what the phytoplankton do in the tropical oceans (Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001). The mangroves are capable of accumulating and storing carbon in the soil in large quantities. For example, the ability of Rhizophora forest to divert carbon belowground is remarkably high. A 20‐year old plantation of mangroves stores 11.6 kg m‐2 of carbon with C burial rate of 580 g m‐2 yr ‐1 (Fujimoto, 2000) and hence, plantation of mangroves provides great benefits to control global climate change by stabilizing atmospheric carbon. Mangroves also respond well to high CO2. For example, Rhizophora mangle


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under high CO2 conditions which was double than normal for one year, showed greater accumulation of biomass Because the mangroves fix and store significant amounts of carbon, their loss may have impact on global carbon budget. 9. What is biotope?

Ans. Biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals. Biotope is almost synonymous with the term habitat, but while the subject of a habitat is a species or a population, the subject of a biotope is a biological community.

It is an English loanword derived from the German "Biotop", which in turn came from the Greek bios='life' or 'organism' and topos='place'. (The related word geotope has made its way into the English language by the same route, from the German "Geotop".) The word biotope, literally translated, means an area where life lives.

Characteristics of Biotope

Microscale First, a biotope is generally not considered to be a large-scale phenomenon. For example, a biotope might be a neighbouring park, a back garden, even potted plants or a fish tank on a porch. In other words, the biotope is not a macroscopic but a microscopic approach to preserving the ecosystem and biological diversity. So biotopes fit into ordinary people's daily activities and lives. Thus more people can participate in biotope creation and continuing management. Biotope Network Second, it is commonly emphasised that biotopes should not be isolated. Instead biotopes need to be connected to each other and other surrounding life for without these connections to life-forms such as animals and plants, biotopes would not effectively work as a place in which diverse organisms live. So one of the most effective strategies for regenerating biotopes is to plan astretch of biotopes, not just a point where animals and plants come and go. (Such an organic traffic course is called a corridor.) In the stretch method, the centre of the network would be large green tracts of land: a forest, natural park, or cemetery. By connecting parcels of land with smaller biotope areas such as a green belt along the river, small town parks, gardens, or even roadside trees, biotopes can exist in a network. In other words, a biotope is an open not a closed system and is a practicable strategy. In human daily life Third, the term biotope does not apply to biosphere reserves which are completely separate from humans and become the object of human admiration. Instead it is an active part of human daily life. For example, an ornamental flower bed may be considered to be a biotope (albeit rather a small one) since it enhances the experience of daily life. An area which has many functions, such as human living space, and is home to other living things whether plant or animal, can be considered a biosphere reserve.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_(plants)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_(animals)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocoenosis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanword

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotop

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotope

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotop

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_corridor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_reserves


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Artificial Finally, when artificial items are introduced to a biotope setting, the design and arrangement of these specific items is of great importance for biotope regeneration. Tree-planting areas where the surface is uneven results in plants which sprout and the nesting of small insects. A mat or net made from natural fibres will gradually biodegrade as it is exposed to the weather. So there is not binomial opposition between the natural and the artificial in a biotope. Rather, such artificial materials are widely used. 10. How many years neelakurunji flower keeps blooming at/in plant? Ans. Neelakurunji has flowring cycles ranging from one to 16 years. Plants that bloom at long intervals like kurinji are called “Plietesials’’. It occurs at an altitude of 1300 to 2400 metres. The plant is usually 30 to 60 cm high on the hills. They can, however, grow well beyond 180 cm under congenial conditions. Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthiana) is a shrub that used to grow abundantly in the sholagrasslands of the Western Ghats in South India above 1800 metres. The Nilgiri Hills, which literally means the blue mountains, got their name from the purplish blue flowers of Neelakurinji that blossoms gregariously only once in 12 years. The Paliyan tribal people apparently used it to calculate their age. During the blooming stage the flowers will be blue in colour and become purplish when aged. Neelakurunji in Malayalam means blue flower, in total there are about 300 species of plants that bloom once in 10 to 16 years and Neelakurunji is the best known species among them. Nearly 46 species are found in India. Plants that bloom in long interval are called plietesials. The main habitat of Neelakurinji is Munnarand its neighbouring areas that lie within Western Ghats. Blooming of Neelakurunji is considered as a symbol of prosperity this belief boost the number of visitors. There are adequate transporting facilities available from Munnar to facilitate the visitors. So don’t forget to have a look at the Neelakurunjis’ while your visit to the scintillating Munnar. 11. What are dugongs? Ans. Dugongs are large grey mammals which spend their entire lives in the sea. Fully grown, they may be three metres long and weigh 400 kilograms. They have nostrils near the top of their snouts. Dugongs swim by moving their broad spade-like tail in an up and down motion, and by use of their two flippers. Dugongs' only hairs are the bristles near the mouth. Habitat Dugongs are highly migratory, which means Australia shares populations with other neighbouring countries. In Australia, Dugongs swim in the shallow coastal waters of northern Australia from the Queensland/New South Wales border in the east to

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shola

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Ghats

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilgiri_Hills

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paliyan

http://www.karmakerala.com/munnar/

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Shark Bay on the Western Australian coast. They are also found in other parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans in warm shallow seas where seagrass is found. Shelter Dugongs are usually found in shallow waters protected from large waves and storms. They surface only to breathe, and never come on to land. Breeding Female Dugongs give birth underwater to a single calf at three to seven year intervals. The calf stays with its mother, drinking milk from her teats and following close by until one or two years of age. Dugongs reach adult size between 9 and 17 years of age. Diet Dugongs are sometimes called 'Sea Cows' because they graze on seagrasses. These marine plants look like grass growing on a sandy sea floor in shallow, warm water. Dugongs need to eat large amounts of seagrass. Defence Dugongs are slow-moving and have little protection against predators. Being large animals, however, only large sharks, Saltwater Crocodiles and Killer Whales are a danger to them. Young Dugongs hide behind their mothers when in danger. Conservation Status Dugongs are protected under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Act 1999, which lists dugong as marine and migratory species. Dugongs are subject to a range of human threats in Australia, including entanglement in shark, mesh and gill nets, loss and degradation of important habitat such as seagrass meadows, and collisions with boats (also known as boat strikes). The Australian Government is actively addressing these threats. For example, in 2003, marine debris was listed as a Key Threatening Process under the EPBC Act. As a result, a Threat Abatement Plan is being developed that will build on existing activities to reduce the impact of marine debris on threatened marine species, including marine turtle and dugong. 12. How much gravity does a black hole create? Ans. That naturally depends on the mass content of the individual black hole. At a distance 'D' (meters) from the black hole, the acceleration of gravity due to its mass is: A = gM/D2 where g = universal gravitational constant M = the mass of the black hole (Kg) 13. The role of deserts to our ecosystem? Ans. Deserts, also called arid regions, characteristically receive less than 10 inches of precipitation a year. In some deserts, the amount of evaporation is greater than the amount of rainfall. Semiarid regions average 10 to 20 inches of annual precipitation.


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Typically, desert moisture occurs in brief intervals and is unpredictable from year to year. About one-third of the earth's land mass is arid to semiarid (either desert or semidesert).

Evaporation is also an important factor contributing to aridity. In some deserts, the amount of water evaporating exceeds the amount of rainfall. Rising air cools and can hold less moisture, producing clouds and precipitation; falling air warms, absorbing moisture. Areas with few clouds, bodies of water and little vegetation absorb most of the sun's radiation, thus heating the air at the soil surface. More humid areas deflect heat in clouds, water and vegetation, remaining cooler. High wind in open country also contributes to evaporation.

Locations of deserts have changed throughout geologic time as the result of continental drift and the uplifting of mountain ranges. Modern desert regions are centered in the horse latitudes, typically straddling the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, between 15 and 30 degrees north and south of the equator. Some deserts, such as the Kalahari in central Africa, are geologically ancient. The Sahara Desert in northern Africa is 65 million years old, while the Sonoran Desert of North America reached its northern limits only within the last 10,000 years.

Because they are poised in such harsh extremes of heat and aridity, deserts are among the most fragile ecosystems on the planet. 14. What is the use of red sandalwood and also property of this? Ans. Red sandalwood is a tree. The wood at the center of the trunk (heartwood) is used as medicine. Red sandalwood is used for treating digestive tract problems, fluid retention, and coughts; and for “blood purification”.

In manufacturing, red sandalwood is used as a flovring in alcoholic beverages.

Don’t confuse red sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus) with white sandalwood (Santalum album).

How does it work? Red sandalwood might increase the loss of body water through the urine (diuretic effect). It might also have drying effects that may help reduce diarrhea and break up mucus to make it easier to cough up. 15. What is the carbon footprint? Ans. Carbon footprint is a representation of the effect human activities have on the climate in terms of the total amount of greenhouse gases produced (measured in units of carbon dioxide). Your carbon footprint is the direct effect your actions and lifestyle have on the environment in terms of carbon dioxide emissions. The two biggest contributors to your carbon footprint would probably be your travel needs and the use of electricity at home.

All our actions have a direct and indirect impact on climate change. Indirect impact would the distance our food has to travel before it is consumed by us or how far

http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-diarrhea


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away the clothes we wear are are made. Direct impact would be the carbon emissions of cars, buses, aeroplanes and our personal electricity needs that generally come from fossil fuel burning power plants.

We have a moral and social responsibility to do something about reducing our own carbon emissions. We need to protect the planet that we expect so much from not just for ourselves but for future generations. Reducing our carbon emissions is important in slowing down climate change. We may even reverse it. Besides stepping up the pressure on governments and big organisations to change their environmental policies and practice, we as individuals can take the necessary actions need on a personal level. Carbon Footprint Calculators A carbon footprint calculator estimates CO2 emissions for energy use and transportation. Your total carbon footprint would account for the energy used to produce all the products and services you consume, as well as all your other activities. Average individual emissions are calculated from your lifestyle: heating and lighting your home, cooking and how energy efficient you are. When you measure your carbon footprint through a carbon calculator, you can fully recognise how your lifestyle could have an impact on climate change. You will be able to know which part of your lifestyle needs the greatest attention and you can then take the appropriate action needed to reduce your carbon footprint and consequently minimize your personal impact on the climate. When you drive a car, each gallon of petrol you burn produces carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. Depending on the fuel efficiency of your vehicle and the miles travelled, a petrol powered car can easily generate its own weight in carbon dioxide each year. When you heat and light your home, use air-conditioning, cook, you use energy that is usually derived from burning fossil fuels thereby emitting carbon dioxide. Air travel is estimated to grow at approximately 5% a year and being one of the major contributors to carbon emissions, the growth in air travel both long haul and short haul will have a significant impact on climate change. A carbon footprint is defined as: The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). In other words: When you drive a car, the engine burns fuel which creates a certain amount of CO2, depending on its fuel consumption and the driving distance. (CO2 is the chemical symbol for carbon dioxide). When you heat your house with oil, gas or coal, then you also generate CO2. Even if you heat your house with electricity, the generation of the electrical power may also have emitted a certain amount of CO2. When you buy food and goods, the production of the food and goods also emitted some quantities of CO2. Your carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which was induced by your activities in a given time frame. Usually a carbon footprint is


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calculated for the time period of a year. The best way is to calculate the carbon dioxide emissions based on the fuel consumption. In the next step you can add the CO2 emission to your carbon footprint. 16. Can we save the Ganges River Dolphin? Ans. The world's river dolphins have been under siege for years. Habitat encroachment, illegal poaching, overfishing, and pollution have threatened nearly every species of river dolphins. One species, the Baiji River Dolphin, has already fallen victim to the threats. While some steps have been taken in the right direction, for example, India's decision announced late last month to increase protections for the Ganges River Dolphin by including it in the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. This would give the species the highest degree of protection under Indian law. But even still, much more needs to be done. And while the extinction of one species is a horrible and unnecessary loss, the hopes are that we can learn from what happened in the past. The Goddess of the Yangtze Gone Forever The Baiji River Dolphin had called China's Yangtze River home for millions of years and, in fact, was referred to by the Chinese as the "Goddess of the Yangtze." The river dolphin was one of the world's oldest species and had existed on earth for nearly 20 million years. But as China became an industrialized nation the Baiji River Dolphin declined drastically in numbers as a result of the increasingly polluted river, propeller strikes, and the horrors of overfishing. In 2007, a man videotaped what was thought to be a Baiji River Dolphin but after that there were no other confirmed sightings, making the species still functionally extinct. What makes this so tragic is that it's the first dolphin extinction of modern times. This incredibly peaceful river dolphin fell victim to one of the worst polluted and most traveled waterways in the world. In the end, what was called the "National Treasure of China" was gone forever. One Species of River Dolphins is Gone, How Can We Save Another? According to the National Zoo, worldwide there are three other types of dolphins that live only in rivers. The Amazon River dolphin is the only one that is still plentiful. The other two live in Asian river systems and both of them are endangered: the Indus and Ganges river dolphins. The total population of the Ganges River Dolphins is about 2,000. Out of these, between 240 to 300 inhabit the Brahmaputra River system in India. Only about 1,000 Indus River Dolphins exist today in the lower portions of the Indus River in Pakistan, according to World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Problems with Saving Remaining River Dolphins One of the major issues facing both the Ganges and Indus River Dolphins is that they're blind and inhabit some of the most densely populated areas of the world. While India did declare a 30-mile segment of the Ganges in Bihar, a province in

http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/enviornment/ganges-river-dolphin-declared-national-aquatic-animal_100306223.html

http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/08/yangtze_baiji_extinct.php

http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/2003/5/RiverDolphins.cfm

http://planetgreen.discovery.com/travel-outdoors/save-ganges-river-dolphins.html

http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/indusriverdolphin/indusriverdolphin.html


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northwest India, a sanctuary in 1991, fishermen still poach for dolphins or accidentally kill them with fishing nets. Environmental groups are working to "transform the sanctuary from one that exists only on paper to one that provides effective protection to dolphins." Additionally, Jasmin wrote about Brazilian fishermen killing 83 dolphins and then joking about it. According to the article, fishermen illegally capture dolphins to sell the meat to other boats as shark bait, while complete dolphin jaws are hawked in an open air market in the large Amazon city of Belem. Take Action to Save River Dolphins Today Dolphins are like marine humans in intellect and personality and they must be protected. Help Oceanaprotect dolphins today. You can donate directly to Oceana or you can support dolphins through their Adopt a Dolphin Program. You can also support river dolphins through the WWF, who has been working tirelessly to protect this vulnerable yet astonishing species. 17. How rainwater harvesting can be useful in mitigating climate change? Ans. Climate change is disrupting the world’s rainfall patterns, meaning some parts of the developing world are suffering from a drastic drop leading to a fall in water levels in many reservoirs and rivers. In sub-Saharan Africa, 90% of agriculture is rain-fed, making it even more vulnerable to changing weather patterns. The solution is harvesting rainwater as it falls and retaining it in the soil or in tanks below ground so it can be later used as a source of clean water. Rainwater for irrigation By constructing ridges of soil along the contours of fields, rainfall is held back from running off the hard-baked soils too quickly, so that crops have enough water to grow. Even when rainfall levels are low, families can harvest enough food. Precious rainwater can also be captured and stored in tanks so that even on the driest of days, there will always be a water source for the important irrigation of crops. Facilities installed have included both above and below ground rainwater catchment tanks, with the water collected from roofs of buildings, dams and channels for irrigation purposes, and improvement of ponds used for storing water. Rainwater for drinking The villagers themselves have usually expressed a clear need for improving water collection and storage provision. The water facilities are usually largely built by the villagers themselves with some assistance from trained masons or builders. People consider obtaining improved access to water well worth the building effort. 18. What types of soil are found in Deccan Plateau? Ans. The Deccan Plateau is rocky and uneven. It is made up of lava rocks and can be found in Red, black and yellow color. The rocks deep inside the Earth are in the

http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/07/83_dolphins.php

http://na.oceana.org/en

http://takeaction.oceana.org/t/7423/content.jsp?content_KEY=4144

http://www.wwf.org/


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molten state. Sometimes, these molten rocks escape through cracks and weak spots in the Earth’s surface. This molten material forms the lava rocks on cooling. The soil formed by the lava rocks is generally black in color. Black soil is found in the north-western part of the Deccan Plateau. The black soil is very good for growing cotton. In the remaining part of the plateau, the soil is reddish in color. The red soil, which is not very fertile, is also called Laterite. Mostly, groundnut and millets are grown here. 19. In how many ways Khejari is important plant? Ans. It is one of the indigenous trees of the Western Rajasthan, plains of the Punjab and Gujarat. It is a common tree in Bundelkhand, near Delhi and Agra. It is also found in the dry parts of Central and Southern India, in parts of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka south of Godavari River. It also extends to West Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran. Uses of Khejari Khejari is most important top feed species providing nutritious and highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by camels, cattle, sheep and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of desert livestock. The leaves are of high nutritive value; locally it is called ''Loong''. Feeding of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally available in rain-fed areas is thus profitable. The pods are a sweetish pulp and are also used as fodder for livestock. Khejari Pods are locally called ''sangar'' or ''sangri''. The dried pods locally called ''Kho-Kha'' are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by drying the young boiled pods. They are also used as famine food and known even to prehistoric man. Even the bark, having an astringent bitter taste, was reportedly eaten during the severe famine of 1899 and 1939. Pod yield is nearly 14,000 kg/km² with a variation of 10.7% in dry locations. Khejari Gum: Khejari produces a brown shining gum just like Arbic Gum which is obtained during the months of April to June. Khejari wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Medicinal Properties: Khejari flower is pounded, mixed with sugar and used during pregnancy as safeguard against miscarriage. Water-soluble extract of the residue from methanol extract of the stem bark exhibits anti-inflammatory properties. Khejari plant produces gum, which is obtained during May and June. The bark of the tree is dry, acrid, and bitter with a sharp taste; cooling anathematic; tonic, cures leprosy, dysentery, bronchitis, asthma, leucoderma, piles and tremors of the muscles. The smoke of the leaves is good for eye troubles. The pod is considered astringent in Punjab. The bark is used as a remedy for rheumatism, in cough colds, Asthma. The plant is recommended for the treatment of snakebite. The bark is prescribed for scorpion sting.

http://www.gits4u.com/water/godavari.htm

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The bark of the tree provides immediate relief to a person bitten by snake or scorpion. Its leaves and fruits are used in preparing medicines for curing nervous disorders. The medicines prepared from its bark are also used for treating diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, worm infestations and other skin problems. The bark is also used to cure leprosy, bronchitis, asthma, tumour of muscles and to improve concentration. The gum of the tree is nutritive and good in taste and is used by pregnant woman at the time of delivery. Worship of Khejari During Vedic times, Khejari wood was used to kindle the sacred fire for performing a yajana. In Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, mention the usefulness and significance of this tree. It is said that Lord Ram worshipped Khejari tree, which represents the goddess of power, before he led his army to kill Ravana. The worshipping of this tree is referred to as samipuja. Pandavas also worshipped this tree and hid their weapons in it during their Agyatavasa. Mainly men and married women worship Khejari (jand) tree, in an elaborate way. Gogaji is popular as a snake-god and almost every village in Rajasthan has a “Than” (sacred place) under a Khejari tree dedicated to him. The Bishnois, a community in Rajasthan would not cut Khejari trees even from their agricultural fields. Among the 29 principles propounded by the founder of the sect prophet, Lord Jhambheshwar, cutting and lopping of green trees is strictly prohibited. The Government of India has recently instituted the 'Amria Devi Bishnoi National Award for Wildlife Conservation' in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi, who in 1731 sacrificed her life along with 363 other members for the protection of Khejari trees in Khejarali village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan (Bishnoi a great environmentalist community). 20. How does the nitrogen fixing mechanism take place in the rhizobium? Ans. Nitrogen fixation by rhizobia is of great importance in agriculture in several ways. Legumes such as peas, beans, lentils, soybeans, alfalfa and clover help to feed the meat-producing animals of the world as well as humans. Rhizobium spare Rhizobium is the most well known species of a group of bacteria that acts as the primary symbiotic fixer of nitrogen. These bacteria can infect the roots of leguminous plants, leading to the formation of lumps or nodules where the nitrogen fixation takes place. The bacterium’s enzyme system supplies a constant source of reduced nitrogen to the host plant and the plant furnishes nutrients and energy for the activities of the bacterium. About 90% of legumes can become nodulated. Nitrogenase An enzyme called nitrogenase catalyses the conversion of nitrogen gas to ammonia in nitrogen-fixing organisms. In legumes it only occurs within the bacteroids. The

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reaction requires hydrogen as well as energy from ATP. The nitrogenase complex is sensitive to oxygen, becoming inactivated when exposed to it. This is not a problem with free living, anaerobic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Clostridium. Free living aerobic bacteria have a variety of different mechanisms for protecting the nitrogenase complex, including high rates of metabolism and physical barriers. Azotobacter overcomes this problem by having the highest rate of respiration of any organism, thus maintaining a low level of oxygen in its cells. Rhizobium controls oxygen levels in the nodule with leghaemoglobin. This red, iron-containing protein has a similar function to that of haemoglobin; binding to oxygen. This provides sufficient oxygen for the metabolic functions of the bacteroids but prevents the accumulation of free oxygen that would destroy the activity of nitrogenase. It is believed that leghaemoglobin is formed through the interaction of the plant and the rhizobia as neither can produce it alone. Nitrogen fixation and agriculture In the soil the bacteria are freed living and motile, feeding on the remains of dead organisms. Free living rhizobia cannot fix nitrogen and they have a different shape from the bacteria found in root nodules. They are regular in structure, appearing as straight rods; in Crop yields are greatly improved in nodulated plants; legumes can also grow well in poor soils where there is not enough fixed nitrogen to support other types of plants. After harvest legume roots left in the soil decay, releasing organic nitrogen compounds for uptake by the next generation of plants. Farmers take advantage of this natural fertilization by rotating a leguminous crop with a non leguminous one. Nitrogen fixation by natural means cuts down on the use of artificial fertilizers. This not only saves money but helps to prevent the many problems brought about by excessive use of commercial nitrogen and ammonia fertilizers such as eutrophication of rivers and lakes, generation of acid rain, and overgrowth of agricultural land by non-food crops. Research Fixed nitrogen is often the limiting factor for plant growth in all environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life. Research is being carried out to find ways of improving the amounts available to plants. This includes not only enhancing the efficiency of rhizobia as nitrogen fixers in legumes, but also using genetic engineering to bring about nitrogen fixation in other crops. Include:

Inoculating the seeds of legumes with pure cultures of rhizobia.

Improving the ability of the more efficient strains of rhizobia to compete with less efficient strains in the soil to ensure the most effective nodulation of legume plants.

Researchers are trying to insert the genes that code for the enzymes involved in nitrogen fixation from bacteria to crop plants, in particular cereals such as wheat, maize and rice. This would decrease the need for nitrogen fertilizers


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and increase the protein content of the crop. One of the problems encountered is that there are 17 genes responsible for the synthesis of nitrogenase.

21. What kind of biodiversity found in ground water? Ans. Groundwater animals are adapted to live in environments with no light and limited nutrients; they can provide insights into fundamental questions of evolution, ecology and biodiversity. They also have an important role to play in informing the reconstruction of past changes in geomorphology and climate, and can be used for characterising aquifers. This is important because little is known about groundwater ecosystems despite the unique contribution to biodiversity made by these animals. Groundwater organisms are also thought to provide ecosystem services by means of their role in nutrient cycling and natural remediation of pollutants in the subsurface. They may also be useful indicators of human impacts on groundwaters. Groundwater ecosystems comprise organisms that live in groundwater and generally do not exist above the ground surface (known as stygobites), organisms that can live both above and below ground (stygophiles), and organisms that occur accidentally in groundwater (stygoxenes). Stygobites generally have no eyes, elongated shapes, long appendages and lack pigmentation so are colourless or translucent. Many stygobite species are small crustaceans. The groundwater fauna comprises micro-, meio- and macro-organisms. Almost all major taxonomic groups of meiofauna encountered in surface water also occur in the groundwater. They belong to numerous invertebrate taxa such as crustaceans, the most common group found in groundwater habitats, many kinds of worms, snails and water-mites. Amongst the macroorganisms even higher taxonomic groups like species of fishes and amphibians occur in caves. True groundwater species, which fulfill their complete life cycle in the groundwater, are considered as stygobionts. 22. How moss and algae are different species? Ans. Moss and Algae look similar from the distance: patches of green plant life. To further confuse matters, some organisms with the name "moss," such as Irish moss, are in fact types of algae. However, true moss and algae are two distinct species with different characteristics. Mosses include 12,000 separate species, while algae are a group of organisms. Compartion and differences of Moss and Algae:


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• Algae belong to phylum Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, Rhodophyta or Bacillariophyta of kingdom Protoctista, whereas mosses belong to class Musci of phylum ryophyta of kingdom Plantae.

• Although algae do not have true body differentiation in to roots, stems, and leaves, mosses have somewhat differentiation in stems and leaves.

• Mosses are anchored to the ground by rhizoids and algae are anchored to the substratum by a structure known as the holdfast.

• Alternation of generations is present in mosses, and there is no alternation of generations in algae.

• Most of the algae live in marine or fresh water, whereas the mosses live in moist, shady terrestrial habitats.

• There can be unicellular algae but never unicellular mosses. 23. What is the difference between Tortoise and turtle? Ans. tortoises, turtles, and even terrapins for that matter, have numerous, and obvious similarities, there are clearly some distinct differences. Perhaps the most notable are the environments in which they all live and it the challenge of these environments that evolved each of these separate groups away from their common ancester. Even so, turtles, tortoises, and terrapins are all part of the same division of reptiles, called chelonians, and for the most part, the difference between a turtle and tortoise is more of a rough semantic category than a strict taxonomic separation. In a biological respect, a tortoise is a kind of a turtle, but not all turtles are tortoises as tortoises have their own taxonomic family, known as testudinidae. To generalise, turtles live in or near the water and have adapted to swim by holding their breath underwater. Sometimes the name 'terrapin' refers to those animals that fall somewhere between a turtle and tortoise, because they live in swampy areas or begin life underwater and eventually move to dry land. Tortoises live primarily in arid regions, built for storing their own water supply and for walking on baking, sandy ground. Turtles may live in freshwater, the ocean, or brackish ponds and marshland. Their front feet might be fins or merely webbed toes with streamlined back feet to help them swim. Turtles have flatter backs than tortoises, and may spend all or part of their lives underwater. They mate and lay eggs underwater or on the shore. Like tortoises, some turtles sun themselves on logs, rocks, or sandy banks. During cold weather, they burrow in mud and go into torpor, a state similar to hibernation. Sea turtles migrate great distances. They are more often omnivorous, eating plants, insects and fish. Tortoises live entirely above water, only wading into streams to clean themselves or to drink. In fact, they could easily drown in deep or swift current. Their feet are hard,


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scaly, and nubby so it can crawl across sharp rocks and sand. Tortoises often have claws to dig burrows, which they occupy during hot, sunny weather or during sleep. Tortoises are mostly herbivorous, eating cacti, shrubs, and other plants that have a lot of moisture. They rarely migrate. Their shell forms a rounded donme, allowing the tortoise’s limbs and head to withdraw for protection. To conclude, a summery of differences between turtles and tortoises:

Turtles primarily live in water (fresh water and oceans) and so have webbed front feet or flipper-like fins to aid swimming.

Tortoises live almost exclusively on land, and so have normal feet without webbing, often with sharp claws for digging. They only enter water to drink or wash them off, and can in fact drown in strong currents. They can often be found in arid environments.

Turtles tend to have flatter shells than tortoises, while tortoises have more of a domed shell.

Turtles can be omnivorous, eating both plants and insects. Tortoises eat only plants, leaves and other vegetationmaking them herbivorous. They especially like moisture-rich vegetationduring the height of summer.

Turtles can migrate from one place to another, swimming across entire oceans; tortoises however, tend to stay in one area.

24. What is the importance of Makhana (Euryale ferox) plant? Ans. Euryale ferox also know as foxnut, “Thangzing” in Manipuri, “Makhana” is the only speices in the genus Euryale. It is a flowring plant classified in the water lily family. It grows in water, producing bright purple flowers. The leaves are large and round, often more than a meter (3 feet) across, with a leaf stalk attached in the center of the lower surface. The underside of the leaf is purplish, while the upper surface is green. The leaves have a quilted texture, although the stems, flowers, and leaves which float on the surface are covered in sharp prickles. Other leaves are submerged. In India, Euryale normally grows in ponds, wetlands etc. Recently the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has found out a technique for the field cultivation of Euryale. Medicinal properties of makhana • It strengthens the heart and is very useful in anemia. • Makhana increases quality and quantity of semen, prevents premature

ejaculation, increases libido and helps in female infertility. • It is an important ingredient of herbal preparations used for erectile dysfunction.

It strengthens body and increases energy level. Because of its aphrodisiac properties it is grouped under vrishyadi varga.

• The herbs under this group are used in vajikarana therapy. • Makhanna increases stickiness of secretions by increasing moisture level in body.

Hence it increases quality and quantity of semen and useful in impotence.

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• It helps to increase the fertility in women and reduces vata and pitta. It strengthens the body and reduces burning sensation and quenches thirst.

• According to principles of traditional Chinese medicine fox nut or Makhana is used to strengthen spleen and kidneys.

• It is indicated in conditions like spermatorrhea, premature ejaculation, neuralgia, incontinence, chronic diarrhea etc.

• According to herbalists it is helpful in preventing early discharge of semen and restores sexual vigor in older men.( Because of this property the fox nut is categorized under Vajikarana dravyas in texts of ayurveda.)

• Makhana helps in conditions like arthritis, erectile dysfunction and premature aging. This herb has antioxidant properties and helps in digestion, rejuvenates respiratory system and prevents frequent urination.

25. How purple frog is the importance evidence of separating of Madagascar from

Indian land mass? Ans. A rare purple frog, discovered in 2003 and found only in the Western Ghats, is one of the most endangered species in the world. It has been focused upon in the run-up to the Rio+20 Earth Summit, two decades after the historic event in the same city. Prof Jonathan Baillie, scientific advisor to GLOBE -- the World Summit of Legislators -- toldrediff.com that it lies under the earth till the monsoons and is particularly susceptible to climate change, if the rains are delayed. It's a big, amazing species, and EDGE, as the Evolutionally Distinct and Globally Endangered initiative is known, is raising awareness of such species globally. Its closest relative is found in Seychelles. It was discovered by S D Biju and F Bossyut nine years ago. Its discovery also adds to the evidence that Madagascar and the Seychelles separated from the Indian landmass sometime well after the breakup of Gondwana had started. Distribution The frog was first discovered in the Idukki district of Kerala by S.D. Biju from the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute in Palode, India and Franky Bossyut from Vrije Universiteit Brussel. But the frog species was known to the local people and the earlier specimens were ignored by biologists due to misunderstanding. Earlier it was thought that this species was restricted to the Western Ghats south of the Palghat gap but new records have further extended its distribution. The genus name has been derived from a Sanskrit word Nasika meaning nose applied to the pointed nose of the frog and the word batrachus comes from a Greek word while the specific name has been derived from the local name of the mountain in the Western Ghats. The frog is a living fossil.

Ecology

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The body structure of Nasikabatrachus sayhyadrensis is built on the same plan like that of the other frogs but is somewhat more rounded and dorso-ventrally flattened when compared with other frogs. The arms and legs follow the basic pattern of anuran body plan. The head is somewhat small with a pointed snout. The color of the adults is generally dark purple. The specimens generally measure seven centimeters from the tip of the snout to the tip of the urostyle. The sound produced by this species of the frog resembles like that produced by the chicken. The frog spends most of the time underground but comes on ground only for two weeks during the monsoon season for the purpose of breeding. The unique life cycle of this species is responsible for late discovery. Unlike many other underground species that come on land for the purpose of feeding this species of frog prefers to feed on underground food materials like termites and dead leaves captured by its long, protrusible and sticky tongue. The tongue is lodged in a special buccal groove. Mating is known to occur in temporary rainwater pools by inguinal ampexus. 26. Medicinal uses of Western Himalayan Plants: Kutki and Jatamansi. Ans. The Himalayan region has a particularly high concentration of medicinal plant species that are threatened with extinction due to unsustainable harvesting. Many of these plants grow at a high altitude, where the medicinal properties are normally concentrated in the roots and rhizomes. The reason for this is most likely an evolutionary effect of having to survive the long and cold winter months under deep snow. During the remaining period of the year when the snow has melted, the temperature remains very cold and growth of the plant is slow. When the plants are harvested, the collectors normally dig up the whole plant and none is left in the ground for future growth. In most cases the rate of extraction is far greater than the ability of the plant species to regenerate. Two plant species that are under particularly high pressure from over-harvesting are Jatamansi (Nardostachys jatamansi) and Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa). Both of these plants are important ingredients in ayurvedic medicine, Jatamansi being an important nervous relaxant, kutki a liver tonic and anti-inflammatory. The useable part of both of these species is the rhizome, which is very small, weighing between 1 to 8 grams after being dried.

They both grow at high altitudes, normally between 3500 and 4200m, where there is little flora other than grass and small wind-swept shrubs nestling in the shelter of rocks and hollows. This is the natural habitat of bears, musk deer and snow leopards. Like the plants, these animals are also disappearing as human pressure on this fragile environment continues to increase.


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Traditionally these herbs would have been harvested by local people mainly for their own use. Some of the dried rhizomes would also have been traded to supply ayurvedic practitioners in the south of India.

The collectors would follow certain protocols in their collection methods that ensured that the plants were harvested in a sustainable manner.

• In Himachal Pradesh, in north-west India, the collectors would wait until a certain day called ‘bis bhadon’, when it is believed that the medicinal properties are at their most potent, before going into the mountains to collect the herbs.

• Plants that easily regenerate by seed would have been harvested only after the seed is ready, otherwise they would ensure that part of the root is left in the ground to grow again the following year.

Nowadays, unfortunately, these protocols are no longer followed. The collectors rarely use the herbs themselves; instead they have become the first link in the long chain of herb traders that make up a multi-billion dollar industry.

• Instead of waiting until ‘bis bhadon’ it has now become a race to get to the herbs and it is common to see people collecting kutki as early as June, approximately three months before ‘bis bhadon’.

• In the Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh, many of the collectors are now Nepali migrant workers, who are employed by local traders to stay in the mountains to collects herbs, sending the sun-dried rhizomes down in large sacks on the backs of mules, until they can find no more, or it is too cold to stay there any longer.

Kutki is traded in large amounts; it isestimated that annual supplies from the three main supply countries of Nepal, India and Bhutan is some 375 tonnes. Furthermore, it is estimated that at least 80% of kutki is constituted of Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora rhizomes and the remaining being from Picrorhiza kurrooa. The trade is important to a large number of rural collectors, and there appears to be scope for improving their income from sale of kutki rhizomes. There is no information on the sustainability of the trade or the impact of collection on wild populations. 27. What is the difference between Climate variablitiy and Climate change? Ans. Climate variability refers to shorter term (daily, seasonal, annual, inter-annual, several years) variations in climate, including the fluctuations associated with El Niño (dry) or La Niña (wet) events. Climate change refers to long-term (decades or longer) trends in climate averages such as the global warming that has been observed over the past century, and long-term changes in variability (e.g. in the frequency, severity and duration of extreme events).


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28. Nuclear waste – Can it be disposed of safely? Ans. In the production of power from nuclear reactor, there are several different kinds of waste produced – Low Level Wastes (LLW), Intermediate Level Wastes (ILW) and High Level Wastes (HLW). The LLW and ILW include everything from lightly contaminated equipment and fluids used within a power station, up to the dismantled reactor cores and other components. However, what people usually think of when they hear the term nuclear waste is the spent fuel – the uranium rods that have been ‘burned’ in a nuclear reactor, and the plant operator no longer wants to use. Low-level waste Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, and filters etc, which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. It does not require shielding during handling and transport and is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. It comprises some 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste. Intermediate-level waste Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some requires shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludges and metal fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. Smaller items and any non-solids may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. It makes up some 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all radwaste. High-level waste High-level waste (HLW) arises from the 'burning' of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor. HLW contains the fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and hot, so requires cooling and shielding. It can be considered as the 'ash' from 'burning' uranium. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of electricity generation. There are two distinct kinds of HLW:

• Used fuel itself. • Separated waste from reprocessing the used fuel.

HLW has both long-lived and short-lived components, depending on the length of time it will take for the radioactivity of particular radionuclides to decrease to levels that are considered no longer hazardous for people and the surrounding environment.

If generally short-lived fission products can be separated from long-lived actinides, this distinction becomes important in management and disposal of HLW.

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29. How the Chaotic pendulum structure built up? Describe its working,its functions and its application.

Ans. A double pendulum is a simple mechanical device which exhibits chaotic motion. The double pendulum is particularly interesting because compared with many other chaotic systems (like the weather) it is extremely simple. A double pendulum is made up from two arms which are connected to each other. The first arm or pendulum is connected to the wall or a solid structure through a bearing set and the second arm or pendulum is connected to the first one through another bearing set. When you spin this system the arms rotate exhibiting chaotic motion. A chaotic pendulum is truly fascinating to watch. Set up Chaotic Pendulum The chaotic pendulums are easy to install. It requires a Philips screwdriver and a suitable solid wall to attach it to with the three supplied screws. It should take about 5 minutes to do it properly. Universities often find the alternative direct mounting option useful. To direct mount into a steel beam an additional bolt and spacer is supplied. Drill and tap an M6x8mm hole into the steel beam or structure and attach the pendulum directly to the steel beam using the supplied hex tool. Teaching Chaos with a Pendulum to Greek SecondarySchool In this paper we report on how a commercial “Chaos pendulum system” was used toteach aspects of chaos theory to Greek upper secondary school students. The principal aim of this project was to investigate to what extent students can develop an understanding of the chaotic behavior using representations in the phase space. The didactical methodology used was that of the “Physics Workshop” where students follow adiscovery type laboratory course with detailed lab worksheets and are guided to the study of chaotic motion starting from observations of the oscillation of a simple physical pendulum. Interesting conclusions concerning students’ ability in using the technology associated with themicrocomputer based laboratory (MBL), the development of a qualitative understanding of thechaotic behaviour using the representation in the phase space and in interpreting graphs can bedrawn from the analysis of their recorded answers. The study of non-linear systems has become a major area of research in science as well asin philosophy. This research has led to a shift in the emphasis concerning fundamentalscientific – philosophical concepts such as 'Determinism', 'Predictability', 'Causality', and‘Chance’. There are systems; the chaotic pendulum is one of them, which are very ‘sensitive’ tosmall changes in the initial conditions when the process is running. Subtle changes of theinitial parameters lead to a large deviation in the path followed so that detailed predictionof the system's behavior is not possible. Despite the irregular behavior of the system inthe representation of the movement in the phase space a characteristic structure emergesindicating a kind of order.


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A number of non-linear systems develop complex self-organizing structures. Self-organizing structures as well as structures that appear in the phase space could bedescribed by the model of fractals. In this sense, chaos, self-organisation and fractals areintimately linked. From an educational point of view this new domain has important contribution toscientific literacy by developing a more adequate worldview and a more relevant viewconcerning the nature of science. More specifically, teachingnon-linearity to students makes them understand that the mechanistic worldview has been challenged; the physical world is not governed by simple deterministic laws leading tocomplete predictability, that causality and chance are an integral part of physical reality. 30. What is the difference between Tortoise and turtle? Ans. The term “crocodilians” refers to all members of the Family Crocodylidae (“true” crocodiles), Family Alligatoridae (alligators and caimans) and Family Gavialidae (gharial). In contrast, the term “crocodiles” refers only to the "true" crocodiles. The main criteria used to distinguish members of the three crocodilian Families are associated with the head, particularly the jaws and skull. The skull and jaws of all crocodilians function identically, and are composed of the same suite of bones. But there is variation in the extent to which different bones compose certain structures. Fortunately, there are some external characteristics of the head that allow members of the three Families to be distinguished.

Alligators and caimans

Alligatorids tend to have broad snouts, which are often referred to as being "shovel-shaped". The upper jaw is so broad that when the jaws are closed many of the teeth of the lower jaw fit into sockets along the edge of the expanded upper jaw.

In all crocodilians the 4th tooth back from the front, on the lower jaw, is greatly enlarged. In the alligators and caimans, this tooth fits into a socket in the upper jaw when the jaws are closed, such that its tip is hidden.

There are seven extant alligatorid species, divided amongst four genera (Alligator, Caiman, Melanosuchus, and Palpebrosus). When people talk about "alligators", they are referring to the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).


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"True" crocodiles

The upper jaw of "true" crocodiles is not as broad as that of alligators and caimans. Furthermore, it is sharply constricted or notched on the snout. In contrast to alligators and caimans, when "true" crocodiles close their jaws the enlarged 4th tooth on the lower jaw rests in that notch, and its tip is clearly visible. This is a major distinction between "true" crocodiles and alligators and caimans.

Gharials

The Gharial has a greatly elongated snout. This elongation has been achieved more by compacting the cranial part of the skull, at the rear, than by elongation of the whole head. Thus, the head length of a 3 m long Gharial is not very different from the head length of a Saltwater Crocodile of the same total length - Gharials simply have a far greater proportion of the head allocated to snout.

31. Why is the Malabar whistling thursh called as whistling school boy? Ans. The Malabar whistling thrush is also known as whistling schoolboy (Myophonus horsfieldii). It is called the Whistling schoolboy because of the human quality in their whistling call. Though it belongs to the Turdidae thrush family, it is unique because of its whistling capacity. The species is a resident in the Western Ghatsand associated hills of peninsular India including central India and parts of the Eastern Ghats. 32. What is Black hole and facts? Ans. Black holes are the cold remnants of former stars, so dense that no matter—not even light—is able to escape their powerful gravitational pull. While most stars end up as white dwarfs or neutron stars, black holes are the last evolutionary stage in the lifetimes of enormous stars that had been at least 10 or 15 times as massive as our own sun. When giant stars reach the final stages of their lives they often detonate in cataclysms known as supernovae. Such an explosion scatters most of a star into the void of space but leaves behind a large "cold" remnant on which fusion no longer takes place.




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Black holes emit x-ray radiation and get smaller and smaller until they disappear, or "evaporate". Most black holes are formed from the death of large stars (larger than the sun) that run out of fuel and cannot sustain its nuclear reaction. The star loses the force pushing itself outward and is overcome by the force of its own gravity pulling inward. Eventually, the star has so much gravity and is so compacted that it "eats itself" until there is nothing left but a hole in the "fabric" of space-time, created by the gravity left over from the star. The gravity around the "hole" of a black hole is so strong that NOTHING can make its way back out after a critical distance. Interesting Facts

In the strictest and most exact sense, there are currently 14 known black holes. The known closest black hole to Earth is Cygnus X-1, located about 8000 light years away. Although black holes have a strong suction force, they may only suck up what crosses their event horizons, and, therefore, are not capable of absorbing the whole universe.

In theory, any matter can become black holes, as long as they are compressed to zero volume and thus, yielding infinite density. However, only the largest of stars have cores capable with the gravitational force to compress the star to the Schwarzschild radius. Most others star without this gravitational force end up as neutron stars and white dwarfs.

Although whiteholes are mathematically possible, there have yet to be observations to prove their existence.

Black holes can suck up other black holes when they come in close proximity. Usually the larger one will suck up the smaller one. Depending on the size of the matter that is making up the black holes, the size of the black hole created will differ. Direct collisions between black holes are rare, as black holes are very small for their mass. Black holes may also merge.

The center of a black hole, the singularity, is the point where the laws of physics break down. These singularities are hidden, or 'clothed' by the black hole, so that the effects of the breakdown cannot be observed by people outside.

At the center of a black hole, spacetime has infinite curvature and matter is crushed to infinite density under the pull of 'infinite' gravity. At a singularity, space and time cease to exist as we know them. The laws of physics as we know them break down at a singularity, thus, making it impossible to envision something with zero volume and infinite density, such qualities of a black hole.

By using the correct equations for motion, it can be predicted that near a black hole, an object on a radial path will have a velocity approaching the speed. This occurs as the object approches the event horizon.

Stars are powered by nuclear fuel; most stars use hydrogen. The larger a star is, the faster it will use up its fuel, and thus, the sooner it "dies". If the stars are large enough, however, then the gravitational pull will crush the star to 'zero volume', or in the Schwarzschild radius. This forms a black hole.

As black holes, age, they gain more mass, as they suck in more matter.

A black hole cannot be viewed directly because light cannot escape it. However, matter swirling around a black hole, usually gas and dust, heats up and emits radiation that can be detected. However, deep in the center of a supermassive black hole, stars can also be found.


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On February 1997, the Hubble Space Telescope had a new instrument installed. Called the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), this equipment is the main black hole seeker on the telescope. A spectrograph splits any incoming light using prisms and diffraction gratings into a rainbow. The STIS can measure ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths, allowing it to capture a wide range of places at once.

The placement and intensity of the spectrum gives indispensable information to scientists. Every spectrum can be analyzed to find out the speed of which stars and gas swirl at a certain location. From this information, the mass of the object that the stars are orbiting can be found. A massive central object is found if the stars swirl quickly.

33. Facts about Russel viper snake. Ans. Indian Russell's viper is known by a number of other names, like Daboia, Tic Polonga, etc. A highly poisonous snake of the Viperidae family, it is scientifically known as Vipera russelli. Russell's viper is responsible for most of the snakebite deaths within its habitat. It is light brown in color and is covered with three rows of dark brown or black splotches, bordered with white or yellow. Physical Characteristics Russell's viper grows to a length of 1 to 1.5 m. Its head is long and triangular, with large, prominent nostrils on each side of the snout. The fangs of the snake are large, while its tail is quite small. The length of the snout-vent is 1025 to 1080 mm, while that of the tail is 212 to 225 mm. The color of the Russells Viper of India may be dark brown, brownish-yellow or brownish-gray, with black or brown oval spots edged with black/white. The young vipers are clear orange to brownish-orange in color. There are rows of oval spots along both the sides of the body and the tail is striped. The belly of Russels Viper is pinkish-brown or whitish in color with black spots, which start becoming darker towards the tail. The top portion of the head has three separate semi triangular spots, which form a triangle with the vertex between the eyes. There is also a dark band running diagonally from the eye to the corner of the mouth. The dorsum is light yellowish brown to sandy brown in color and has chestnut blotches. At the base of the head is a pair of dark sports and the snout is adorned with a light V-shaped canthal mark. Characteristics Russell's viper is responsible for the more deaths due to snakebite than any other venomous snake. It is highly irritable and when threatened, coils tightly, hisses, and strikes with a lightning speed. Its hemotoxic venom is a very potent coagulant, which damages tissue as well as blood cells. Natural Habitat The habitat of the Russels Viper stretches from Indian farmlands to dense rain forests. It is usually found near human settlements.


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Geographical Range Russells Viper can be found in India, Sri Lanka, China, Taiwan, Borneo, Malaysian Peninsula, Java and Sumatra.

Local Name : Koriwala

Scientific Name : Vipera russelli

Family : Viperidae

Genus : Daboia

Length : 1 m to 1.5 m

Length of the Snout-vent : 1025 mm to 1080 mm

Tail Length : 212 mm to 225 mm

34. Facts about Ashwagandha. Ans. Ashwagandha is an Indian herb which is also called Ayurvedic ginseng. The roots of the ashwagandha shrub were traditionally used to boost the immune system after illness and to treat inflammatory and infectious disease.

It is also known as "winter cherry" and "Ayurvedic ginseng" in English. Other names for Ashwagandha are Withania somnifera, red ginseng. Plant Description: The Ashwaganda plant is an evergreen perennial shrub which is usually found in the arid parts of India and has been found as far west as Israel.

It sometimes grows as tall as seven feet and looks similar to a large potato plant. Although different parts of the plant have been used for medicinal purposes, the root is the primary source. The Latin name for the plant literally means "sweat of a horse" because the root smells like a damp horse. Medicinal Properties & Uses: Ashwaganda is considered to be astringent, sedative, aphrodisiac, antibiotic, antiviral and diuretic.

It is often used internally for indigestion, heart disease, arthritis, back pain, and fevers. Ashwaganda has also been effective in relieving insomnia, convalescence, nervous exhaustion, and impotence. In the cases of mental health, Ashwaganda helps to prevent mental exhaustion in those who extend their energies more than they replenish, and also aids in recovery for those who have already exhausted themselves.

Ashwagandha is an Indian herb which is also called Ayurvedic ginseng. The roots of the ashwagandha shrub were traditionally used to boost the immune system after illness and to treat inflammatory and infectious disease. It is also known as "winter cherry" and "Ayurvedic ginseng" in English. Other names for Ashwagandha are Withania somnifera, red ginseng.

The Ashwaganda plant is an evergreen perennial shrub which is usually found in the arid parts of India and has been found as far west as Israel. It sometimes grows as tall as seven feet and looks similar to a large potato plant. Although different parts of the plant have been used for medicinal purposes, the root is the primary source. The Latin name for the plant literally means "sweat of a horse" because the root smells like a damp horse.

http://www.nutros.net/nsr-0204n.html


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Medicinal Properties & Uses: Ashwaganda is considered to be astringent, sedative, aphrodisiac, antibiotic, antiviral and diuretic. It is often used internally for indigestion, heart disease, arthritis, back pain, and fevers. Ashwaganda has also been effective in relieving insomnia, convalescence, nervous exhaustion, and impotence. In the cases of mental health, Ashwaganda helps to prevent mental exhaustion in those who extend their energies more than they replenish, and also aids in recovery for those who have already exhausted themselves. Ashwagandha is a member of the Solanaceae, or nightshade, family of plants, which grows in India and North America. This evergreen shrub has long tuberous roots and small yellowish green flowers with round fruit that turns orange when ripe. The roots are most commonly used to make supplements, though the entire plant can be used medicinally. Ashwagandha is mistakenly called Ayurvedic ginseng because it has many of the same uses as ginseng in China. What's interesting is that ashwagandha is still being used today in the same way for the same reasons it's been used for centuries. Health benefits of Ashwagandha: In the Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine, ashwagandha is used to boost energy and vitality and is called a “vitalizer”. Because of its potential to improve learning and memory, it's used widely by seniors. The young plant shoots and seeds are used as food and to thicken milk. Ashwagandha is known to:

Boost strength

Increase stamina

Relieve fatigue

Enhance sexual energy and rejuvenate the body

Strengthen the immune system

Speed up a recovery from a chronic illness

Can even be used on children to help them recover from an illness

Soothes and calms your mind without making you drowsy

Clarifies your mind and improves memory

Even can slow the aging process

It is used to relieve pain and inflammation (including arthritis)

Ashwagandha is also used to fight infectious diseases, fevers, and even tumors.

Researchindicates that Ashwagandha may be useful in the treatment of many ailments. This great Indian herb is known for curing many symptoms including:

Depression

Anxiety

Arthritis & rheumatism

Asthma & Bronchitis

Cancer

Chronic fatigue syndrome

Colds

Anemia

Diarrhea

Hay fever

Nausea

Hemorrhoids

Hypertension


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Ashwagandha preparations are made from the roots and leaves of Withania somnifera, which is a small shrub in the nightshade (Solanaceae) family. The seeds and shoots have all been used as well. It grows prolifically in the arid highlands of Himalayan India as well as in parts of northern Africa and the Middle East. 35. What is the meaning of Abiotic and biogeography? Ans. Abiotic refers to soil, water and climate, the non-living factors that determine the ecology and biodiversity of a location. Biogeography refers to the division of the landmass into natural units, depending on the ensemble of living systems. These are in turn influenced by the abiotic factors. 36. Mega Biodiveristy Countries. Ans. Biodiversity is not equally distributed all over the globe. Certain countries are characterized by high species richness and more number of endemic species. These countries are known as Mega biodiversity countries. Twelve such countries have been identified. Together, these countries harbour 60- 70% of the world's recorded biodiversity. These countries are: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Madagascar, Zaire, Australia, China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia. India is one of the 12-mega biodiversity countries of the world. With only 2.4% of the land area, India already accounts for 7-8% of the recorded species of the world. Over 46,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals have been recorded in the country so far by the Botanical Survey of India, and the Zoological Survey of India, respectively. India is an acknowledged centre of crop diversity, and harbours many wild relatives and breeds of domesticated animals. 37. Why is the Aral Sea shrinking? Ans. Since 1960, when the Aral Sea was the world's fourth largest lake, the Aral Sea has lost 75% of its water volume. This loss is due to the agricultural diversion of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers, the Aral's main sources of inflowing water. The Aral Sea is bounded byKazakhstan on the north and Uzbekistan on the south. The decrease in water level has led to severe environmental and salt problems which have changed the climate around the sea, resulted in dust storms that spread disease, and the deaths of many species in the salty lake. 38. Which country's highest elevation is the world’s lowest? Ans. The Indian Ocean island nation of Maldives has the world's lowest maximum elevation for a country. The country, composed of 19 clusters of atolls, has a maximum elevation of eight feet. As one can imagine, Maldives is very concerned about any possible rise in global sea level. 39. Why Travelling at light speed is so impossible? Ans. Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity is the key to understanding this particular question. Any reference on the subject will have some discussion on this. Briefly, to make an object accelerate from rest to any speed, we must expend some energy by using a rocket engine, say.

http://geography.about.com/library/maps/blkazakhstan.htm

http://geography.about.com/library/maps/bluzbekistan.htm

http://geography.about.com/library/maps/blmaldives.htm


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For low speeds; much less than the speed of light --- 186,000 miles per second; all all humans have traveled only at very slow speeds compared to that of light, an increase in the energy expended results in a reasonable increase in the speed of the object. However, as the SR theory says, when the object is traveling at very large speeds (= a considerable fraction of the speed of light), then an additional expenditure of energy will not result in as large an increase in speed as it would have at lower speeds. In other words, we have to expend quite a bit of energy to increase the speed by only a little bit, if the rocket ship is already traveling fast. If the rocket ship is traveling at 95% of the speed of light, a trememdous amount of energy will be necessary to make it travel at 96% the speed of light. In trying to make it travel at the speed of light, we would need to expend an infinite amount of energy --- in other words, we can't make it travel at the speed of light. Now, every space ship, or other plane, etc., has traveled at a speed very small compared to light, so you might be wondering how we know the Special Relativity Theory is correct (why should we believe it without evidence?). Although, we have never made any large object (like a space ship) travel at a considerable fraction of light speed, experimental particle physicists are constantly making electrons and the like travel at speeds like 99% of the speed of light in particle accelerators. These accelerators only work properly because they are constructed obeying the laws of Special Relativity. To make the electrons accelerate, when they are already at 90% of the speed of light, does indeed take quite a bit more energy than would a comparable speed change when they are only moving at 10% of the speed of light. Special Relativity theory appears correct, in detail, even under the extreme speed conditions of a particle accelerator. 40. Why do some stars end up as black holes? Ans. The answer involves the gravity and the internal pressure within the star. These two things oppose each other -- the gravitational force of the star acting on a chunk of matter at the star's surface will want to cause that matter to fall inward, but the internal pressure of the star, acting outward at the surface, will want to cause the matter to fly outward. When these two are balanced (i.e., equal in strength) the star will maintain its size: neither collapse not expand. Such is the case for the Sun at the moment, and even, for that matter, for the Earth. However, when a star runs out of nuclear fuel, and therefore continues to lose energy from the surface (it is emitting light energy), while not replacing the lost energy through nuclear fusion (no more nuclear fuel), gravity will win out over internal pressure and the star will contract slowly or collapse quickly depending upon the details of the internal structure and composition. Gravity wins out over the internal pressure of the star, because that pressure was produced by a normal, hot gas, and that gas is losing energy as the star radiates energy from the surface.


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The star may thus end up as a black hole. It just depends upon whether or not the collapse is stopped at some smaller size once another source of pressure (other than what is produced by a normal, hot gas) can become sufficiently strong to balance the inward gravitational force. There are other forms of pressure besides that produced by a hot gas. Pressing your hand upon a desk top will let you experience one of these other pressures --- the desk pushes up against you, indeed it can support your weight (gravitational force)! The pressure that keeps the desk rigid against your weight is caused by forces between the atoms in the desk. Furthermore, electrons within atoms must avoid each other (for example, they cannot all be in the same atomic "orbit" --- this is called "the exclusion principle"). Therefore, if we had a collection of freely moving electrons they would also avoid each other: the harder you compress the collection (the smaller the volume they are confined in) the more they rebel against the squeeze --- a pressure opposes your confinement of the electrons. This "electron avoidance" pressure can only become strong enough to oppose the gravitational forces within a star of about the mass of the Sun when the star is compressed by gravity to about the diameter of the Earth. Thus a star as massive as the Sun can be prevented from becoming a black hole when it collapses to the size of the Earth, and the internal "electron avoidance" pressure (called the "degenerate electron pressure") becomes strong enough to hold the star up. This sort of pressure does not depend upon the energy content of the star ---- even if the star continues to lose energy from its surface, the pressure will continue to hold the star up. Our Sun can never become a black hole. However, if the star is more massive than something like 3 to 5 solar masses, its gravitational forces will be larger, and its internal degenerate electron pressure will never be sufficient to stop its collapse. It turns out that neutrons can also obey the exclusion principle and neutrons will be produced in abundance when a massive star collpses, but even neutron degeneracy cannot stop the collapse of massive stars --- anything over 3 to 5 solar masses cannot be stopped, it will become a black hole according to current thinking. 41. What is God Particle anyway and why is this important? Ans. School physics teaches that everything is made up of atoms, and inside atoms are electrons, protons and neutrons. They, in turn, are made of quarks and other subatomic particles. Scientists have long puzzled over how these minute building blocks of the universe acquire mass. Without mass, particles wouldn't hold together and there would be no matter.

One theory proposed by British physicist Peter Higgs and teams in Belgium and the United States in the 1960s is that a new particle must be creating a "sticky" field that acts as a drag on other particles. The atom-smashing experiments at CERN, the European Center for Nuclear Research, have now captured a glimpse of what appears to be just such a Higgs-like particle.


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Importance The Higgs is part of many theoretical equations underpinning scientists' understanding of how the world came into being. If it doesn't exist, then those theories would need to be fundamentally overhauled. The fact that it apparently does exist means scientists have been on the right track with their theories. But there's a twist: the measurements seem to diverge slightly from what would be expected under the so-called Standard Model of particle physics. This is exciting for scientists because it opens the possibility to potential new discoveries including a theory known as "super-symmetry" where particles don't just come in pairs — think matter and anti-matter — but quadruplets, all with slightly different characteristics. 42. What is the “Building blocks” of genetics and how does it build up? Ans. A cell is the individual unit from which tissues of the body are formed DNA is the double-stranded molecule that encodes genetic information in the nucleus of cells. A DNA strand is composed of four different nucleotides or base pairs (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymidine). It determines the structure, function and behavior of the cell. In animals and plants, long strands of DNA are arranged into structures called chromosomes. Genes are sometimes known as the physical unit of heredity. Genes are formed from DNA, carried on the chromosomes and are responsible for the inherited characteristics that distinguish one individual from another. Each human individual has an estimated 30,000 separate genes.Chromosomes are the self-replicating genetic structures of cells. They contain the cellular DNA that bears in its nucleotide sequence the linear array of genes. RNA is the single-stranded molecule that is transcribed from DNA and ultimately translated into a chain of amino acids that form a protein. Proteins are the principal constituents of the protoplasm of all cells. Each protein has a unique, genetically defined amino acid sequence that determines its specific shape and function. A genome is the total set of genes carried by an individual or cell. The human genome consists of approximately 3 billion base pairs. By contrast, the genome of mouse contains approximately 2.5 billion base pairs while that of a fruit fly is approximately 0.2 billion base pairs. While each cell contains a full complement of DNA, a normal cell activates just the genes it needs at the moment and actively suppresses the rest. Some genes enable cells to make proteins needed for basic functions, some play a role in early development of the embryo and are then shut down forever, and many encode proteins that are unique to a particular kind of cell and that give the cell its character - making a brain cell, say, different from a bone cell. 43. What is cloning and stem cell? Ans. Cloning simply means making copies of a single molecule, cell, virus or bacterium. There are many different kinds of cloning, most of which are commonly used medical tools.


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Over the last decade, various types of cloning have allowed scientists and researchers to: Develop powerful new drugs Produce insulin and useful bacteria in the lab Track the origins of biological weapons Catch criminals and free innocent people

Human reproductive cloning aims to create human beings by cloning human embryos. Almost all patient advocacy groups and leading science organizations, including the National Academy of Sciences, agree that human reproductive cloning should not be pursued. Human therapeutic cloning involves the cloning of human embryos for the purpose of extracting stem cells that can be used to repair tissues and organs. Unlike reproductive cloning, embryos for therapeutic cloning are grown in laboratory cultures and are not implanted in the female reproductive tract. Stem Cell A stem cell is an immature cell that has the potential to become specialized into different types of cells throughout the body. There are two basic types of stem cells: adult stems cells and embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are produced when a newly fertilized egg begins to divide. These stem cells can become any type of cell in the body. Adult stem cells – somewhat of a misnomer because they can also be found in infants and children – are stem cells that reside in already developed tissue. These stem cells act like a repair system, dividing regularly to provide the new body with specialized cells to take the place of those that die or are lost. Common adult stem cells are nerve, blood, muscle, skin and bone. 44. Why not all substances are water-soluble? Ans. Polarity determines if a substance is water-soluble. A polair substance is a substance that has two kinds of 'poles', as in a magnet. When another substance is also polair the poles of the substances attract each other and as a result the substances mix. A substance then dissolves in water. Substance that contain no ‘poles’ are called apolair substances. Oil for instance is an apolair substance, which is why oil does not dissolve in water. Due to its smaller density it floats on water, just like ice. 45. Which physical and chemical properties does water have? Ans. There are several different physical and chemical properties, which are often used alternately. Physical Properties: Density: The density of water means the weight of a certain amount of water. It is usually expressed in kilograms per cubic metre.


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Thermal properties: This refers to what happens to water when it is heated; at which temperature it becomes gaseous and that sort of thing. Conductivity: This means the amount of electricity that water can conduct. It is expressed in a chemical magnitude. Viscosity: This means the syrupiness of water and it determines the mobility of water. When the temperature rises, the viscosity degrades; this means that water will be more mobile at higher temperatures. Chemical Properites: Light absorption: This is the amount of light a certain amount of water can absorb over time. The pH: The pH has its own scale, running up from 1 to 14. The pH shows whether a substance is acid (pH 1-6), neutral (pH 7) or basic (pH 8-14). The number of hydrogen atoms in the substance determines the pH. The more hydrogen atoms a substance contains, the lower the pH will be. A substance that contains many hydrogen atoms is acid. We can measure the pH by dipping a special colouring paper in the substance, the colours shows which pH the substance has. Alkalinity: This is the capacity of water to neutralize an acid or a base, so that the pH of the water will not change. 46. Human Body amazing facts. Ans. A newborn baby has 350 bones, but a fully-grown adult has only 206.

Blood is a liquid organ. Everyone is colorblind at birth.

Our lungs inhale over two million liters of air every day, without even thinking. The surface area of the lungs is approximately the same size as a tennis court.

Food will get to your stomach even if you're standing on your head. Skin is the largest body organ. The average adult is made up of 100 trillion cells.

There are more bacteria in your body than the number of cells in your body. There are an estimated 75 to 100 trillion cells in the human body.

Our brain is more complex than the most powerful computer and has over 100 billion nerve cells. Capillaries are so small that red blood cells can only travel through them in single file.

The cornea, the outermost layer of the eye, is the only living tissue in the human body without blood vessels? It receives nutrients from tears and from the aqueous humor.

Each cell in your body has an estimated 6 to 8 feet of DNA. Research has shown that guilt damages your immune system by lowering your immunoglobulin levels.

The total length of your circulatory system stretches an amazing 60,000 miles. That is more than twice the distance around the Earth.


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In one square inch of skin there are four yards of nerve fibers, 600 pain sensors, 1300 nerve cells, 9000 nerve endings, 36 heat sensors, 75 pressure sensors, 100 sweat glands, 3 million cells, and 3 yards of blood vessels.

Except for your brain cells, 50,000,000 of the cells in your body will have died and been replaced with others, all while you have been reading this sentence.

Your heart beats about 100,000 times in one day and about 40,000,000 times a year. In one hour the heart works hard enough to produce enough energy to raise almost one ton of weight one yard from the ground.

The liver is often called the body's chemical factory. Scientists have counted over 500 liver functions.

The central nervous system is connected to every part of the body by 43 pairs of nerves. Twelve pairs go to and from the brain, with 31 pairs going from the spinal cord. There are nearly 45 miles of nerves running through our bodies.

Messages travel along the nerves as electrical impulses. They travel at speeds up to 248 mile per hour.

The central nervous system is the master system of all functions within your body and has a reciprocal Neurophysiologic relationship with the Acupressure Meridian and Chakra (Emotional Energy Centers) Systems of energetic function within your being. Subluxations in your spine, cranium and extremities, interfere with the flow of nerve impulse energy information and acupressure meridian energy within your body.

The aorta, the largest artery in the body, is almost the diameter of a garden hose. Capillaries, on the other hand, are so small that it takes ten of them to equal the thickness of a human hair.

47. How many diseases are yet uncurreable? Ans. Listead below 10 most diseases are uncurreable till date.

The common cold

Cancer

Asthma

HIV/AIDS

Diabetes

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

Influenza

Lupus Erythematosus

Polio

Ebola

48. What is Radiation and how can exposure occur? Ans. Radiation is a form of energy that is naturally present all around us. Different types of radiation exist, some of which have more energy than others. Radioactive material is a substance that gives off radiation. Amounts of radioactive material released into the environment are measured in units called curies. However, the dose of radiation that a person receives is measured in units called rem.


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People are exposed to small amounts of radiation every day, both from naturally occurring sources (such as elements in the soil or cosmic rays from the sun), and man-made sources. Man-made sources include some electronic equipment (such as older television sets), medical sources (such as x-rays, certain diagnostic tests, and treatments), and from nuclear weapons testing.

The amount of radiation from natural or man-made sources to which people are exposed is usually small; a radiation emergency (such as a nuclear power plant accident or a terrorist event) could expose people to small or large doses of radiation, depending on the severity of the incident.

Scientists estimate that the average person in the United States receives a dose of about two-thirds of a rem per year. About 50% of human exposure comes from natural sources and the remaining 50% primarily comes from medical radiation exposures.

Contamination refers to radioactive material that is deposited anywhere that they are not supposed to be, such as on an object or on a person’s skin.

Internal contamination refers to radioactive material that is taken into the body through breathing, eating, drinking, or open wounds.

Exposure occurs when radiation energy penetrates the body. For example, when a person has an x-ray, he or she is exposed to radiation but they are not radioactive.

Radiation Effects:

Radiation can affect the body in a number of ways, and the adverse health effects of exposure may not be apparent for many years.

These adverse health effects can range from mild effects, such as skin reddening, to serious effects such as cancer and death, depending on the amount of radiation absorbed by the body (the dose), the type of radiation, the route of exposure, and the length of time a person was exposed.

Exposure to very large doses of radiation may cause death within a few days or months.

Exposure to lower doses of radiation may lead to an increased risk of developing cancer or other adverse health effects later in life.

49. What is Radiotherapy? Ans. Radiation therapy, or radiotherapy, is the use of various forms of radiation to safely and effectively treat cancer and other diseases. Radiation oncologists may use radiation to cure cancer, to control the growth of the cancer or to relieve symptoms, such as pain. Radiation therapy works by damaging cells. Normal cells are able to repair themselves, whereas cancer cells cannot. New techniques also allow doctors to better target the radiation to protect healthy cells.

Sometimes radiation therapy is the only treatment a patient needs. At other times, it is only one part of a patient’s treatment. For example, prostate and larynx cancer are often treated with radiotherapy alone, while a woman with breast cancer may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy.


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Radiation may also be used to make your primary treatment more effective. For example, you can be treated with radiation therapy before surgery to help shrink the cancer and allow less extensive surgery than would otherwise be needed; or you may be treated with radiation after surgery to destroy small amounts of cancer that may have been left behind. A radiation oncologist may choose to use radiation therapy in a number of different ways. Sometimes the goal is to cure the cancer. In this case, radiation therapy may be used to:

Destroy tumors that have not spread to other parts of your body. Reduce the risk that cancer will return after you undergo surgery or

chemotherapy by killing small amounts of cancer that might remain.

Sometimes, the overall goal is to slow down the cancer as much as possible. In other cases, the goal is to reduce the symptoms caused by growing tumors and to improve your quality of life. When radiation therapy is administered for this purpose, it is called palliative care or palliation. In this instance, radiation may be used to:

Shrink tumors that are interfering with your quality of life, such as a lung tumor that is causing shortness of breath.

Relieve pain by reducing the size of your tumor.

50. What are the different Kinds of Radiation? Ans. The goal of radiation therapy is to get enough radiation into the body to kill the cancer cells while preventing damage to healthy tissue. There are several ways to do this. Depending on the location, size and type of cancer, the patient may receive one or a combination of techniques. The treatment team can guide to decide which treatment is suitable as per the diseases. Radiation therapy can be delivered in two ways, externally and internally. During external beam radiation therapy, the radiation oncology team uses a machine to direct high-energy X-rays at the cancer. Internal radiation therapy, or brachytherapy, involves placing radioactive sources (for example, radioactive seeds) inside the human body.


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References www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_India www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_of_India www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot www.scienceworld.wolfram.com www.indiabiodiversity.org www.biodiversityofindia.org www.nbaindia.org www.pcra.org www.indiaclimateportal.org www.environment.about.com www.environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming

Informative books for Biodiversity 1. The Blind Watchmaker by Richard Dawkins

2. The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins

3. Biodiversity: A Beginner's Guide (Beginners Guide (One world)) by John I. Spicer (Oct 10, 2006)

4. Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity by Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein (Jun 2, 2008)

5. Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing: An Ecological and Economic Perspective by Shahid Naeem, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector and Michel Loreau (Sep 28, 2009)

6. Climate Change and Biodiversity by Thomas E. Lovejoy and Lee Hannah (Aug 10, 2006)

7. Kentucky's Natural Heritage: An Illustrated Guide to Biodiversity by Greg Abernathy, Deborah White, Ellis L. Laudermilk and Marc Evans (Sep 1, 2010)

8. Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History (Foundations of Human Behavior) by Jonathan Marks (Dec 31, 1995)

9. An overview of Species Conservation Strategic Planning (SCSP) 10. The Variety of Life by Colin Tudge

Disclaimer

The document has been compiled from various sources, for educational purpose only. Not intended for commercial use.

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_India

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_of_India

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot

http://www.scienceworld.wolfram.com/

http://www.indiabiodiversity.org/

http://www.biodiversityofindia.org/

http://www.nbaindia.org/

http://www.pcra.org/

http://www.indiaclimateportal.org/

http://www.environment.about.com/

http://www.environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming

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