ANNEX 1

Draft report on desk review organic waste treatment in Vietnam

Vietnam Solid Waste Management General

Given Vietnam’s rapid urbanization due to consistently strong economic growth over the past several years, with this growth, it is anticipated that MSW generation will increase to over 23 million metric tons in 2010, and that the types of waste produced will continue to undergo a change from more degradable to less degradable and more hazardous. In the Law on Environmental Protection (2005) defines wastes as materials that take solid, liquid, gaseous, or other forms, are discharged from production, service, daily life or other activities (Decree No. 59/2007/ND-CP Solid Waste Management, 2007). This includes non-hazardous and hazardous solid waste. Because there is no official definition of MSW, it is not clear whether MSW is includes domestic waste only or both domestic and industrial waste, and non-hazardous only or both non-hazardous and hazardous waste.

In a recent national survey conducted by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE), nearly 70 percent of Vietnamese municipalities identified solid waste managements one of their top environmental priorities.

The government of Vietnam has approved the waste management strategy outlining specific plans to 2025 (Decision 2149 dated 17/12, 2009, QĐ Thủ Tướng số 2149 ng{y 17/12, 2009). The plan states that any organization or individual releasing waste that causes pollution must pay for damages. By 2025, the government aims for developments of solid waste recycling plant in all cities for households to dispose and treat their waste. In addition, to control pollution, 100% of solid waste from urban areas and toxic and non-toxic industrial solid waste will be collected and treated. Besides, 90% of construction solid waste and rural residential solid waste also aimed to be collected and treated.

Key stakeholders involved in MSW management in Vietnam include:

• Urban environment companies (URENCOs) as key players in MSW collection, treatment and disposal.

• Ministry of Construction responsible for planning and construction of treatment and disposal facilities.

• Ministry and provincial department of Natural Resources and Environment responsible for environmental issues in general.

Waste handling in Vietnam, including collection, treatment and disposal is mainly carried out by URENCOs, which are responsible for the collection and disposal of municipal waste, including domestic, institutional, and in most cases also industrial and healthcare waste. Although there have been significant improvements by URENCOs in handling waste, most of the MSW in Vietnam is not safely disposed. The dominant form of disposal of municipal waste remains open dumping. In many areas, self disposal methods - such as burning or burying waste, or dumping in rivers, canals, and open fields - is common.

Recycling and reuse industries in Vietnam are driven by an informal network of waste pickers at landfills, informal waste collectors, and waste buyers. The market for

recyclables has a large potential for expansion. Thirty two percent of the municipal waste currently placed in disposal sites in urban areas in Vietnam (2.1 million metric tons per year) consists of commercially recyclable materials such as paper, plastic, metal, and glass. It is estimated that approximately only 20 percent of the municipal waste in Hanoi is recycled. For municipal waste, the government should consider subsidizing recycling and treatment facilities, as this will build up municipal capacity to recycle wastes. MONRE decision 03/2004, allowing for the import of waste as materials for domestic production, has facilitated the local recycling business to tap recyclable materials from the Southeast Asian region (US Commercial Service, 2008).

Investment in solid waste treatment Vietnam has projected that for:

Municipal waste generation will be (Decision 2149 dated 17/12) 21 million tons in 2010 and 42 million tons in 2020; 30% of solid waste will be separated at the source, and 90% will be collected in 2010 and 2020; (3) average capital investment for treatment will be about $94.1/ton (based on investment trends from 1999-2003).

Industrial waste management assumes that (Decision 2149 dated 17/12) industrial waste generation will be 2.76 million tons in 2010 and 9.66 million tons in 2020; 100% of new enterprises will have waste treatment facilities by 2010; the overall industrial waste treatment rate will be 80% by 2010; 20% of collected waste will be reused/recycled by 2010 and 30% by 2020; (3) (Decree No. 59/2007/ND-CP Solid Waste Management) average capital investment for treatment is about $29.4/ton.

Medical waste management assumes that (Decision 2149 dated 17/12) medical waste generation will be 19,000 tons in 2010 and 22,000 tons in 2020; 100% of medical waste is targeted for treatment by 2010; (3) average capital investment for treatment is about $823.5/ton.

To reduce environmental impacts from landfills in the long term, biodegradable components either separately or in combination with other organic constituents in the disposed waste stream could be diverted and utilized. Fuels and energy recovery could be a large market for these resources. Reduction and segregation at source should be enhanced because it helps take out food waste for composting (average of 41.9%). Vietnam is an agricultural country, thereby a big market for compost production.

Table 1 presents a list of 21 cases proposed to be selected for a final list to further on be studied. These 21 cases are picked up from a list of existing / planning / closing 65 MSW treatment plants (with composting organic waste sorted out either at source or at the facility. The 21 - case list is formulated based on five main components (scale, type, ecology, feasibility, and reproducibility) which are relevant to the objectives of Binh Dinh’s valorization waste management project. The relevancies are resulted from desk studies, therefore some judgment might not be fully accurate and hence requires a thorough field study to enforce the justification. For each proposed case, some more description of current situation are made, the description and assessment based on many experts’s and authors’ judgment given the results from desk study and distance interview to most involved people. The presentation is in geographical order (from north to south).

List of potential cases (geographical conditions, relevance to Binh Dinh's project objectives) to study.

No Plant Location

Waste quantity input (ton/d)

Relevance for Binh Dinh

Scale Type Ecology

Feasibility

Reproducibility

1 Viet Tri Phu Tho 120 5 5 ns 5 5

2 Cau Dien Hanoi 150 5 5 ns 3 3

3 Son Tay 200 2 3 ns ns ns

4 Soc Son (backyard integrated farming system)

0.2 5 5 5 5 5

5 Gia Lam (at source separation)

5 5 5 5 5

6 Nam Dinh 250 3 3 ns ns ns

7 Dong Vinh Nghe An 200 3 5 3 3 2

8 Ha Long Quang Ninh 0.6 5 5 5 5 5

9 Thuy Phuong Hue 200 5 5 4 4 4

10 Hoi An (Tan Hiep island: at source separation + compost)

Quang Nam 1.3 5 5 5 5 5

11 Nhon Phu Binh Dinh 5 5 ns ns ns

12 Hoi Nong Dan

13 Long My

14 Nam Thanh Ninh Thuan 250 3 3 ns ns ns

15 Dalat market Lam Dong 5 5 5 5 5

16 Trai Mat market 20 5 5 5 5 5

17 Vu Nhat Hong Dong Nai 350 3 3 ns ns ns

18 Phuoc Hoa Vung Tau – Ba Ria

30 5 3 ns ns ns

19 Huong Trung Ltd. Co (vermicompost with green waste + farm animal waste)

Ho Chi Minh city

12 3 5 5 5 5

20 Binh Tan dist. (kitchen refuses fed to pig in whole pig keeping community)

5 5 5 5 5

21 Vietstar 600 3 3 ns ns ns

Phu Tho

A Viet Tri Municipal Waste Processing Plant located in Viet Tri city operated by Phu Tho Water Supply Ltd. Co. receives approx 120tons municipal waste per day. The plant was built in 1998 aimed to treat all waste produced by Viet Tri city. At current time, the factory produces each day 30tons compost with different price (ranges from 50,000VND to 300,000VND per ton) depending on compost quality (rough or fine particles). With full domestic technology the organic waste is separated at the facility and entered aerobic composting system. Most restrain to the quality of the compost is mixed ingredients in the input, MSW is collected by URENCOs contained high proportion of sand making the compost is of poor quality. The manager seems very active and willing to share all information.

Hanoi

1. Cau Dien Waste Treatment Plant has been built since 1986, the plant had been gone through a huge improvement in 2000 by ODA investment from Spanish government. The total cost for the upgrading was 100 billion VND. At the start, the plant was planed to treat 11,5% total residential waste of Hanoi capital. Automation technology is applied in most of the operation however the plant is able to operate only 10,3% of its designed capacity due to very common characteristics of city waste in VN: mixed composition of organic and other types of waste with high moisture. When operating the plant results in high emission of environmental pollutants such as air pollutant and odour. The technology with forced ventilation also causes high cost for energy. Under the support of JICA, Hanoi Urban Environment Company did a pilot 3R in some residential areas in Hanoi Vietnam in 2007, starting with waste segregation at source at the household level. The waste was segregated for recycling, particularly bio-waste for composting at Cau Dien Composting Plant. In order to boost the composting process, effective microorganisms are used (at the second phase), e.g product named Emina (produced by Environmental Faculty in Hanoi Agricultural UR) is added with the amount of 1litre product per ton of after the first phase composting. Price of Emina ranges from 20,000VND to 25,000VND per litre (personal communication). However, still 60% of waste still has to be buried.

2. Using Seraphin technology, Son Tay MSW treatment plant is aimed to treat waste from Ha Dong city (former Ha Tay), at the facility segregation is done by both manual and mechanical system proving that the application is suitable with characteristics of waste in Vietnam. All pros and cons can be described such as due to all domestic techniques and equipments, the investment cost for such capacity plant is much cheaper than using imported equipments. However, leachates, odour emisison are still unsolvable as well as high energy requirement for forced ventilation, at this current time, due to technical problems, the plant has been closed for maintenance.

3. In Soc Son, a backyard dairy farm with integrated waste management produces multi outputs such as bio-energy (small scale digester), fertilizer, earthworm (fed by dairy manure), frog (fed by earthworm).

Nam Dinh

A very large waste treatment plant is located in Nam Dinh city, the plant was inaugurated in 2003 n an area of 12ha in which the factory itself is 3.0ha. The plant is aimed to treat waste from whole Nam Dinh city. With technology from French, the investment cost is very high however the actual operation capacity was well below planned (only 41,6% its planned capacity) with the same problem due to mixed and high moisture waste. Quality of compost after composting is not uniformed because there are no quality control measures as well as the temperature of the compost heap has not been monitored.

Nghe An

Dong Vinh waste treatment plant in Nghe An province with domestic technology, produces 40tons compost per day. At the facility segregation is done by both manual and mechanical system proving that the aplication is suitable with characteristics of waste in Vietnam. After the process, waste that has to be buried only 10% reducing very much waste that ending up in landfill. In addition, due to all domestic techniques and equipments, the investment cost for such capacity plant was only 45billion VND, much cheaper than using imported equipments. However, leachates, odour emisison are still unsolveables as well as high energy requirement for forced ventilation.

Quang Ninh

Quang Ninh province, in Bai Chay Ha Long city, a small project had been conducted by Ministry of Construction in 2007 involved three large hotels. All waste produced by the hotels were collected and separated. Approximately 0.6tons waste general was collected a day and 74% organic waste was composted, compost products used as fertilizer for the hotel own garden and decorated plants. Other recyclable waste was recycled and only small quantity of waste had to be buried at the city landfill.

Hue

In the centre of Vietnam, Thuy Phuong waste treatment plant in Hue city applies fully domestic technology with high mechanical installation ensuring whole process with stable and unifying function. Locates in a 4.2ha, the facility operates well at the start of the treatment process, segregation is properly done therefore the non-biodegradables which have to be buried reduced to only 10%. The facility has almost fulfilled the task of treatment all domestic waste from Hue city. Some drawbacks are seen such as high energy cost for forced ventilation and mechanical segregators, odours are still problematic. Quality of compost is not uniform due to lack of mixing conditions. In addition, tunnel composting requires large land area.

Quang Nam

Hoi An city: Tan Hiep island of Cham Cu Lao

Binh Dinh

1. Nhon Phu ward, Qui Nhon city: a small scale composting with forced ventilation to provide air into compost heap shows efficient system. Inputs for the system are household organic waste collected from the community (BTC source)

2. Binh Dinh Farmer Association: cattle manure, beddings and garden waste are used to culture earthworms.

Ninh Thuan

Nam Thanh waste treatment plant in Ninh Thuan province, starts operating in 2003 with investment cost of 98billion VND. Segregation is well function because there is good functionality of foreign technique adapted to Vietnam waste characteristics as well as good combination of manual and mechanical segregation. Some negative issues can be still seen as large area for the facility, high energy cost, composting factory is open roof therefore quality of products is unstable, ventilation at floor system is not working properly and odour problem.

Lam Dong

1. Dalat city, dozens of tons of waste from Trai Mat wholesale vegetable market has been processed by fully domestic equipment made by Da Lat Green Environment Ltd. Co., almost all of these green waste had been composted providing high quality organic fertilizer for coffee and tea plantations in the area (L}m Đồng Online, 2010). Approximately 0.7 to 0.8tons compost produced per day from 20tons of fresh vegetable market waste.

2. At the city wet market, a French project (Ademe) starts in 2010 using toptex cover to compost all at source separation green waste from the market. There is 100% of separated waste composted making high quality organic fertilizer.

Dong Nai

Dong Nai province possesses some waste treatment plant, one of very large ones is the plant from Vu Nhat Hong Co., this plant can receive 350tons waste and planned to produce 70tons compost products per day. In an area of 5ha, the plant applies Dans technology with closed procedure, after segregation at the facility waste is entered close specialized system for composting. However, odour from Trang Dai landfill which locates near by the facility causes lot of public complaints also leachates from the site is led into an open pond causing run-off every time when heavy rain comes. Running off of leachates causes tremendous environmental problem to the surroundings. Also, a green fence (plants) that planned to fence 500m away from the facility has not been implemented.

Vung Tau- Ba Ria

1. Vung Tau Ba Ria waste treatment plants face many difficulties and even there is a threat to close down because the waste that enters the system is very mixed, segregation

system at the facilities is not well function and often defected. The government has to subsidize this plant almost 1,6billions VND per year for its maintenance and activities. For instance the aerobic compost system has been defected, therefore the compost process leaves only second phase: window system resulting in low and unstable quality product. The factory has not a sanitary landfill (bottom layers, safety distance to resident areas, odor treatment, leachate water treatment, etc), also there is no system to treat air pollutants emitted from the whole complex. All waste that not degradable are buried in a natural landfill with freely discharge of leachates and waste gas.

2. Another plant locates in Phuc Hoa using aerobic composting technology, vessels with large diameter and long are used to store waste, forced ventilation is used to provide adequate air for aerobic microorganism activities. This plant inaugurated in 2003 with original aim to treat waste produced by Vung Tau city and Tan Thanh district, however odour emitted from the facilities withhold the plant from fully operation (manual segregators cannot deal with foul smelly working environment), in addition, leachates from the facility discharges freely the environment causes also limitation to the activity. The plant has not system to control on-line compost temperature as well as there is no measures to eliminate air pollutants.

Ho Chi Minh city

1. Huong Trung vermicompost in commercial scale produces compost at very high market value. Animal manure (mainly pig manure) mixed with all kind of green waste from rubber plants to garden waste to feed earthworm. Final products including compost, earthworm manure, grinded earthworm, liquid extraction from earthworm (on leave fertilizer). A pig farm in Cu Chi district with 6,000pig population integrates in a 10ha rubber forest together with 1ha fruit garden, all farm waste are reused to produce bioenergy, fertilizer, vermiculture, compost, fish production.

2. Pig keeping community in Binh Tan district raise pig by almost 95% kitchen refuses collected freshly every day from all kitchens within HCMC. Kitchen refuses at farm are recooked and fed to pig.

3. Thai My Cu Chi (Vietstar Waste Treatment Co.): organic waste is separated at the facility, enters composting systems (seems not fully functional, according to Vietnamese news). Capacity of 600MSW tons/d.

In general, current waste treatment plants in Vietnam possess some drawbacks such as technical defects of equipments (most foreign technique equipments), high energy requirement from forced ventilation, heavy odour emission, some techniques imported not suitable for treating waste in Vietnam (high mixture of organic and non-organic and non-degradable waste). Most of waste treatment plants with composting technology operate inefficient leading to closing down the facilities.

How organic waste ends up in the end of the waste chain? It is costly to treat totally mixed waste, therefore waste should be segregated as pure as possible either at source or at the facility. Either way results in some advantages and disadvantages. The analysis presents some practical experiences from two ways of waste segregation in Vietnam.

Segregation at source: Compostable and non-compostable waste are sorted by household members and stored in two different containers. For this system to work, an advanced collection regimen is required. In Vietnam, where the temperature is always high (around 350C) throughout the year, compostable waste easily decomposes and this generates unpleasant odours. Therefore, compostable waste must be collected daily or at least every two days; non-compostable waste can be collected less frequently though households have limited space for holding these materials. Once separated at source, compostable waste can be transported to a composting plant, where machines can sort it again before composting. This procedure helps increase the quality of compost products. Meanwhile, the separated non-compostable waste is transported to a landfill for disposal.

At-source waste separation has certain advantages. Most importantly, it increases awareness of environmental protection issues. When a program of at-source waste separation is launched, extensive educational activities will have to occur. These will increase resident awareness of the importance of separating compostable waste. Participating in such a program at home every day can repeatedly remind those involved that they are protecting the environment. Moreover, if residents have the ability to differentiate waste, separating waste at source can ensure the quality of the compostable waste, thus increasing the quality of compost products. This can also reduce the need for further sorting at a composting plant.

However, this method has several disadvantages. It depends on both the residents’ willingness to participate in the program and their ability to differentiate waste properly. These circumstances require the consideration of two specific scenarios. In the first, residents are willing to participate in a waste separation program but they cannot differentiate compostable waste from non-compostable waste; therefore, their separated waste may have low quality. However, residents can learn to distinguish compostable from non-compostable waste through educational activities conducted in their communities. But this, in turn, requires expenditures. The second scenario is less optimistic: residents do not want to participate in the program. This can result in poorly separated wastes and/or inadequate quantities of compostable feedstock.

A second drawback of the waste separation at source is an increase in the costs of collecting and transporting waste in order to collect two types of wastes (compostable and non-compostable separately) and then transporting these wastes to two different places: composting plants for compostable waste and landfills for non-compostable waste. In Vietnam, it is more economical to situate a composting plant on the landfill site in order to reduce the cost of transporting two types of waste.

There is a significant interest in at-source waste separation in some areas of Vietnam. Several existing programs of at-source waste separation have been conducted in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Quang Nam, Da Nang, Kien Giang.

Segregation at the facility: In contrast to the above method, waste separation at a waste facility does not require resident participation or depend on the ability of residents to differentiate wastes. Mixed waste (compostable and non-compostable together) is collected and then transported to destinations, such as transfer stations, landfill sites, or composting plants where workers separate compostable from non-compostable waste. Various methods, including mechanical, can be used for this

procedure although practical observations have shown that the mechanical segregators require high energy cost making the compost business non-profitable. Non-compostable waste is then transported to a landfill while compostable waste goes to a composting plant. There are, therefore, additional costs to separate the waste, and, depending on the location of facilities, to transport the separated waste.

This is popular method to treat MSW in Vietnam. Some companies introduce technology to treat this type of mixed waste however there is always high cost in energy consumption, big demand in large volume transportation, storage, equipments and yet the quality of compost.

At Source MSW Segregation Programs (from past to now)

1. Hanoi:

i. Gia Lam district: Gia Lam Urban Sanitation Enterprise is in charge of an at-source compostable waste separation program in Gia Lam district. This program is taking place in three communities (Sai Dong, Duc Giang, Yen Dong). Compostable and non-compostable waste is stored in red and blue waste bins, respectively, by residents. These bins were distributed free of charge by the Gia Lam Urban Sanitation Enterprise from the beginning of the program. Every day in each area, two waste collectors push two hand-carts to collect waste door-to-door on medium and large roads. If the road is too small for a hand-cart to collect waste door-to-door, waste collectors stand in a larger road and wait for the residents to bring their waste out to the hand-carts. When the carts are full, the collectors take them to waste transfer places for unloading. In general, the quantity of compostable waste collected was estimated to be about 0.6 kg per person. In the Kieu Ky composting plant, compostable matter is mixed with chemicals and left to mature for six months. Then the mature product is screened to sort out non-biodegradable materials and it is then used for agricultural purposes (Nguyen, 2005).

The waste separation program conducted in the three communities in Gia Lam district can be considered successful because (1) over 73% of households participated in the program and (2) the purity of the separated compostable waste was 95%. Moreover, this program also includes a composting plant receiving compostable waste from the waste streams which gives an important solution for the waste reduction. However, no data shows the positive revenue from the program due to the lack of market for composting products which could be caused by a number of different reasons but not because of the low quality of compost products (Nguyen, 2005). This program shows that the residents have the willingness and the ability to separate waste effectively.

ii. Phan Chu Trinh ward: total area of 0.48 km2 with 1719 households (approximately 8000 people) (Nguyen, 2005). It includes eight residential blocks, six schools, 120 offices and enterprises, two markets, and a park. In this ward, about 11 tons of waste are generated daily, of which 40% is compostable waste. URENCO chose this ward for the following reasons: 1) the population density is not too high (8,000 persons/0.48km2; 2) the social and living conditions are typical for Hanoi residents; 3) most of the infrastructure has been built recently; and 4) the majority of residents have a high educational level.

iii. The company also had contracts with the local residents, which is a legal paper having residents’ signatures to indicate that they agree to participate in the project. At the

beginning of each month, each household was given for free two types of plastic bags, black (for non-compostable waste) and white (for compostable waste) to separate their waste accordingly.

About 2 tons of separated compostable waste and 8 tons of separated non-compostable waste are collected everyday. The purity of the separated compostable waste was about 85% to 90%, i.e., about 10% to 15% of the waste was non-compostable matter. The higher amount in January is due to the Lunar New Year celebrations when residents tend to consume a larger amount of food.

This pilot program serves local residents living in both narrow and large streets. It can be considered successful since the purity of the separated compostable waste is over 85%. However, the ratio between the quantities of separated compostable and separated non-compostable waste is 1:4, i.e., the percentage of compostable waste collected is only 20% of the total amount of waste in this ward. As a result, the amount of waste reduced from the waste stream going to the landfill through this program is not significant; as well, the amount of composting products in the output stream is slightly small. Moreover, additional fuel is consumed when the 3.5 ton truck goes around large streets several times to collect bags that some residents put out after the regular collection time.

2. Quang Nam: Tan Hiep island since 2008 applies at source segregation, composting separated organic waste in the island, transporting pressed non-compostable waste by specific boat to the city for further treatment. Total of waste collected in the island approx. 1.3tons/d in which almost 80% is organic. There is 47 compost bins are provided to 4 villages, residents are trained to do composting at their own villages. Further investigation is still needed but it seems a successful models since 100% residents in the island participated in the program (Viettems.com, 2009).

3. Ho Chi Minh city:

“Sorting waste at source” project (1997) and lasted for two years. It is considered to have been the first residential at-source waste separation project in Vietnam. The project took place in sub-ward 3, ward 12, district 5, HCMC. In the second year, the project expanded to the rest of ward 12 based on experiences obtained from the first year. The program lasted for only two years due to the lack of financial support from the Vietnamese government after the first two years (Doan, 2004). The project provided a waste bin to each household for storing easy-decomposed waste. An educational program was conducted with several activities, such as distributing leaflets, flyers, and posters. The proportion of separated easy-decomposed waste was high (on average, 86.2%) therefore, if the easy-decomposed waste generated in this area had been composted, the waste stream going to the landfill would have been reduced significantly.

4. Bien Hoa city: the project was conducted at sub-ward 3, Thanh Binh ward, Bien Hoa city in 2001. URENCO Bien Hoa was implementer of the project with participating of many social organizations and the local government. Each projected household received from the project two bins and large plastics bags (20litres volume) with different colors for organic and recyclable wastes. Each office and restaurant received the same bin and bag with larger volume (80litres).

According to a report (Lê văn Quang, et al., 2001), the project was considered successful with high participation from all social organizations, high awareness from residents and

officers as well as business. Excepted the facts that households that locates in small alleys and lanes were not fully complied with the collecting time given by URENCO due to missing the collecting trucks, therefore they mixed both waste as foul smell from decomposted organic waste. Also, during Lunar New Year, waste quantity was high, the bin and plastic bag provided were not large enough to store separated waste.

In a report on current situation of environment and plans for future in Ho Chi Minh City, from now till 2020, at –source waste segregation program will be campaigned and conducted in a city-wide scale (DoNRE HCMC, 2010). In whole Vietnam the decision 2149/QĐ/TT (2009) indicates that at –source segregation of MSW and reducing the waste to be buried are one of many main objectives of the government in an effort to manage MSW in the country. The successful programs seem to have been well organized with broad and extensive informational and educational campaigns that reached every household in the selected areas. Moreover, these programs were designed carefully so that the separated compostable and non-compostable waste are daily collected door-to-door and disposed of in composting plants and landfills, respectively. As can be seen in Table 2.8, not all programs were completely successful. The failure of a few projects can be accounted for by the lack of financial support and the resident low cooperation in separating waste. Finding markets for composting products and generating revenue are also difficult problems.

Based on the failures and successes of these programs, it is concluded that in order to implement the waste separation program in Binh Dinh, extensive informational and educational programs should be conducted to each household. As well, a collection and transportation system should be designed carefully to collect separated waste efficiently and economically. Since the revenue from composting products is unpredictable, Binh Dinh should also consider how much subsidies can be obtained from the government and how much the collection fee should be increased in order to maintain the program.

References listed

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Son, Tan Thanh. 2010. Pig Production using Kitchen Refuses in Binh Tan district Ho Chi Minh city. Personal Communication.

US Commercial Service. 2008. Vietnam: Solid Waste Management, http://www.kleanindustries.com/s/PressReleases.asp?ReportID=335114. http://www.export.gov.

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Viettems.com. 2009. Subject: Mô Hình Xử Lý Rác Thải tại Nguồn - Cù Lao Chàm. http://viettems.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1356:mo-hinh-x-ly-rac-thai-tai-nguon-cua-cu-lao-cham&catid=160:bai-nghien-cuu&Itemid=190. Accessed.