andrews university department of leadership & educational...

Andrews University

Department of Leadership & Educational Administration

Research Proposal Project

Presented in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for Research Methods

EDRM 505

R. Deborah Weithers

July 5, 2013

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1

General Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 3

Importance and Significance ................................................................................................... 4

Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................. 5

Theoretical Framework and Assumptions ............................................................................... 5

Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................. 8

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................... 9

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................ 9

General Introduction ................................................................................................................ 9

Identity styles ......................................................................................................................... 10

Parenting styles ...................................................................................................................... 12

Religious Identity .................................................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 16

METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 16

General Introduction .............................................................................................................. 16

Type of Research ................................................................................................................... 16

Population and Sample .......................................................................................................... 17

Hypotheses............................................................................................................................. 17

Definition of Variables .......................................................................................................... 18

Instrumentation ...................................................................................................................... 20

Data Collection ...................................................................................................................... 22

Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 23

Schedule................................................................................................................................. 24

Budget .................................................................................................................................... 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 26

APPENDIX I ................................................................................................................................ 28

NATIONAL INSTITUES OF HEALTH CERTIFICATE ....................................................... 28

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APPENDIX II ............................................................................................................................... 29

IRB Application ........................................................................................................................ 29

APPENDIX III .............................................................................................................................. 33

QUESTIONNAIRE................................................................................................................... 33

APPENDIX IV ............................................................................................................................. 37

VARIABLE DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................................... 37

APPENDIX V ............................................................................................................................... 38

HYPOTHESES TESTING ........................................................................................................ 38

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

General Introduction

Andrews University is a Seventh-day Adventist Christian liberal arts university located in

southwest Michigan. As a distinctly faith based organization, Andrews University statement of

mission includes the phrase “transforms its students by educating them to seek knowledge and

affirm faith in order to change the world.” The statement of mission continues by listing ways

students will affirm their faith: “Develop a personal relationship with Jesus Christ, Deepen their

faith commitment and practice, Demonstrate personal and moral integrity, Embrace a balanced

lifestyle, including time for intellectual, social, spiritual, and physical development.” (“Statement

of Mission,” 2013) Andrews University has a strong focus on practical Christianity and a belief

that true spirituality impacts every area of a student’s life. The development of a student’s

individual religious and spiritual identity apart from their culturally inherited identity from their

parents or other family group is critical to fulfilling the Andrews University mission to Affirm

Faith.

The process of developing religious or spiritual identity for young adults includes a

review of their culturally inherited religious or spiritual identity, questioning of beliefs and a

determination of whether or not those beliefs are consistent with the beliefs they now hold. Their

parent’s influence, which is directed by parenting style, impacts an adolescent’s perceived

religious identity. As the transition is taking place from adolescent to young adult, and the

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decision is made to attend a Christian college or University, parental influence greatly diminishes

and the influence of professors, staff and fellow students begins. In essence the influence of

Andrews University begins. “The developmental theories of James Fowler (1981) and Sharon

Parks (1986; 2000) contend that changes in students’ religious convictions are to be expected.

Tisdell (2003) noted that developing an authentic spiritual identity is a critical-reflective process

that typically occurs in young adulthood, involving a move away from or a questioning of one’s

childhood religious tradition. When you add to this developmental struggle the rarified

environment of analytical scrutiny characteristic of higher education, you have a situation ripe

for change. The academic community, thus, has the potential to enhance or inhibit this process of

faith development. As Parks (1986) pointed out, ‘higher education–self-consciously or

unselfconsciously–serves the young adult as his or her primary community of imagination,

within which every professor is potentially a spiritual guide and every syllabus a confession of

faith’ (pp. 133-134).” (Gonyea & Kuh, 2006)

The student’s individual identity style is also a major factor in the development of a

religious and spiritual identity. In each identity style category individuals process information in

different ways. Adolescents and young adults develop an identity structure that helps them in

decision making, problem solving and understanding the world around them. The place that

religion and spirituality will hold in their individual lives, and the inherent questioning that takes

place is a part of identity development. Previous research (Gebelt, Thompson & Miele, 2009) has

discussed how first-year college students are not far along in the process of identity exploration

and spiritual development. “Perhaps when students are further along in the identity process and

3

more firmly embedded in their particular institutional contexts, differences in spirituality might

emerge.” (Gebelt et al., 2009)

Statement of the Problem

Andrews University states as a part of its mission to Affirm Faith in the lives of its

students. This study seeks to measure one part of Affirming Faith – religious and spiritual

identity. There are many efforts and programs that are developed to facilitate the spiritual

development of students. The University employs two chaplains, and has one assigned to it from

the local church Pioneer Memorial Church, whose sole job description is to assist students in

their faith development. Each one of these chaplains plays a major role in an on campus Sabbath

worship experience, each with significant student attendance. In addition, every undergraduate

student is required to take 12 credit hours (four classes) of religion. This study does not seek to

determine the effectiveness of these classes, chaplains or worship services, but they are all

significant components of the spiritual and religious experience on campus. What are the

measures in place to determine if they are being successful?

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of a student’s religious identity

and their identity style. It also seeks to understand the correlation between parenting styles and

religious identity. The methodology section identifies the specific research questions and

variables utilized to measure identity styles, religious identity and parenting styles.

4

The research question and hypotheses/objectives

Is parenting style a strong predictor of perceived religious identity of undergraduate

students at Andrews University in their first year of college? What is the relationship between

identity style and religious identity of undergraduate students at Andrews University in their first

year of college? The first hypothesis to be tested predicts that there is significant correlation

between the parenting style responsiveness and religious identity. The second hypothesis to be

tested predicts that there is a correlation between the parenting style demandingness and

religious identity, yet not as strong as the correlation between responsiveness and religious

identity. The third hypothesis to be tested predicts that there is a significant relationship between


year of college. This study will be conducted on a sample of Andrews University undergraduate

students in the fall of 2014 and again in the fall of 2017.

Importance and Significance

This study seeks to understand to what extent identity style and parenting style impact

religious and spiritual identity. It also seeks to determine student’s perception of their religious

and spiritual identity as they enter college, specifically a Christian, Seventh-day Adventist

university. Few studies have been done that compare both the identity style and parenting style

and their impact on religious and spiritual identity of young adults. The results of this study will

be useful for those in administration at Andrews University, as well as other college and

university administrators and educators, as they seek to understand, plan for, and program,

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student and campus religious and spiritual activities. It will also add to the body of knowledge

regarding parental influence on adolescent and young adult religious identity.

Limitations and Delimitations

This study was conducted at only at one small Christian college. There are probable

differences at other denominational schools and secular institutions that should be studied. This

study did not survey student’s denominational affiliation, if any. Studying the variability among

the different denominations may prove insightful and useful for future study. In addition

students’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting styles were measured. Future research should be

done that would also obtain data from parents to be reported along with student measures, for a

more complete picture of actual parents’ styles.

Future research should also seek to understand if a student’s perceived religious identity

changes during their undergraduate academic experience and to what degree, along with their

perception of their parents’ parenting style and any changes in perception during their

undergraduate academic experience.

Theoretical Framework and Assumptions

Identity formation and identity style research is presented in Erikson’s (1982)

psychosocial theory. He discussed the development of an individual’s social environment

through a series of conflicts. How one resolved the conflict, and the learning or personal

development that took place as a part of resolving the conflict, was critical for an individual’s

growth and sense of self. Berzonsky (1990) further refined the definitions by identifying three

6

strategies used to face identity issues: informational style, those that engage in a process of exploration

by seeking out and evaluating identity-relevant information prior to making committed decisions;

normative style, those who rely on the norms and expectations of significant others (e.g. parents and

authority figures) when having to make identity-relevant decisions; and diffuse-avoidant, those who avoid

personal issues and procrastinate decisions until situational demands dictate their behavior. (Duriez,

Luyckx, Soenens & Berzonsky, 2012)

Parenting style is defined as “a constellation of attitudes toward the child, which are

communicated to him or her, and which, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the

parent’s behaviors are expressed” (Darling & Steinberg, 1993, p. 488). Parenting styles

knowledge has been greatly influenced by the work of Diane Baumrind with her categorization

of parenting into two underlying dimensions: demandingness and responsiveness (Baumrind,

1971). “Baumrind, 1971 and Baumrind, 1991 examined the relationships between two

orthogonal dimensions of parenting—responsiveness and demandingness—to children’s

developmental outcomes. Responsiveness refers to the extent to which parents are warm,

affectionate, and sensitive to their children’s needs, and demandingness refers to parents’

insistence that their children meet high expectations for appropriate behavior.” (Gill, Ashton,

Algina 2004) Parenting style could be very important to how young adults develop their spiritual

identities. The parenting style creates the type of environment where the young may or may not

have the freedom to explore his/her spiritual identity. “Parenting style plays an important role in

identity formation because it influences an adolescent’s ability to explore various options in life

when it comes to establishing a religious and ideological identity. … In addition, Smith’s study

(2003a:417) of the relationship between parental supervision and church attendance focused

7

exclusively on the effects of parental religious participation on moral expectations and

supervision. The significance of the relationship warrant further analysis to assess the extent that

parental expectations and supervision interact with youth religiosity variables to influence

attitudinal and behavioral outcomes among adolescents.” (Armet 2009)

Religious identity formation research has been led by Erikson (1968) who developed a

model of faith development. He believed that the development of religious identity played a key

role in identity formation. In order for an adolescent to develop their own religious identity

parental control has to decrease so adolescents can develop their own internal religious identity:

a self-constructed identity vs. assigned identity (Marcia, Matteson, Orlofsky, Waterman, and

Archer, 1993). A self-constructed identity is where the young adult makes the decision between

various religious beliefs. An assigned identity is where the parent chooses for the young adult

their religious identity and affiliation. In order for young adults to make an informed decision

they must have the ability to question and to doubt. This process of deliberation usually takes

place between the young adult and his or her parents and other concerned adults.

“Strength of faith and spirituality are related to a variety of variables that seem

intuitively to be related to conceptualizations of identity. For example, adolescents who consider

themselves to be religious tend to report having more personal meaning in their lives and also

report more pro-social personality trains (Furrow, King, & White, 2004). Those with strong

religious beliefs also report more purpose and commitment (Fisherman, 2004; Tzueriel, 1984) as

well as a greater sense of meaningfulness and genuiness in their lives (Fisherman, 2004).”

(Gebelt, et al. 2009)

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Definition of Terms

Faith – a general core belief in a supreme being or power, often inter-changed with spirituality.

Spirituality – an overall belief, sensitivity or attachment to general spiritual concepts and

feelings. Religion and religiousness are viewed as a part of overall spirituality.

Religion – an institutionalized system of attitudes, beliefs and practices to which a person can be

labeled as a member or adherent of the related set of tenets.

Christian – a religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ

Denomination - an identifiable religious body under a common name, structure, and doctrine

Seventh-Day Adventist – a protestant church observing the seventh day (Saturday) day of rest and

believing in the imminent second coming of Jesus Christ.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


There has been much study done on identity styles in young adults; specifically the

development of adolescent identity style through time. In addition to the identity style the

adolescent is formulating their personal spirituality and religious identity. A large portion of this

identity development takes place in the home and is influenced by the adolescent’s parents. The

purpose of this study is to determine if identity style or parenting style is a predictor of perceived

religious identity; and specifically in undergraduate students at Andrews University in their first

year of college. It also seeks to understand if there is a relationship between identity style and

religious identity of undergraduate students at Andrews University in their first year of college.

The research for this review was provided by Tevni Grajales, Ph.D, Professor at Andrews

University and also obtained through EBSCO and the James White Library on the campus of

Andrews University. Articles were obtained from academic journals with focus on the key words

of identity style, identity development, religious identity and parenting style. Research on the

topic was not exhaustive and there are gaps in the writer’s knowledge. Further research would

need to be done to fully understand and critique the subject areas.

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Identity styles

Identity formation is critical in the adolescent and young adult development process.

There are many changes that take place during this time of search and understanding, physical,

mental and emotional. “Because of recent changes in Western societies, especially for youth who

attend university, this identity work often continues into the third decade of life or what some

refer to as emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000, 2004). In fact, as Erikson (1968) noted,

universities may potentially provide youth with an institutionalized moratorium period when

they have the freedom to explore various occupational, ideological, and lifestyle alternatives and

options before making personal identity-defining decisions and commitments.” (Crocetti,

Berzonsky, Meeus, 2012) “One’s identity style refers to the social-cognitive strategy that he or

she reportedly characteristically uses or would prefer to use when dealing with identity conflicts

and decisions (Berzonsky, 1990).” (Crocetti, et al., 2012

Identity formation and identity style research is presented in Erikson’s (1982)

psychosocial theory. He discussed the development of an individual’s social environment

through a series of conflicts. How one resolved the conflict, and the learning or personal

development that took place as a part of resolving the conflict, was critical for an individual’s

growth and sense of self. Marcia (1966) introduced the identity status paradigm describing how

individuals fall into one of three status categories based on how much they have explored or are

exploring identity status options. Berzonsky (1990) further refined the definitions by identifying

three strategies used to face identity issues. “These identity styles are differentiated from each

other based on the way individuals process information relevant to their sense of identity, cope

with and negotiate conflicts between identity elements, and make personal decisions in their

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attempts to resolve identity issues.” (Gebelt, Thompson, Miele, 2009) Those with the

information orientation are searching for themselves to make informed decisions and

commitments. “College students with an informational style take a deliberate, problem-solving,

and problem-focused approach to coping (Berzonsky, 1992) and tend to be open to new

experiences (Duriez & Soenens, 2006; Duriez et al., 2004). With regard to religion, it is likely

that adolescents with the informational style will actively explore issues of faith in an attempt to

determine their own religious identity. For example, they may look for, read, and reflect on

materials of a religious nature.” (Gebelt et al., 2009) Young adults with a normative style

orientation do what they are told with little self-determination. “They are concerned mainly with

the desires and expectations of significant authority figures, defining themselves in terms of the

norms and expectations that others have for them (Soenens et al., 2005). With regard to matters

of spirituality and religion, adolescents with a normative identity style are unlikely to question

the beliefs taught by parents or to be open to exploring new religious faiths (White et al., 1998).”

(Gebelt et al., 2009) Diffuse/avoidant orientated young adults are those that put off making any

identity decisions for as long as possible. “They either avoid exploration of identity issues or

approach exploration unsystematically (Berman et al., 2001)….Because these individuals are

likely to avoid dealing with important relevant tasks, they often end up confused and uncertain

about themselves (Soenens et al., 2005). Someone who has a diffuse/avoidant identity style is

likely to either procrastinate or make disorderly attempts at examining religious issues.” (Gebelt

et al., 2009)

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Parenting styles

Parenting style is defined as “a constellation of attitudes toward the child, which are

communicated to him or her, and which, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the

parent’s behaviors are expressed” (Darling & Steinberg, 1993, p. 488). Parenting styles

knowledge has been greatly influenced by the work of Diane Baumrind with her categorization

of parenting into two underlying dimensions: demandingness and responsiveness (Baumrind,

1971). “Baumrind, 1971 and Baumrind, 1991 examined the relationships between two

orthogonal dimensions of parenting—responsiveness and demandingness—to children’s

developmental outcomes. Responsiveness refers to the extent to which parents are warm,

affectionate, and sensitive to their children’s needs, and demandingness refers to parents’

insistence that their children meet high expectations for appropriate behavior.” (Gill, Ashton,

Algina 2004) According to the two dimensions, parenting styles can be categorized into four main

dimensions: authoritative, where rules and guideline are established, but there is discussion

allowed and explanations givens; authoritarian, where obedience and corporal punishment are

stressed; permissive, where parents have low expectations of maturity and self-control; and

neglectful, where there are few demands, low responsiveness and little communication.

(Baumrind, 1991). Parenting style could be very important to how young adults develop their

spiritual identities. The parenting style creates the type of environment where the young may or

may not have the freedom to explore his/her spiritual identity. “Prior research found a positive

relationship between authoritative parenting styles and religious conservatism due to the

influence of Conservative Protestant literature. (Bartowski and Wilcox 2000; etc.)” (Armet 2009)

SDA researchers Dudley and Wisbey (2000) found that among SDA adults continued religious

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commitment was a product of authoritative parenting when coupled by loving care shown by the

parents to the child. “Parenting style plays an important role in identity formation because it

influences an adolescent’s ability to explore various options in life when it comes to establishing

a religious and ideological identity. … In addition, Smith’s study (2003a:417) of the relationship

between parental supervision and church attendance focused exclusively on the effects of

parental religious participation on moral expectations and supervision. The significance of the

relationship warrant further analysis to assess the extent that parental expectations and

supervision interact with youth religiosity variables to influence attitudinal and behavioral

outcomes among adolescents.” (Armet, 2009)

In reviewing the literature on parenting styles there is no standard cutoff points for

measurement sale. The four parenting styles are categorized based on a relative criterion (such as

median), which would cause different cutoff points in different populations. Given that the ethnic

diversity of Andrews University student is high, it was determined to use the continuous

measures of responsiveness and demandingness rather than the four parenting styles categories.

(Wen & Hui, 2012).

Religious Identity

Religious identity formation research has been led by Erikson (1968) who developed a

model of faith development. He believed that the development of religious identity played a key

role in identity formation. In order for an adolescent to develop their own religious identity

parental control has to decrease so adolescents can develop their own internal religious identity:

a self-constructed identity vs. assigned identity (Marcia, Matteson, Orlofsky, Waterman, and

Archer 1993). A self-constructed identity is where the young adult makes the decision between

14

various religious beliefs. An assigned identity is where the parent chooses for the young adult

their religious identity and affiliation. In order for young adults to make an informed decision

they must have the ability to question and to doubt. This process of deliberation usually takes

place between the young adult and his or her parents and other concerned adults.

“Batson, Schoenrade, and Ventis (1993) argued that there are three orientations to

religiosity: extrinsic, intrinsic, and quest….For people with an extrinsic orientation, religion is

utilitarian, useful because of what it does for the believer. Intrinsic people, on the other hand,

value faith for itself, not just for what it does for them. … A quest orientation involves

questioning religious ideas, engaging in a search for answers to questions of ultimate

meaning…[they] readily confront existential life questions and find value in religious doubting.

They are open to, and in fact expect, change in their belief system.” (Gebelt, et al. 2009)

“Strength of faith and spirituality are related to a variety of variables that seem intuitively

to be related to conceptualizations of identity. For example, adolescents who consider

themselves to be religious tend to report having more personal meaning in their lives and also

report more pro-social personality trains (Furrow, King, & White, 2004). Those with strong

religious beliefs also report more purpose and commitment (Fisherman, 2004; Tzueriel, 1984) as

well as a greater sense of meaningfulness and genuiness in their lives (Fisherman, 2004).”

(Gebelt, et al. 2009)

Armet (2009) discusses “the ecology of high tension faith” that is “characterized by

elevated demands and expectations with regard to members’ commitments, allegiance, and

beliefs, and reinforced by the collectivity of family and faith community.” He goes on to state

that high tension religion creates a sub-culture based on those collective group identities.

15

“Because collective identity provides linkages between the religious community and family,

religious socialization is not an isolated function of the family or parents. … There are positive

pro-social outcome associated with religious identity (Benson 2004; Benson et al. 2003). King

found that religiously active adolescent report higher levels of social interaction and trust with

their parents, friends, and other significant adults active in their congregational life (2003:119).:

(Armet, 2009).

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY


This study seeks to understand to what extent identity style and parenting style impact

religious and spiritual identity. It also seeks to determine student’s perception of their religious

and spiritual identity as they enter college, specifically a Christian, Seventh-day Adventist

university. Is parenting style a strong predictor of perceived religious identity of undergraduate



year of college?

Type of Research

Quantitative research methods will be used to gather data on first year college students at

Andrews University. We will be using a non-experimental design, describing the perceptions and

beliefs of first year undergraduate students at Andrews University as they indicate on a

constructed survey. The research will be correlational, looking at the relationship between

identity style and religious identity; and studying whether or not student’s perceived parenting

style of their parents has a relationship to their religious identity.

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Population and Sample

The survey will be given to undergraduate students during their first year in college (fall

2014) at Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Total undergraduate student

enrollment in the fall of 2014 is projected to be 1,400. The sample group of first year

undergraduate students entering college in the fall of 2014 is projected to be 400. Sampling first

year college student provides the researchers with a baseline of college student’s perceptions as

they enter college. Future research should explore perceptions at the end of the college

experience and seek to understand the effect of education, and specifically higher education at a

religious institution.

Hypotheses

Is parenting style a strong predictor of perceived religious identity of undergraduate



year of college? The first hypothesis to be tested predicts that there is significant correlation

between the parenting style responsiveness and religious identity. The second hypothesis to be

tested predicts that there is a correlation between the parenting style demandingness and

religious identity, yet not as strong as the correlation between responsiveness and religious

identity. The third hypothesis to be tested predicts that there is a significant relationship between


year of college. The null hypotheses state there are 1) no significant relationship between identity

style and religious identity; 2) no significant correlation between parenting style responsiveness

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and religious identity; and 3) no significant correlation between parenting style demandingness

and religious identity.

Definition of Variables

Identity style is being defined as the social-cognitive strategy that one reportedly

characteristically uses or would prefer to use when dealing with identity conflicts and decisions.

(Berzonsky, 1992) There are three identity styles that will be measured: informational style, those that

engage in a process of exploration by seeking out and evaluating identity-relevant information prior to

making committed decisions; normative style, those who rely on the norms and expectations of

significant others (e.g. parents and authority figures) when having to make identity-relevant decisions;

and diffuse-avoidant, those who avoid personal issues and procrastinate decisions until situational

demands dictate their behavior. (Duriez, Luyckx, Soenens, Berzonsky, 2012) Identity styles will be

measured using the Benzonsky Identity Style Inventory (Berzonsky, 1992).

Questions measuring Informational style are:

1. I've spent a great deal of time thinking seriously about what I should do with my life. 2. I've spent a good deal of time reading and talking to others about religious ideas. 3. When I discuss an issue with someone, I try to assume their point of view and see the

problem from their perspective. 4. I've spent a lot of time reading and trying to make some sense out of political issues. 5. I've spent a lot of time and talked to a lot of people trying to develop a set of values that

make sense to me. 6. When I have a personal problem, I try to analyze the situation in order to understand it. 7. I find it's best to seek out advice from professionals (e.g., clergy, doctors, lawyers) when

I have problems. 8. I find that personal problems often turn out to be interesting challenges. 9. When I have to make a decision, I like to spend a lot of time thinking about my options. 10. I like to have the responsibility for handling problems in my life that require me to think

on my own. 11. When making important decisions I like to have as much information as possible.

Questions measuring Diffuse-avoidant style are: 12. I'm not really sure what I'm doing in school; I guess things will work themselves out. 13. It doesn't pay to worry about values in advance; I decide things as they happen. 14. Many times by not concerning myself with personal problems, they work themselves out.

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15. I'm not really thinking about my future now; it's still a long way off. 16. When I have to make a decision, I try to wait as long as possible in order to see what will

happen. 17. It's best for me not to take life too seriously; I just try to enjoy it. 18. I try not to think about or deal with problems as long as I can. 19. I try to avoid personal situations that will require me to think a lot and deal with them on

my own. 20. Sometimes I refuse to believe a problem will happen, and things manage to work

themselves out. 21. When I know a situation is going to cause me stress, I try to avoid it.

Questions measuring Normative style are: 22. I've more-or-less always operated according to the values with which I was brought up. 23. I've always had purpose in my life; I was brought up to know what to strive for. 24. Regarding religion, I've always known what I believe and don't believe; I never really had

any serious doubts. 25. I've known since high school that I was going to college and what I was going to major

in. 26. I think it's better to have a firm set of beliefs than to be open-minded. 27. I think it's better to have fixed values, than to consider alternative value systems. 28. Once I know the correct way to handle a problem, I prefer to stick with it. 29. I prefer to deal with situations where I can rely on social norms and standards. 30. I find it's best for me to rely on the advice of close friends or relatives when I have a

problem. Also to be measured is college student’s perceived parenting style of their parents. Parenting style

is defined as a constellation of attitudes toward the child, which are communicated to him or her, and

when taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parent’s behaviors are expressed.

(Darling & Steinberg, 1993) Two subscales of parenting style will be analyzed: responsiveness, which

refers to the extent to which parents are warm, affectionate, and sensitive to their children’s needs; and

demandingness, which refers to parents’ insistence that their children meet high expectations for

appropriate behavior. (Gill, Ashton, Algina, 2004)

Questions measuring responsiveness:

1. He/She is always telling me what to do. 2. He/She makes rules without asking what I think. 3. He/She makes me feel better when I am upset. 4. He/She is too busy to talk to me. 5. He/She listens to what I have to say 6. He/She likes me just the way I am.

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7. He/She tells me when I do a good job on things. 8. He/She wants to hear about my problems. 9. He/She is pleased with how I behave. Questions measuring Demandingness:

1. He/She has rules that I must follow. 2. He/She tells me times when I must come home. 3. He/She makes sure I tell her where I am going. 4. He/She makes sure I go to bed on time. 5. He/She asks me what I do with friends. 6. He/She knows where I am after school. 7. He/She checks to see if I do my homework.

Religious identity is defined as a process in which individuals explore and commit to a set of

religious beliefs and/or practices (Griffith & Griggs, 2001) This study will measure the levels of religious

identity based on questions adapted from Tyler and Degoey’s (1995) measure of social identity and

developed by Lopez, Huynh & Fuligni (2011).

Questions measuring religious identity are:

1. I have a strong sense of belonging to my own religion 2. In general, being a member of my religion is an important part of my self-image 3. Being a part of my religion is an important reflection of who I am 4. I feel a strong attachment toward my own religion.”

Instrumentation

The Identity Style Inventory (ISI3; Berzonsky, 1992) includes measures of the three

identity styles along with a 10-item measure of Commitment. The Commitment scale items have

been deleted from this questionnaire as it is not a part of this study. The Diffuse-Avoidant scale

contains 10 items, (sample item: ‘‘I’m not really thinking about my future now; it’s still a long

way off’’). The Informational scale has 11 items (sample item: ‘‘I’ve spent a great deal of time

thinking seriously about what I should do with my life’’). The Normative scale has 9 items

(sample item: ‘‘I prefer to deal with situations where I can rely on social norms and standards’’).

21

The ISI3 will be administered using a slightly modified Likkert scale ranging from 1 (not at all

like me) to 5 (very much like me). Cronbach alphas of .75, .76, .65, and .69, respectively, are

consistent with values reported elsewhere. (Berzonsky, 1997, 2003). (Johnson & Nozick, 2011)

The minimum score for Identity Style is 9, with the maximum score 55. The scores in

each category will be summed and the participants’ highest score in each of the three categories

will be designated their identity style. Each participant will be assigned an identity style category

based on the score from the Inventory: 1 – Information; 2 – Normative; and 3 – Diffuse.

The Authoritative Parenting Index (API) (Jackson, Henriksen & Foster, 1998) consists of

two scales measuring the dimensions that comprise the most widely studied conceptualization of

parenting style: responsiveness, the measure of which comprises nine items (e.g., “He/she

comforts me when I am upset”); and demandingness, the measure of which comprises seven

items (e.g., “He/she has rules that I must follow”). Questions are asked to relate to the parent

who spent the most amount of time looking after them (i.e., their primary caregiver). Response

options on a 4-point Likkert scale ranging from 1 (not like my parent) to 5 (exactly like my

parent). Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) values for this scale have been found to be

adequate, with ranges of a = 0.67–76 for the responsiveness scale and a = 0.67–0.88 for the

demandingness scale (Botello- Harbaum, Nansel, Haynie, Iannotti, & Simons-Morton, 2008;

Nansel et al., 2009). (Taylor, Wilson, Slater & Mohr, 2012) The 2-week test-retest reliability of

these items ranged from .70 to .85. (Wen & Hui, 2012)

Scores for the subscales will be calculated by summing items scores. Minimum and

maximum scores for Responsiveness are 9 and 45 respectively. The minimum and maximum

scores for Demandingness are 7 and 35 respectively. Each participant will have two scores for

22

each parenting style category based on the score from the (API): x1 – Responsiveness, x2 –

Demandingness.

Religious identity will be measured using an instrument adapted from Tyler and

Degoey’s (1995) measure of social identity. On a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5

(strongly agree), students responded to the following items: ‘‘I have a strong sense of belonging

to my own religion,’’ ‘‘In general, being a member of my religion is an important part of my

self-image,’’ ‘‘Being a part of my religion is an important reflection of who I am,’’ and ‘‘I feel a

strong attachment toward my own religion.’’ This scale has good internal consistency (a = .96).

(Lopez, Huynh & Fuligni, 2011) There is a minimum score of 4 and a maximum score of 20.

Each participant will be assigned a score: x = religious identity.

Data Collection

In order to comply with the ethical and legal implications of the study the researcher has

completed the National Institutes of Health Office of Extramural Research web-based training

course “Protecting Human Research Participants” in June 2013 (Appendix I). The researcher will

submit to the Office of Research and Creative Scholarship Institutional Review Board at

Andrews University, the Application for Approval if Human Subjects Research (Appendix II)

for approval before any research is conducted.

An on-line survey/questionnaire (Appendix III) will be developed and distributed

through Survey Monkey. It will be sent via email to the cohort entering college, specifically

Andrews University, for the first time in September of 2014. This first email to the participants

will include a cover letter informing participants that the purpose and importance of the study: to

23

understand the many factors that contribute to religious and spiritual identity and to specifically

seek to understand how parenting style and identity style affect religious and spiritual identity in

college students. The participants will be given a statement of confidentiality and informed of

their right to not participate in the study. They will be asked for their cooperation in the study

and their honesty in completed the questionnaire. In addition they will be asked to return the

survey by October 1, 2014 and given instructions on how to obtain the results of the study, if

they so desire, with a final thank you for their assistance.

The email addresses will be obtained from Information Technology. Participants will be

informed that all completed surveys will be entered in a drawing for an incentive – 3 iPads. Two

reminder emails will be sent out September 14 and September 28. The final date for survey

submission will be October 1, 2014.

A pilot test of the questionnaire will be conducted in July 2014 with a group of ten

incoming freshman in an effort to determine the length of time it takes to complete the survey, if

the survey design needs improvement to clarity and format, and finally, to develop an initial idea

of the pattern of responses.

Data Analysis

Data from the completed surveys will be entered into the ATLAS.ti 7 software program

for analysis. The types of analysis that will be conducted include the means, modes, range, and

standard deviations for the variables defined above. In order to determine the relationship

between identity style and religious identity the t-test and analysis of variance will be used to

examine for any significant differences among the scores. Pearson product-moment correlation

24

coefficients will be calculated between parenting style responsiveness and religious identity; and

also between parenting style demandingness and religious identity.

The specific hypotheses to be test are shown below in null form:

1. There is no significant relationship between identity style and religious identity. 2. There is no significant correction between parenting style responsiveness and

religious identity. 3. There is no significant correction between parenting style demandingness and

religious identity.

All hypotheses will be tested at a minimum of the .05 level of significance.

Schedule

The researcher will be responsible for all activities listed below. Project completion date

is estimated to be January 2015.

1st Qtr. 2013 Instrument development, including survey, software and database to be used for analysis and cover letter

July 2014 Instrument testing and editing

August 30, 2014 Obtain email address of incoming freshmen from ITS

September 5, 2014 Distribute survey

September 14, 2014 Send out first reminder email

September 28, 2014 Send out second reminder email

October 2, 2014 Begin analysis of data

January 15, 2015 Distribute finding

25

Budget

$600.00 Survey Monkey subscription

$99.00 ATLAS.ti 7 data analysis software (two year student license)

26

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Armet, S. (2009). Religious socialization and identity formation of adolescents in high tension religions. Review of Religious Research, 50(3), 277-297.

Balkin, R., Schiosser, L. & Levitt, D. (2009). Religious identity and cultural diversity: Exploring

the relationships between religious identity, sexism, homophobia, and multicultural competence. Journal of Counseling & Development, 87(4), 420-427.

Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance

use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56-95. Bertram-Troost, G. de Roos, S. & Miedema, S. (2009). The relationship between religious

education and religious commitments and explorations of adolescents: On religious identity development in Dutch Christian secondary schools. Journal of Beliefs & Values:

Studies in Religion & Education, 30(1), 17-27. Crocetti, E., Berzonsky, M &, Meeus, W. (2012) A person-centered approach to identity styles.

Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata, 263, 17-30. Duriez, B., Luyckx, K., Soenens, B. & Berzonsky, M. (2012). A process-content approach to

adolescent identity formation: Examining longitudinal associations between identity styles and goal pursuits. Journal of Personality, 80(1), 135-161.

Gebelt, J., Thompson, S. & Miele, K. (2009). Identity style and spirituality in a collegiate

context. Identity. 9(3), 219-232. Henderson, S. (2003). The impact of student religion and college affiliation on student religiosity

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Arkansas. Lopez, A. B., Huynh, V. W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2011). A longitudinal study of religious identity

and participation during adolescence. Child Development, 82(4), 1297-1309. Statement of Mission, Andrews University. (2103) Retrieved June 23, 2013, from

http://www.andrews.edu/about/mission.html. Taylor, A., Wilson, C., Slater, A. & Mohr, P. (2012). Self-esteem and body dissatisfaction in

young children: Associations with weight and perceived parenting style. Clinical

Psychologist, 16(1), 25-35.

Vleioras, G., & Bosma, H. A. (2005). Are identity styles important for psychological well-being? Journal of Adolescence, 28(3), 397-409

27

Wen, X., & Hui, S. (2012). Parenting style as a moderator of the association between parenting behaviors and the weight status of adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(2), 252-268.

Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Religiosity as identity: Toward an

understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality & Social

Psychology Review (Sage Publications Inc.), 14(1), 60-71.

.

28

APPENDIX I

NATIONAL INSTITUES OF HEALTH CERTIFICATE

29

APPENDIX II

IRB Application

Office of Research and Creative Scholarship

Institutional Review Board

(269) 471-6361 Fax: (269) 471-6246 E-mail: [email protected]

Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI 49104-0355

APPLICATION FOR APPROVAL OF HUMAN SUBJECTS RESEARCH

Please complete this application as thoroughly as possible. Your application will be reviewed by a

committee of Andrews University IRB, and if approved it will be for one year. Beyond the one year you

will be required to submit a continuation request. It is the IRB’s responsibility to assign the level of

review: Exempt, Expedited or Full. It is your responsibility to accurately complete the form and provide

the required documents. Should your application fall into the exempt status, you should expect a response

from the IRB office within 2 weeks; Expedited within 2 weeks and a Full review 4-6 weeks.

Please complete the following application:

1. Research Project

a) Title: Identity Styles, Parenting Styles and Religious Identity of Andrews University undergraduate

students

Will the research be conducted on the AU campus? _x_ Yes ___ No

If no, please indicate the location(s) of the study and attach an institutional consent letter that references the

researcher’s study.

b) What is the source of funding (please check all that apply)

_x__ Unfunded

___ Internal Funding Source:

___ External Funding Sponsor/Source:

Grant title: Award # / Charging String:

If you do not know the funding/grant information, please obtain it from your department

2. Principal Investigator (PI)

First Name: Last Name: Telephone: E-mail:

R. Deborah Weithers 269.471.4851 [email protected]

_x__ Yes I am a student. If so, please provide information about your faculty advisor below.


Duane Covrig 269.471. [email protected]

30

Advisor’s signature:

Department: Program:

Leadership (School of Education) MA Leadership

3. Co-investigators (Please list their names and contact information below)


None




4. Cooperating Institutions

Is this research being done in cooperation with any institutions, individuals or organizations not affiliated with AU?

___ Yes _x__ No If yes, please provide the names and contact information of authorized officials below.

Name of Organization: Address:


First Name: Last Name: Telephone: E-mail

Have you received IRB approval from another institution for this study? ___ Yes ___ No

If yes, please attach a copy of the IRB approval.

5. Participant Recruitment

Describe how participant recruitment will be performed. Include how and by whom potential participants are

introduced to the study (please check all below that apply)

___ AU directory ___ Postings, Flyers ___ Radio, TV

___ E-mail solicitation. Indicate how the email addresses are obtained:

___ Web-based solicitation. Specify sites:

___ Participant Pool. Specify what pool:

_x__ Other, please specify:

Please attach any recruiting materials you plan to use and the text of e-mail or web-based solicitations you will use.

Obtain email address of all undergraduate students from

6. Participant Compensation and Costs

Are participants to be compensated for the study? Yes ___ No _x__ If yes, what is the amount, type and source of funds?

Amount: Source: Type:

Will participants who are students be offered class credit? ___ Yes __x_ No ___ NA

Are other inducements planned to recruit participants? _x__ Yes ___ No If yes, please describe.

Are there any costs to participants? ___ Yes _x__ No If yes, please explain.

** two ipads will be given to two participants selected randomly

7. Confidentiality and Data Security

Will personal identifiers be collected? _x_ Yes ___ No Will identifiers be translated to a code? ___Yes _x_ No

Will recordings be made (audio, video)? ___ Yes _x__ No If yes, please describe.

31

Who will have access to data (survey, questionnaires, recordings, interview records, etc.)? Please list below.

Debbie Weithers, student; Duane Covrig, advisor

8. Conflict of Interest

Do you (or any individual who is associated with or responsible for the design, the conduct of or the reporting of

this research) have an economic or financial interest in, or act as an officer or director for, any outside entity

whose interests could reasonably appear to be affected by this research project: ___ Yes _x__ No

If yes, please provide detailed information to permit the IRB to determine if such involvement should be disclosed

to potential research subjects.

9. Results

To whom will you present results (highlight all that apply)

___ Class _x__ Conference _x__ Published Article ___ Other If other, please specify:

10. Description of Research Subjects

If human subjects are involved, please highlight all that apply:

_x__ Minors (under 18 years) ___ Prison inmates ___ Mentally impaired ___ Physically disabled

___ Institutionalized residents ___ Anyone unable to make informed decisions about participation

___ Vulnerable or at-risk groups, e.g., poverty, pregnant women, substance abuse population

11. Risks

Are there any potential damage or adverse consequences to researcher, participants, or environment? These

include physical, psychological, social, or spiritual risks whether as part of the protocol or a remote possibility.

Please highlight all that apply (Type of risk): None

___ Physical harm ___ Psychological harm ___ Social harm ___ Spiritual harm

12. Content Sensitivity

Does your research address culturally or morally sensitive issues? _x__ Yes ___ No If yes, please describe:

Measures perceived religiosity – four questions, that may be sensitive to some

13. Please provide (type in or copy - paste or attach) the following documentation in the boxes below:

Protocol : attached

32

Survey instrument or interview protocol: attached

Institutional approval letter (if off AU campus): n/a

Consent form (for interviews and focus groups): n/a

Participants recruitment documents: n/a

Principal Investigator’s Assurance Statement for Using Human Subjects in Research

____x__ I certify that the information provided in this IRB application is complete and accurate. ___x___ I understand that as Principal Investigator, I have ultimate responsibility for the conduct of IRB approved studies, the ethical performance of protocols, the protection of the rights and welfare of human subjects, and strict adherence to the study’s protocol and any stipulation imposed by Andrews University Institutional Review Board. ___x___ I will submit modifications and / or changes to the IRB as necessary prior to implementation. ___x___ I agree to comply with all Andrews University’s policies and procedures, as well as with

all applicable federal, state, and local laws, regarding the protection of human participants in research.

___x___ My advisor has reviewed and approved my proposal.

33

APPENDIX III

QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTIONS

You will find a number of statements about beliefs, attitudes, and/or ways of dealing with issues. Read

each carefully, then use it to describe yourself. Below each question, please mark the number that

indicates the extent to which you think the statement represents you. There are no right or wrong

answers. For instance, if the statement is very much like you, mark a 5, if it is not like you at all, mark a

1. Use the 1 to 5 point scale to indicate the degree to which you think each statement is uncharacteristic

(1) or characteristic (5) of yourself.

1. I've spent a great deal of time thinking seriously about what I should do with my life. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

2. I've spent a good deal of time reading and talking to others about religious ideas. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

3. When I discuss an issue with someone, I try to assume their point of view and see the

problem from their perspective. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

4. I've spent a lot of time reading and trying to make some sense out of political issues.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

5. I've spent a lot of time and talked to a lot of people trying to develop a set of values that make

sense to me. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

6. When I have a personal problem, I try to analyze the situation in order to understand it.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 7. I find it's best to seek out advice from professionals (e.g., clergy, doctors, lawyers) when I

have problems. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

8. I find that personal problems often turn out to be interesting challenges.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 9. When I have to make a decision, I like to spend a lot of time thinking about my options.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 10. I like to have the responsibility for handling problems in my life that require me to think on

my own. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

34

11. When making important decisions I like to have as much information as possible. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

12. I'm not really sure what I'm doing in school; I guess things will work themselves out.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 13. It doesn't pay to worry about values in advance; I decide things as they happen.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 14. Many times by not concerning myself with personal problems, they work themselves out.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 15. I'm not really thinking about my future now; it's still a long way off.


16. When I have to make a decision, I try to wait as long as possible in order to see what will

happen. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

17. It's best for me not to take life too seriously; I just try to enjoy it.


18. I try not to think about or deal with problems as long as I can.


19. I try to avoid personal situations that will require me to think a lot and deal with them on my

own. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

20. Sometimes I refuse to believe a problem will happen, and things manage to work themselves

out. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

21. When I know a situation is going to cause me stress, I try to avoid it.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 22. I've more-or-less always operated according to the values with which I was brought up.

(not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me) 23. I've always had purpose in my life; I was brought up to know what to strive for.


24. Regarding religion, I've always known what I believe and don't believe; I never really had

any serious doubts. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

25. I've known since high school that I was going to college and what I was going to major in.


35

26. I think it's better to have fixed values, than to consider alternative value systems.


27. I think it's better to have a firm set of beliefs than to be open-minded. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

28. Once I know the correct way to handle a problem, I prefer to stick with it.


29. I prefer to deal with situations where I can rely on social norms and standards.


30. I find it's best for me to rely on the advice of close friends or relatives when I have a problem. (not at all like me) 1 2 3 4 5 (very much like me)

31. I have a strong sense of belonging to my own religion.

(strongly disagree) 1 2 3 4 5 (strongly agree)

32. In general, being a member of my religion is an important part of my self-image.


33. Being a part of my religion is an important reflection of who I am.


34. I feel a strong attachment toward my own religion.


Below are a series of statements describing your relationship with your parent. Read each carefully, and

then use it to describe your relationship with your primary caregiver – the parent who spent the most

amount of time looking after you. Below each question, please mark the number that indicates the extent

to which you think the statement represents your relationship with your parent. There are no right or

wrong answers. For instance, if the statement is exactly like my parent, mark a 5, if it is not like my

parent at all, mark a 1. Use the 1 to 5 point scale to indicate the degree to which you think each statement

is uncharacteristic (1) or characteristic (5) of your parent.

35. He/She is always telling me what to do. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

36. He/She makes rules without asking what I think (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

37. He/She makes me feel better when I am upset. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

36

38. He/She is too busy to talk to me. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

39. He/She listens to what I have to say (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

40. He/She likes me just the way I am. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

41. He/She tells me when I do a good job on things. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

42. He/She wants to hear about my problems. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

43. He/She is pleased with how I behave. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

44. He/She has rules that I must follow. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

45. He/She tells me times when I must come home. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

46. He/She makes sure I tell her where I am going. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

47. He/She makes sure I go to bed on time. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

48. He/She asks me what I do with friends. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

49. He/She knows where I am after school. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

50. He/She checks to see if I do my homework. (not like my parent) 1 2 3 4 5 (exactly like my parent)

Thank you for completing the survey!

37

APPENDIX IV

VARIABLE DEFINITIONS

Variable Conceptual Instrumental Operational

Identity style the social-cognitive strategy that one reportedly characteristically uses or would prefer to use when dealing with identity conflicts and decisions (Berzonsky)

Identity Style Inventory (Berzonsky, 1992a) – 30 item inventory Values attributed to questions for each of the four categories: Information-Orientation min 11; max 55 (Cat 1) Normative-Orientation min 9; max 45 (Cat 2) Diffuse-Orientation min 10; max 50 (Cat 3) Likkert scale 1-5 Min score:9 ; Max score: 55 Highest score of the four categories will be designated the identity style.

Each participant will be assigned an identity style category based on the score from the Inventory Cat 1 – Information Cat 2 – Normative Cat 3 – Diffuse

Parenting style a constellation of attitudes toward the child, which are communicated to him or her, and which, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parent’s behaviors are expressed (Darling & Steinberg)

Authoritative Parenting Index (API) (Jackson, Henriksen, & Foshee, 1998) Two scales: Responsiveness – 9 questions (Cat 1) Demandingness – 7 questions (Cat 2) Likkert scale 1- 5 Min score: ; Max score:

Scores for the subscales calculated by summing item scores. The highest score from each of the two category will be designated the identity style. Each participant will have two scores for each parenting style: x1 – Responsiveness x2 - Demandingness

Religious identity

a process in which individuals explore and commit to a set of religious beliefs and/or practices (Griffith & Griggs, 2001)

Likkert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), following items:

1. “I have a strong sense of belonging to my own religion”

2. “In general, being a member of my religion is an important part of my self-image,”

3. “Being a part of my religion is an important reflection of who I am,”

4. “I feel a strong attachment toward my own religion.”

Scores will be summed Min score: 4; Max score: 20 (Lopez, Huynh & Fuligni, 2011)

Scores will be summed for a total value x=religious identity

38

APPENDIX V

HYPOTHESES TESTING

Null Hypothesis Variables Metric Level Test

No significant relationship between identity style and religious identity

Identity style Religious identity

Nominal/Category Interval

t-test (for independent samples)

No significant correlation between parenting style: responsiveness and religious identity

Parenting style: responsiveness Religious identity

Interval Interval

Pearson product-moment r p<.05

No significant correlation between parenting style: demandingness and religious identity

Parenting style: demandingness Religious identity

Interval Interval

Pearson product-moment r p<.05

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