ancient india – stone age/pottery & culture

Ancient India – STONE AGE/POTTERY & CULTURE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Central Delhi: 73, Near Axis Bank, Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi-60 | Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

CONTENT STONE AGE 1-6 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. PALAEOLITHIC AGE (OLD STONE AGE) 2 3. MESOLITHIC PERIOD (MIDDLE STONE AGE) 3-4 3.1 Features of the Mesolithic Era 3 3.2 Important Mesolithic Sites 3 4. NEOLITHIC PERIOD (NEW STONE AGE) 4-5 4.1 Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age 4 4.2 Important Neolithic Sites 5 5. CHALCOLITHIC AGE (STONE COPPER AGE) 5-6 5.1 Characteristics of the Chalcolithic Age 5 5.2 Important Chalcolithic Sites 6 6. MEGALITHIC CULTURE (1100 BCE - 500 BCE) 6

POTTERY AND CULTURE 8-9 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION 10-11 1. INTRODUCTION 10 1.1 Naming of Indus Valley Civilisation 10 1.2 Discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation 10 1.3 Territorial Limits of Indus Valley Civilisation 10 1.4 Characteristic Features of Indus Valley Civilisation 11 1.5 Characteristic Features of Harappan Cities 11 2. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION 12 3. IMPORTANT DETAILS ABOUT HARAPPAN CITIES 13-17 3.1 Social Life 13 3.2 Economy 15 3.3 Crafts 16 3.4 Religion 16 3.5 Burial 17 3.6 Institutions 17 3.7 Seals 17 3.8 Weapons 17 4. RARE FINDINGS 18 4.1 Dresses and Ornaments 18 4.2 Ports of Harappan Civilisation 18 4.3 Language & Script of Harappans 18 4.4 Trade Pattern of Indus Valley Civilisation 18 5. DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (IVC) 19

Ancient India – STONE AGE/POTTERY & CULTURE & INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 1Central Delhi: 73, Near Axis Bank, Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi-60 |

Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

TOPIC 1

STONE AGE /POTTERY & CULTURE

• History (from the Greek word – Historia, meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by investigation) is the study

of the past. History is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection, organisation, presentation and interpretation of information about these events. • It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history. • Pre-history – Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history is represented by the three stone ages. • Proto-history – It refers to the period between pre-history and history, during which a culture or organisation had not developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary literate civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains un-deciphered, however since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic civilisation from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures are also considered part of proto-history by archaeologists. • History – The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological sources constitute history. • The Stone Age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the period before the development of the script and therefore the main source of information for this period is the archaeological excavations. • Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then:

o Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE o Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE o Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE – 1000 BCE o Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 3000 BCE – 500 BCE o Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE

1. INTRODUCTION


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

• The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’ which means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the Old Stone Age. • The Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, which is a geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist. • Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age –

o The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters. o They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting. o There was no knowledge of houses, Pottery, Agriculture. It was only in later stages they discovered fire. o In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of paintings. o Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and scrapers. o Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite’ men in India as the stone tools were made of a hard rock called

quartzite. • The Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of the change of climate.

o Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC o Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC o Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC Lower

Palaeolithic Age

(Early Palaeolithic

Age)

• It covers the greater part of the Ice Age. • Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools were rough and heavy. • One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra. • Limestone was also used to make tools. • Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age: Uttar Pradesh (Belan Valley), Madhya Pradesh (Bhimbetka, Jogadha), Rajasthan (Bagor, Budha Puskar), Maharashtra (Patne, Bhatne, Nandipalle), Andhra Pradesh (Renugunta, Kurnool Caves (1,00,000 B.C.)), Jharkhand (Singhbhum), Gujarat (Visdi), etc. • There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters. • An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

Middle Palaeolithic

Age

• Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers. • The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner. • There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools. • Important middle Palaeolithic age sites: Madhya Pradesh (Bhimbetka, Narmada Valley), Rajasthan (Bagor, Didwana, Kadmali Valley), Maharashtra (Newasa), Jharkhand (Singhbhum), Punjab (Sohan Valley), etc.

Upper Palaeolithic

Age

• The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid. • Emergence of Homo sapiens. • The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools. • Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age: Uttar Pradesh (Singrauli, Belan Valley), Kashmir Valley (Pahalgam), Madhya Pradesh (Bhimbetka, Narmada Valley, Hathnora, Adamgarh), Rajasthan (Didwana), Maharashtra (Newasa, Patne, Bhatne), Karnataka (Hungsi Valley), Andhra Pradesh (Kurnool Caves, Giddhlur, Nellore), etc. • Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.

2. PALAEOLITHIC AGE (OLD STONE AGE)


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

• The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words – ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’. In Greek ‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’. • Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. In this era, there was a rise in temperature, the climate became warm which resulted in melting of ice and also brought changes in flora and fauna. 3.1 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE MESOLITHIC ERA • The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture. • The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals. • The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with occupying caves and open grounds. • The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with food items and other goods. • The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes.

o They were not only used as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. o These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.

• The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin. • The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The subject matter of these paintings was mostly

wild animals and hunting scenes, dancing and food collection were also depicted in such paintings. 3.2 IMPORTANT MESOLITHIC SITES • Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India. Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been excavated.

3. MESOLITHIC PERIOD (MIDDLE STONE AGE)


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals. • There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in Central India such as

Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala). • Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi. • Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites. Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from these places. • Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).

• The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘neo’ which means new and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to the ‘New Stone Age’. It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and economic life. • The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from food gatherer. 4.1 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE • Tools and Weapons – The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand axes. They also used tools and weapons made

of bones – such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner. • Agriculture – The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. • Pottery – With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery appeared in this phase on a large scale. The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots. • Housing and Settled Life – The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton, wool and weave

cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life and paved the way for the beginning of civilization. • The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They inhabited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the hills, since they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made of stone. 4.2 IMPORTANT NEOLITHIC SITES

Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying

south of Allahabad) This site provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand-made pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in India but anywhere in the world. Mehrgarh

(Balochistan, Pakistan) The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat. It provides the earliest evidence of Cotton in the Indian Sub-continent. Burzahom (Kashmir) The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as bones.

Gufkral (Kashmir) This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses. Chirand (Bihar) The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.

Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski,

Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka)

The people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have been found. Belan Valley (Which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley) – All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic ages are found in sequence.

4. NEOLITHIC PERIOD (NEW STONE AGE)


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

• The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone tools. The first metal to be used was copper. The chalcolithic age largely applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but in many parts of the country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture. 5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHALCOLITHIC AGE • Agriculture & cattle rearing – The people living in the stone-copper age domesticated animals and

cultivated food grains. They domesticated sheep, goats, pig, rhino and buffaloes and hunted deer. • The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice, they also cultivated bajra. They also produced several pulses such as lentil (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea. • Cotton was produced in the black cotton soil of the Deccan and ragi, bajra and several millets were cultivated in the lower Deccan. The people belonging to the stone-copper phase in the eastern regions lived mainly on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in that part of the country. • Archaeological evidences from Inamgaon establish the knowledge of the inhabitants about crop rotation,

harvesting and irrigation. • Pottery – The people of the stone-copper phase used different types of pottery, one of which is called black and

red pottery and seems to have been widely prevalent in that era. The ochre-coloured pottery was also popular. The potter’s wheel was used and painting with white linear designs was also done. • Rural settlements – The people living in the Stone Age were characterised by rural settlements and were not

acquainted with burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. • This age also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their villages consisted of more than 35 houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in shape. The chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy. • Art and Craft – The chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper smelting and were good stone workers as well. They knew spinning and weaving and were well acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth. However, they did not know the art of writing. • Worship – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from the chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan, stylised bull terracottas show that the bull served as a religious cult. • Infant mortality – Infant mortality was high among the Chalcolithic people, as is evident from the burial of a large number of children in West Maharashtra. In spite of being a food-producing economy, the rate of infant mortality was very high. We can say that the Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote

longevity. • Jewellery – The Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They manufactured beads of semi-precious

stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.

5. CHALCOLITHIC AGE (STONE COPPER AGE)


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

5.2 IMPORTANT CHALCOLITHIC SITES Daimabad and

Inamgaon These were the biggest settlements of Chalcolithic Culture Ahar (Banas Valley,

South Eastern Rajasthan)

Chalcolithic people were the first to use Painted pottery. The old name of Ahar is Tambavati. The people of this region practised smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to other contemporary communities. Rice was cultivated here. Gilund (Banas Valley,

Rajasthan) Stone blade industry was discovered here.

Daimabad (Ahmadnagar, Gujrat)

The largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant, two wheeled chariots with a rider and a buffalo. Malwa (Madhya

Pradesh)

The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located on the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of the richest chalcolithic ceramics, and also spindle whorls. Kayatha (Madya

Pradesh)

The settlement of Kayatha culture was mostly located on the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper objects with sharp cutting edges were found. Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur

(Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal)

These are the prominent chalcolithic sites in these states. Songaon, Inamgaon and

Nasik (Maharashtra) Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses have been discovered here.

Navdatoli (on Narmada) It was one of the largest chalcolithic settlements in the country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated almost all food grains. Nevasa (Jorwe,

Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh)

These sites are known for their non-Harappan culture.

• The megaliths usually refer to burials amidst stones in graveyards away from the habitation area. • In south India this kind of elaborate burial came with Iron Age. Most of the information about the Iron Age in south India comes from the excavations of the megalithic graves. • Megalithic burials have been reported in large numbers from Maharashtra (around Nagpur), Karnataka (sites like Maski), Andhra Pradesh (Nagarjunkonda), Tamil Nadu (Adichannallur) and Kerla. • The earliest phases of Iron Age in south India are recovered in the excavations at Piklihal and Hallur and possibly by the burial pits at Brahmagiri. These early burials yielded the first iron objects, black-and-red ware and a matt painted buff and red ware. • The settlements found near the megalithic complexes have very thin debris of occupation. This would indicate that these people were living in one area for very short time. May be with the knowledge of iron they could colonize new areas. Thus, some of the population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate

colonization new areas. • Where the settlements continue from the preceding period, people continued to live in their old ways. • Use of iron tools enabled them to use granite stones for their graves. It is these agro-pastoral groups that enter the historical phase in the early centuries of the Christian era. They have been mentioned in the Sangam literature. • Some of the graves have yielded Roman Coins which suggest their entry into history and their participation in trade networks spread over a large area.

6. MEGALITHIC CULTURE (1100 BCE - 500 BCE)


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

TOPIC 2 POTTERY & CULTURE

The tradition of pottery making began in the 9th millennium BC in India. The earliest evidence of pottery was discovered from Chopani Mando located in Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh. Over a period of time, a number of different types of potteries had begun to be formed and used in India.

PERIOD POTTERY & ITS FEATURES

Chalcolithic Pottery

Black-and-red-ware Pottery (BRW): Ahar-Banas. This typical colour combination was attained through ‘Inverted firing method’. At times, paintings were made on other surface of these pots by using black or white colours. The pottery was mostly wheel turned, though some pots were handmade as well. BRW were discovered for the first time at Atranjikhera in early 1960s. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP): upper Ganga Valley and Ganga Yamuna doab area. Generally, OCP did not have any painting but the pots found at Atranjikhera and Lal Quila had paintings in black colour on their red colour outer surface. Pots of this variety were discovered for the first time by archaeologist B. B. Lal in 1950 during excavations at Bisauli (Badaun district) and Rajpur Parsu (Bijnor district) in Uttar Pradesh.

Harappan Pottery

Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed. The colour of the slip ranged from cream to red. Occasionally, slips of other colours such as chocolate and purple have also been found. It was made on fast wheels. Polished wares were well fired. Most of the pottery is polychrome (more than two colours are used to colour the pottery). Most of the pots show monochrome paintings in black. The designs are mostly

geometrical. Naturalistic designs consisting of flowers, palm tree, leaves (particularly peepal leaf), animals (bull, ibex, goat, deer), birds (peacock) and sometimes snake were also painted on these pots. The pottery performed both utilitarian and decorative functions. Such potteries usually have flat bases. Archaeological excavations carried out at the sites of Harappan civilization have revealed that the people of this great civilization used 6 different types of pottery. These were: Black and red ware, Buff ware, Red ware, Lustrous red ware, Coarse red ware and Coarse grey ware.

Late Harappan Pottery Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel – Found in Swat Valley.

Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated with Vedic people have been found inconjunction with some late Harappan pottery. Vedic Era

The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture. These pots were discovered for the first time at Ahichhatra during 1940-44. PGW pottery was used by Aryans during later Vedic age (1000 BC to 600 BC). These pots were wheel made. Very fine clay was used in the making of these pots. These pots were grey to ash–grey in colour.

Users of PGW practiced agriculture. Food grains like wheat, barley and rice etc were cultivated. Evidence of cultivated crops was found at Hastinapur and Atranjikhera only. Post-Vedic Age

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): This was the typical pottery of Mahajanapada period, age of second urbanisation in India and Mauryan period. It was used during the period from 600 BC to 100 AD. NBPW were made by using a fast-turning wheel. Their walls were very thin which reflect refinement and high level of craftsmanship. A layer of ferrous oxide was put on these pots which gave them shiny black colour after firing. There was highly lustrous

POTTERY & CULTURE


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

black polish on these pots which was very much similar to the polish found on Ashokan pillars. Fragments of NBPW found at Bairat, Rupar, Sonpur and Kumrahar were riveted with copper pins which indicate that they were used by rich people. There pots were deluxe

wares. Red wares: They were used in India during Sunga, Saka and Kushana periods (100 BC to 300 AD). Evidences at Rupar, Hastinapur and Patna show exclusive existence of red ware industry. Red wares were entirely monochrome and they were turned on wheels. They were not made by using fully levigated clay. Some pots were decorated by using geometrical

designs such as opposed triangles, alternately filled by horizontal lines and wedge-pattern, opposed triangles arranged in such a way as to form rhombi. Religious motifs like swastika, fish, taurine, naga symbol, chaitya, sun and Dharmachakra are also found on red wares. Imported Ware

Indo-Roman cultural and economic contacts influenced Indian pottery in a big way. The excavations carried out at Arikamedu (located near Puducherry), Muziris and many other sites have brought to light four distinct pottery types which were influenced by Greco-Roman world either directly or indirectly. These were: Arretine ware, Rouletted ware, Amphoraeand Red polished ware. Initially these pots were imported from Roman world but later on Indian potters started producing pottery of these varieties for the use Indian elite class.


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

TOPIC 3 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

• The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation in the north-western regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. 1.1 NAMING OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION • The name Indus Valley Civilization was given by John Marshall because most of the settlements were found to be located on the banks of River Indus. • Later, the name Harappan Civilization was adopted after Harappa City (First site to be excavated) because new sites were excavated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Western Uttar Pradesh which made earlier name irrelevant. 1.2 DISCOVERY OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION • Harappan Civilization is believed to be one of the great riverine

civilizations in the history of man-kind which is dated back to approximately 3300 BC and flourished around 2500 BC. Until 20th century it was believed that Indian History began with Vedic culture but this belief was shattered after Indus Valley Civilization was discovered by J.F. Fleet in 1912, when he found Harappan Seals.

• This event gave impetus to excavations at Harappa (on River Ravi) under Sir John Marshall, and Daya Ram Sahni and excavations at Mohenjo Daro (on river Indus in Sindh) by R.D. Banerjee 1921-22.

1.3 TERRITORIAL LIMITS OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION • The civilization extended from

Manda (Jammu & Kashmir) in the North to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the South & Suktagendor (Pakistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western Uttar Pradesh) in the East, covering a total area of about 1,299,600 Sq. Kms. 1.4 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION • The most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of urban centers. • Uniform Town-Planning was the fundamental feature in almost all the sites excavated. Grid-pattern was followed and street and lanes were cut each other at right-angles. This advance structure of town-planning suggests they were planned by some central authority. • Entire civilization was usually divided mainly into 2-parts, i.e., Lower town and Upper (Citadel) Town except at the site named Dholavira (Gujarat) which was divided into 3-parts (Lower, Middle, Upper Town). • Upper town was always fortified and a few sites like Surkotada (Gujarat) and Kalibangan (Rajasthan) even

Lower town was fortified. However, no fortification has been found in Harrapan city of Chanhudaro. • The earliest evidence of fortification is found from Harappan Civilization. The towns were fortified to safeguard themselves from wild animals, frequent flood and intruders.

1. INTRODUCTION


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

• Upper town probably housed ruling class and Lower town was for common people. Lower town was located on the eastern side of upper town. All the important structures like great bath, granaries, etc. were found on the upper town. • One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system.

o The Drainage system was far advanced. Harappan people were very conscious about cleanliness and sanitation. An underground drainage was set up which connected narrow drains coming from side lanes. Water from the houses flowed directly into street drains. The drains were usually made of mud-bricks which were sealed by using mud mortars.

o Manholes were also dropped at regular intervals to keep the drains clean. Soak-pits were also constructed to recharge the groundwater table, indicating they were concerned about sustainability. The remains of drains have been discovered from Banawali (Haryana).

• The Houses of Harappan Civilization were built on side lanes of roads from dried or baked clay bricks. Stones were not used. Windows were usually absent probably to prevent themselves from dust.

• Harappans were the first in the world to use Flushed-Toilets, which was a special feature of Harappan houses. • The upper town had buildings like granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls (fortification) probably protected them from conflicts and floods. • At Mohenjo-Daro, a 24-square meters pillared hall was discovered. It had five rows of pillars, with four pillars in each row. Probably, it was the Assembly Hall or the ruler's court. It is said that it also housed the municipal office which had the charge of town planning and sanitation. • One of the largest building found was the Great Bath measuring 180 feet by 108 feet. It indicates presence of some religious activity and as people used to gather here for bathing. • They had a well-developed exclusive Pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered. • Bronze was the most prominent metal used by Harappans. 1.5 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF HARAPPAN CITIES


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

SITE EXCAVATED BY LOCATION IMPORTANT FINDINGS

Harappa

Daya Ram Sahini in 1921 Situated on the bank of river Ravi in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan). Sandstone statues of Human anatomy Granaries Bullock carts Mohenjodaro

(Mound of Dead)

R.D Banerjee in 1922 Situated on the Bank of river Indus in Larkana district of Punjab (Pakistan). Great bath Granary Bronze dancing girl Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva Steatite statue of beard man A piece of woven cotton Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 In southwestern Balochistan province, Pakistan on Dast river A trade point between Harappa and Babylon Chanhudaro

N.G Majumdar in 1931 Sindh on the Indus river Bead makers shop Footprint of a dog chasing a cat Amri N.G Majumdar in 1935 On the bank of Indus river Antelope evidence

Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 Rajasthan on the bank of Ghaggar river Fire altar Camel bones Wooden plough

Lothal

R. Rao in 1953 Gujarat on Bhogva river near Gulf of Cambay First manmade port Dockyard Rice husk Fire altars Chess playing Surkotada

J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujarat Bones of horses Beads Banawali

R.S Bisht in 1974 Hisar district of Haryana Beads Barley Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture Dholavira

R.S Bisht in 1985 Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh Water harnessing system Water reservoir

2. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

Mohenjo-Daro (Literally Means The Mound Of Dead)

• The famous Pashupati- Mahadeva Seal was found at Mohenjo-Daro. It is made up of steatite. The seal depicts a 3-headed figure of probably a yogi seated with animals. The animals like Rhino, Tiger, Elephant, two-Deer and a Buffalo are depicted. This finding of this seal is considered first evidence of Hindu God Shiva. The small intricate work over the seal reveals the well-developed artistic skills of Harappans indicating that they were good craftsman. • The Bearded Man/Priest was found at Mohenjo-Daro. The man has a shawl on his right shoulder which is weaved. • The Bronze Dancing-Girl found at Mohenjo-Daro. It is considered perhaps the greatest surviving achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age. This world-famous figure shows a female dancing figure standing with her right hand on her hip and the left dangling free. She is wearing a large number of bangles, probably made of bone or ivory on her left arm together with a couple of pairs on her right arm. • A Terracotta figure representing the large sized Mother Goddess is one of the best preserved found at Mohenjo-Daro. • The terracotta figure representing a bull is also found. The animal is standing with his head turned to the right and there is a cord around the neck.

Harappa

• An evidence of male-torso made of red-sand stone is found from Harappa. • Evidence of Coffin Burial. The Harappans had well-established burial practice. Cremation

Grounds were there at Mohenjo-Daro. The corpse was buried with head generally positioning towards North.

• From the well-developed burial practice, it is believed that Harappan believed in life after death as at few places the corpses were buried with items of daily use. • Two rows of granaries with brick platforms. • The seal of Garuda with Snake is also found.

Banawali • It is an archaeological site belonging to Indus Valley Civilization period in Haryana. • Also referred to as Vanavali, it is on the left banks of dried-up Sarasvati River. • A terracotta plough model is important as it is a complete specimen found so far in Harappan Culture. • Other remarkable finds are beads and bangles of semi-precious stones, terracotta and shell, chertblades, weights and sportsmen of ivory and bone, beads and foil in gold, charred barley grains etc. • High quality Barley has been discovered.

Kalibangan

• It is an ancient town located on the left of the southern banks of the Ghaggar in Rajasthan. It is also identified as being established in the triangle of land at the confluence of Drishadvati and Saraswati Rivers. • It literally means 'black bangles' which it derives from the dense distribution of the fragments of black bangles which were found at the surface of its mounds. • It has relics of both Pre-Harappan settlements from the 3500 BC – 2500 BC and Harappan

settlements from the 2500 BC – 1750 BC, but also the excavation of this site proves that a well - established lifestyle existed before the Harappan civilization in India. • It was also discovered that for the ceramic industry, Rajasthan was a significant centre. • Oldest evidence of Earthquake is known from Kalibangan. • There was no Drainage system at Kalibangan. • Fire Altars have been found. • Evidence of Tiled Floor has been found. • Two kinds of Burial (Circular and Rectangular graves), Joint Burial is also found.

3. IMPORTANT DETAILS ABOUT HARAPPAN CITIES


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

Dholavira

• It is an archaeological site in Kutch District of Gujarat. The city of Dholavira was found to be very well-planned, divided into three stages to form a layered city with a lower town, a quadrangular middle town and a citadel.

• The city was divided into three-parts: Lower Town, Middle Town, Upper town. • It was famous for water conservation techniques such as rock-cut wells and is possibly the earliest example of rock-cut wells. • The city had an impressive and unique water harvesting and management system has been found. The site is flanked by two streams – the Manhar and Mandsar. Dams were built across these to channelize their water into reservoirs. • One of the unique features of Dholavira is that, unlike other Harappan cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro, the city is built almost exclusively of stones instead of bricks. • They city is referred to as ‘Kotada Timba’ in the local language.

Shortughai • It is located in the Amu Darya (Oxus River) valley, in northern Afghanistan. • The remains of a small Harappan colony have been found, presumably sited so as to provide control of the lapis lazuli export trade originating in the neighbouring city of Badakhshan.

Daimabad • The city in Maharashtra site belonging to the late Harappan stage. It was the Southern-most extension of Harappan Civilisation.

Chanhudaro • It was about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro. • This is a single mound site with no fortifications. • There are mud-brick platforms with remains of various structures. • Chanhudaro was clearly an important centre of craft activity. • Some of the houses yielded raw material such as carnelian, agate, amethyst, and crystal as well as finished and unfinished beads and drills. • More striking was the discovery of a bead factory, with lots of finished and unfinished beads, mostly made of steatite. • Seal making, shell working, and the making of stone weights seem to have been other important crafts practised here. The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system.

Lothal

• It is located between the Sabarmati river and its tributary, the Bhogava, in Saurashtra in Gujarat. The most distinctive feature of Lothal is the dockyard, which lies on the eastern edge of the site.

• A mud-brick platform along the western embankment may have been used for loading and unloading of goods. • Persian Gulf seals were found, indicating trade with contemporary civilizations. • Terracotta figurine of a Horse has been found. • Fire Altars have been found. • The Houses had front entrance. • Lothal was a major port town of this civilization.

Surkotada • Evidence of Pot Burial has been found. • First evidence of actual remains of bones of Horse.

3.1 SOCIAL LIFE

Recreation Activities

1. Hunting 2. Fishing 3. Clay modelling 4. Bullfighting Family Bonding

1. There was a very strong family bonding 2. Children were taught the art of crafts making by their parents.


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

Household Decorations and

Tools

1. Household decoration articles were either made of metals like Copper and Bronze or the decoration articles were made of pottery. 2. Chairs were used Kitchen Utensils

1. The utensils used were jars, dishes, vessels etc. 2. The above items were made of earth and stone. Clothing

1. Cotton clothes were used 2. Woollen clothes were used Cosmetics 1. Women used various cosmetics and face paint. Evidence of lipstick have been discovered from Chanhudaro.

Food

1. Rice, wheat, barley, rice, milk 2. Vegetables like sesame, peas 3. Fruits like Date Palm 4. Mutton, Fish etc Literacy &

Cleanliness 1. The extensive drainage system is an indication of the importance given to cleanliness. 2. Letters engraved on seals is an indication of literacy

Archaeologists first thought that they had stumbled upon cities of children • Harappans were peace-loving people, with the evidence of weapons like spear, plough only, it indicates that they were not war-like people. • Harappan society was an Egalitarian society. The houses had similar structures, ritual activity at Great Bath probably allowed gathering of all the people. • Women were probably given higher status, as Mother Goddess was worshipped. • Harappans were aware of Music and Dance indicating that some sort of entertainment activity existed. The evidence of Bronze Dance Girl found at Mohenjo-Daro indicates towards the same. • When the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were first discovered, a large number of toys including dice, whistles and marbles were found. This led the archaeologists to think that the majority of the inhabitants of those cities were children. • The Indus Valley people were playful. Among the artefacts that have been found on sites like Mohenjo-Daro are toys and games. They have unearthed cubical dice having one to six holes (quite like the ones we have today). Other toys include clay figures of bullock carts, spinning tops, marbles, miniature pots and utensils, etc. 3.2 ECONOMY • Harappan civilization was majorly agriculture-based surplus economy, because Harappan sites have been found on riverine locations, agriculture was well established. Wheat and Barley were chief crops and other crops like rai, peas, mustard, sesamum, etc were also cultivated. • Evidence of cotton material reveals Cotton Cultivation was also done. Oldest evidence of cotton has been found from Mehrgarh. • Rice cultivation was also done, evidence found in Lothal and Rangpur. • The surplus food was stored in granaries. Cereals were paid by peasants as taxes, through which wages were distributed. • Terracotta ploughs have also been found at Indus sites in Banawali and a ploughed field was found Kalibangan. Indicating towards well-developed agricultural system. Mixed Cropping was also practiced at some Indus sites. • The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of numerous seals,

uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. • The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. • Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system. • Harappans had well-established links with contemporary civilizations and maintained Trade relations with them. • Sumerian texts mention the word “Meluha” identified with Indus Civilization. Dilmun identified with Bahrain and Makan were two trading stations which find mention in Mesopotamian texts.


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

• They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea. Trade was done by both land and sea routes. The cart was the principal vehicle of transport and trade by land. The cart was drawn either by bullocks or by men. Boats were used for trade through rivers and sea. Archaeological remains of a port are found at Lothal.

• Seals of Harappan civilization have been found in Mesopotamian cities and their seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro, indicating exchange of goods i.e., Trade. • They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade with Central Asia. • Items like Gold (from Afghanistan, Karnataka), silver (from Afghanistan), precious stones like Lapis Lazuli (from Afghanistan/Iran), Carnelian (from Saurashtra), etc. were imported; indicating internal as well as external trade. 3.3 CRAFTS • The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of Bronze. • Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was possibly brought from

Afghanistan. • Textile impressions have also been found on several objects. • Huge brick structure suggests that brick-laying was an important craft. This also attests the existence of a class

of masons. • The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making. Terracotta manufacturing was also an important craft. • The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones. Ornaments were also made for both men and women. • Bead-making was a common activity among men and women. Carnelian beads were majorily manufactured at Chanhudaro. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc. Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay were also used for manufacturing beads. The beads are in varying shapes: disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. • The Harappans also practiced Seal-making. They made pottery (Potter’s wheel was extensively used), pots, toys, utensils, tools (axes, saws, knives and spears), etc. Weaving was also done; a piece of woven cotton has been found from Mohenjo-Daro. Wool was also used by weavers. 3.4 RELIGION • In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. • In one figurine, a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. This shows worship of Mother

Goddess. • The image probably represents the goddess of earth, and was intimately connected with the origin and growth of plants. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the same way as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddesses. • Animals were also worshipped in Harappan times, and many of them are represented on seals. • The most important of themis the one-horned animal unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros. Next in importance is the humped bull. • Similarly, the animals surrounding Pashupati Mahadeva indicate that these were worshipped. • Evidently, therefore, the inhabitants of the Indus region worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals andhuman beings, but the gods were not placed in temples, a practice that was common in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. • Tree Worship (Pipal tree), Nature Worship (Sun), Animal Worship (Humped Bull, Snake, goat, unicorn, etc) was also present. Temples during Harappan period were absent. The depiction of a deity is represented on a seal amidst branches of the pipal. This tree continues to be worshipped to this day. • Presence of Fire Altars indicates some religious elements like rituals or superstitions. The Great Bath also indicates presence of some religious ritual bathing. Swastikas found on seals reveal some religious elements. • They might have also believed in magical rituals or superstitions, charms and amulets, and so also in spirits and demons. Probably Amulets were worn to use its energy against demons. • The practice of Burial with some items of daily utility indicates their belief in life after death.


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

3.5 BURIAL • The Harappans used different kinds of burial systems like extended burials in a pit, secondary burials, urn burials (suggesting cremation) among others. • The head of the dead was normally laid towards the North and commonly used items were used as grave goods which were buried along with the dead. 3.6 INSTITUTIONS • Very few written materials/inscriptions have been discovered in the Indus valley and the scholars have not been able to decipher the Indus script so far. • As a result, there is difficulty in understanding the nature of the state and institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization. • No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore, the possibility of priests ruling Harappa can be eliminated. • Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

o If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status.

o Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of rulers representing each of the urban centers. 3.7 SEALS • Seals helped facilitate long distance communication. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender. • Seals depicting various themes have been found like seal with humped bull, seal with pashupatinath image. • Steatite, a soft stone found in the river beds, was although the most common material used to make seals, however agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta seals have also been found. • The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial. However, it appears that the seals were also used as

amulets, carried by the person, perhaps the modern-day identity card. • Religious symbols like swastika seals (both small and large categories) are found at Lothal, Mohenjodaro and Harappa. • One of the most evocative seals from Mohenjo-Daro, depicting a deity with horned headdress and bangles on both arms, standing in a pipal (sacred fig) tree and looking down on a kneeling worshiper. • The difference of size of seals most probably reflects the official, commercial, economic, political orreligious status of respective owners in the urbanized society. Owning and using seals was said to have been a privilege for traders or merchants who were approved by certain public authorities. • One of the largest seals exceeding 45 mm were confined to the unicorn and zebu seals found from two large urban sites of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. • There are few seals having script found mainly at Mohenjodaro and the rest are from various sites throughout the Harappan territory - Harappa, Kalibangan, Banawali, Allahdino, Surkotada and Lothal. • The common animal motifs were unicorn, humped bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, buffalo, bison, goat, markour, ibex, crocodile, etc. 3.8 WEAPONS • Although some weapons of copper-alloy materials like spears, knives and arrow-heads have been excavated from the sites, and there are depictions, for example, of a man spearing a water buffalo so the concept of attacking with a spear is certainly present. • But there is no evidence of warfare from the Indus Valley Civilization. • It is concluded that they were, in general, a peace-loving people. • The Indus people certainly did have serviceable weapons of copper-alloy materials including knives, spears, and arrow heads (many have been found).


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

4.1 DRESSES AND ORNAMENTS • Archaeologists have found evidence of cotton and woven cloth spindles made of clay have been found in many sites. • Men wore flowing lengths of cloth while the women wore skirts. • Both the men and women seem to have draped a shawl over their shoulders. • Moth men and women wore ornaments made of gold, silver, faience and beads of semi precious stones like jade lapis lazuli, cornelian and agate. bangles, earrings and necklaces have been popular. • The women used kajal for their eyes and painted their lips as we do even today. 4.2 PORTS OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION • Sutkagendor, Lothal, Nageshwar are on Arabian Sea coast. • Other coastal port city of Harappan civilisation was Balakot (Pakistan). • Cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro were on the bank of river Indus. 4.3 LANGUAGE & SCRIPT OF HARAPPANS • The Harappan inscription was a pictographic script where ideas and objects were expressed in the form of pictures. It is yet to be deciphered. • Inscriptions were mostly on flat, rectangular stamp seals, and also on tools, tablets, ornaments, and pottery. • 417 distinct symbols have been identified, and the direction of writing is thought to be right to left, and sometimes Boustrophedon (written from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines.) • It assumably stands for the name of the owner, the name of an affiliated organization or the name of the deity. • The seals containing these inscriptions were probably used for trade as an administrative instrumental as well as for other functions too. 4.4 TRADE PATTERN OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION • Gold was probably brought from present-day Karnataka. • Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran. • Trade focused on importing raw materials to be used in Harappan city workshops, including minerals from Iran and Afghanistan, lead and copper from other parts of India, jade from China, and cedar wood floated down

rivers from the Himalayas and Kashmir. • Precious stones were brought from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan. Copper was brought from present-day Rajasthan and Oman. Copper • Rajasthan and Oman Tin • Afghanistan and Iran Precious stones • Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan Gold • Karnataka

4. RARE FINDINGS


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.

o One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e., Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC. In later cultures various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion. On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the decline of the IVC.

o The natural factors could be geological and climatic. For example, like change in course of river, frequent floods and droughts, frequent forest fires, earthquakes, Epidemic also gave impetus to its decline. o It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances which cause earthquakes which also changed courses of rivers or dried them up. o Another natural reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall.

There could be also dramatic shifts in the river courses, which might have brought floods to the food producing areas. Due to combination of these natural causes, there was a slow but inevitable collapse of IVC.

5. DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION


Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

ancient india – stone age/pottery & culture

Documents