ANTON BRUCKNER PRIVATUNIVERSITÄT für Musik, Schauspiel und Tanz Hagenstraße 57 I 4040 Linz, Österreich I W www.bruckneruni.at

Rie Hotta

Matrikelnummer: 01557051

Analysis of Multi-Percussion genre

Masterarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades

Master of Arts

des Studiums Schlagwerk KMA

an der

Anton Bruckner Privatuniversität

Betreut durch:

Prof. Leonhard Schmidinger

Univ.Prof. Dr. Lars-Edvard Laubhold

Linz, März 2020

－ ⅰ －

Abstract

The term "multi-percussion", well known to the percussionists has not yet found its way

to the mainstream. This elaborate genre of performance requires from one performer to

utilize multiple percussion instruments.

What makes it so unique are the ambiguous musical pieces. They are often unclear, the

score is not descriptive and leaves the artist with multiple choices (ex. regarding

instruments specifications). To come up with the right ones, the performer must achieve

a full understanding of the selected piece and instruments he will need. In this thesis, we

deep dive to the inception of this genre and examine how it evolved through the time.

Thereafter we will focus on the legendary Japanese composer Maki Ishii and analyze his

work. What he experienced, thought, and tried to convey through his work. Our goal is to

achieve a good understanding of multi-percussion pieces and how to execute them

properly.

－ ⅱ －

Table of Contents

1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................1

2. About multi-percussion.....................................................................................................4

2.1. General information of multi-percussion................................................................4

2.2. Origin of multiple percussion.................................................................................5

2.3. Solo multi-percussion pieces.................................................................................8

2.3.1. Examples of early multi-percussion pieces.................................................8

2.3.2. Multi-percussion pieces by Japanese composer......................................11

3. Maki Ishii........................................................................................................................14

3.1. Maki Ishii - Japanese composer..........................................................................14

3.2. "Musical world based on a third image"..............................................................15

4. Traditional Japanese arts ..............................................................................................17

4.1. Gagaku (雅楽).....................................................................................................17

4.1.1. Instruments of gagaku...............................................................................18

4.1.2. Categories and instrumentation of gagaku.............................................. 23

4.2. Jo-Ha-Kyu (序破急)........................................................................................... 25

4.3. Ma (間).................................................................................................................26

4.4. Shakuhachi (尺八)..............................................................................................28

4.5. Shomyo (声明)....................................................................................................30

4.5.1. Scale of shomyo........................................................................................31

4.5.2. Notation of shomyo...................................................................................33

－ ⅲ －

4.6. Wadaiko...............................................................................................................35

4.6.1. History of Japanese drumming.................................................................36

4.6.2. Today's wadaiko performance..................................................................38

4.6.3. Ondekoza..................................................................................................39

5. Ishii and percussion.......................................................................................................41

5.1. Ishii's concept of percussion................................................................................41

5.2. Encounter with wadaiko......................................................................................42

5.3. Thirteen Drums....................................................................................................44

5.3.1. General information...................................................................................44

5.3.2. Analyze......................................................................................................48

6. Conclusion......................................................................................................................65

7. Bibliography....................................................................................................................66

1 Thomas D. Rossing, Science of Percussion Instruments, Songapole 2000(=Series In Popular ScienceVol. 3), P. V.

2 David L. Smith, Multiple Percussion,https://www.moderndrummer.com/article/january-1977-complete-percussionist-multiple-percussion/,(28.05.2019).

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1. Introduction

"Percussion instruments are amongst the oldest instruments in the world. They are also,

undoubtedly, the most universal. The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments has

1,523 different entries for drum alone. Yet, ironically, percussion has been slow to

develop and to be utilized in western art music."1 It was 1956 that the first solo piece for

multi-percussion was composed. That is to say, the history of the multi-percussion solo

repertoire is relatively short, as it has not even passed one century yet. The meaning of

multiple percussion is playing on a group of percussion instruments as one instrument.

"Timpani and the keyboard percussion instruments may be included along with various

types of drums. This necessitates some facility on all of the percussion instruments."2

The performance of multi-percussion genre originated around the beginning of the 20th

century. Composers have realized its potentials and started to increase new musical

expectations from the percussionists. They created a new field of percussion instruments

performance with such as alone performance of the percussion section in the orchestra,

playing many percussion instruments by one player in chamber music piece and

ensemble piece of percussion.

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The most notable point of difference between multi-percussion performance and other

instruments performance is the possibility of multiple choices for sound. Even talking

about one drum called tom-toms, there are many differences of its size, material of skin

and also pitches how we tune its skin. That means, that performer can create and

customize variegated sound in a way he prefers.

But is it really always so? The performer expresses the musical art through the

performance, but it does not mean that the performance should be unrestricted and

completely up to him. The premise of performance is to respect the work of composer

and faithfully express what is written there.

Especially in the genre of multi-percussion performance, it is very important to play with

information such as the specification of instruments. However, these instructions are

sometimes described roughly or unusually to get the idea or aim of composition. In other

words, when performing such a piece, the performer should consider and obtain not only

what is clearly stated in the score but also the information such as the process of

composition and the characteristics of the composer. Through this thesis, I would like to

mention these points.

This thesis consists of five chapters. The second chapter deals with aspects of

multi-percussion. From third chapter, I will focus on a Japanese composer, Maki Ishii.

One of the aim of his composing was the fusion and coexistence of traditional Japanese

and western music. Japanese traditional music is diverse and many, also it can be

divided into various forms of Japanese traditional performing arts. Among them, I

3 Repertoire of ARD International Music Competition in Munich,https://www.br.de/ard-musikwettbewerb/teilnahmebedingungen/repertoire-4-/index.html, (08.08.2019).

4 Repertoire of Geneva Competitionhttps://www.concoursgeneve.ch/site/app/webroot/kcfinder/upload/files/re%CC%80glement%20percussion%202019-eng.pdf, (08.08.2019).

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describe in the fourth chapter some of the traditional Japanese music which Ishii

experienced in his life and musical elements which might be related to his composition.

Also it is said that he had a strong interest in percussion instruments. With the mentions

of the characteristics and history of Japanese drums, his works of Japanese drums are

taken up as the example in the fifth chapter.

At the end of this thesis, I analyze a piece for multi-percussion solo composed by Ishii,

to see concretely what kind of musical elements are reflected in his work. The piece we

use as an example is Thirteen Drums. This is one of the masterpieces in

multi-percussion repertoire and played all over the world. It is also frequently required as

part of competitor's repertoire in the international percussion competitions such as the

prestigious ARD International Music Competition in Munich,3 Geneva Competition4.

Multi-percussion performance is still developing, therefore I hope that these repertoires

will increase and continue to be played in the future more than hundreds of years from

now, without big differences between the intention of composition and the representation

of the performer. The interpretation of arts including music may change with the times,

nevertheless, I hope that this master's thesis will be a hint or a clue for new generations

of performers in the future.

5 Rossing, Science of Percussion Instruments, P. 1.

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2. Multi-Percussion

2.1. General information of multi-percussion

Percussion instrument is a general term for multifarious instruments which can be

sounded by not only striking but also shaking or scraping with a hand or object such as

stick, mallet, and beater. Percussion instruments are made of many different materials,

such as membrane, wood, metal, and plastic. One of the ways of classifying

percussion instruments is "by whether or not they convey a definite sense of pitch;

Idiophones that convey a definite pitch include bells, chimes, xylophones, marimbas,

gongs, and steelpans. Membranophones that convey a definite pitch include timpani,

tabra and mrdanga."5 Recently, many new percussion instruments have been developed.

To new percussion repertoire, composer is expected to create any uncommon sound

effect. Therefore, new percussion instruments and its playing techniques are still being

devised and added to the new percussion repertoire.

What do people imagine when they hear the word "multi-percussion"? Basically,

multi-percussion is literary same as multiple-percussion. The composer instructs

performers to choose and combine several different percussion instruments to create a

hybrid instrument setup. Playing on a group of percussion instruments as one instrument

brings some issues.

Firstly, since there is a large amount of percussion instruments the performer has to

6 Smith, Multiple Percussion.

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choose the appropriate instruments from these and make ideal sound of instruments by

tuning a drum skin, customize a material, etc.

With the keyboard percussion instruments that convey a definite pitch for example the

marimba, vibraphone, xylophone and glockenspiel; each of these pitches has a relative

function. They serve to the performers and composers as tool that shapes their melodies

and gives their music a direction. However, in the multiple percussion piece without any

pitched instruments, this instructive guide is not present. It is up to the performers to

show to the audience what their guide is and what is the relationship between each of

the instruments.

Secondly, taking care of instrument setup is also important. The performer must organize

the instrument placement, in a way that makes him comfortable performing. He needs to

consider the technical demands of the entire piece, so that he can perform on all of the

instruments relaxed and efficient way. To get more comfortable setup for the

performance the performer must arrange his own stands or holders in order to facilitate a

comfortable set-up.6

2.2. Origin of Multi-Percussion

Multiple percussion performance dates back to the beginning of the 20th century.

Composers started to increase their musical expectations of the percussionists.

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The first appearance of works for percussion ensemble came in orchestra pieces, which

have incorporated movements for bolstered percussion section playing alone. For

example in the following pieces - Dmitri Shostakovich's The Nose (composed between

1927 and 1928) and the second movement of Alexander Tcherepnin's Symphony No. 1

(1927). Soon afterwards, the first works in western classical music tradition composed

exclusively for percussion ensemble were developed with Amadeo Roldán's Ritmica No.

5 and No. 6 (1930), and Edgard Varèse's Ionisation (1931).

At the turn of the 20th century composers started utilizing percussionists in chamber

compositions as well. Possibly, as a first composer ever, Arnold Schoenberg featured a

percussionist with playing snare drum in a prominent role in his cabaret song;

Nachtwandler (1901). With other composers beginning to write for percussionists in

chamber works, there was an increased interest in having one percussionist perform on

multiple percussion instruments.

Indication of birth of the new "multi-percussion" genre can be found in works of many

composers of that generation. As the first major work to use multi-percussion, Igor

Stravinsky's L'Histoire du soldat (The Soldier's Tale)(1918) is given as an example. It

was composed for seven instrument players and a narrator. The percussionist uses a

battery of instruments: bass drum, field drum, snare drum, tambourine, triangle and

cymbal. "This set-up of instruments was meant to imitate the sound of a drum-set,

7 Smith, Multiple Percussion.8 Darius Mihaud, Concerto puor batterie et petit orchestre op.109, Vienna 1930.9 Andrew B. Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum,

https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations/1324,(22.09.2019), P. 2 and P. 13.

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although it does not resemble a drum-set as we know them today."7

In addition, Paul Hindemith's Kammermusik No. 1 (1921), Aaron Copland' s Music for

the Theatre (1925), Bela Bartok's Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937) and

Darius Milhaud's Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra(1929-1930).

This Milhaud's Concerto was one of the earliest and the best known concerto for multiple

percussion and orchestra. List of solo percussion instruments are written as follows:

triangle, tam-tam, cymbals, castanets, whip, ratchet, tambourine, snare drum, tenor

drum, provencal drum, four timpani, suspended cymbal, bass drum with a foot pedal

attached by metal block and wood block, and cymbal.8

During this era many of the genius composers began to recognize the untapped

potential of writing for multiple percussion instruments. However, at the same time, no

composer attempted to write a work for multi-percussion alone. It was in 1956, when the

first solo work for a performer on multiple percussion instruments was written. John

Cage started a revolution with his landmark composition.9

10 Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum, P. 3.11 Samuel Solomon, John Cage – 27' 10.554" for a percussionist.

http://szsolomon.com/john-cage-27-10-554-percussionist-1956/, (10.10.2019).12 Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum, P. 18.

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2.3. Solo multi-percussion pieces

2.3.1. Examples of early multi-percussion pieces

John Cage (1912- 1992) composed 27'10.554" in 1956. It is considered to be the first

work for solo multi-percussion.10 It was composed as the last piece of his collection of

works written in between 1953 and 1956. "Cage's original plan was to compose a

number of works for various instruments and/or electronics which could be performed

alone, superimposed on top of the other works, or even superimposed on parts of the

same work; for example, the first commercial recording of these works includes

simultaneous performances of 45' for a speaker, 34'46.776" for a pianist, 31'57.9864" for

a pianist, 27'10.554" for a percussionist, and 26'1.1499" for a string player. Cage viewed

this project as a work "in progress" and intended to continuously add to the collection."11

This piece is written as a timeline composition, "where each page of the score

represents one minute of music, and systems contain numbers indicating the seconds

within each minute (as such, the score is 28 pages long– 27 full pages and one partial

page– representing the 27 minutes and 10.554 seconds indicated in the title)."12

Cage divided percussion instruments into four groups: metal (M), wood (W), skin (S)

and all others (A) (e.g. electronic devices, radios, whistles etc.). Also Cage suggested

that "a virtuoso performance will include a wide variety of instruments, beaters, sliding

13 John Cage, 27'10.554" for a Percussionist, New York 1960.14 Samuel Solomon, John Cage– 27' 10.554" for a percussionist.15 Karlheinz Stockhausen, Zyklus Nr.9, London 1960.16 Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum, P.14.

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tones, and an exhaustive rather than conventional use of the instruments employed." 13

In other word, the choice of instruments and sounds within these specifications is

determined by the performer. 14

Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007) was another composer that started to write for solo

multi-percussion. In 1959 he introduced his work, Zyklus, assigned Number 9 in the

composer's catalog of works. It is also considered to be a timeline piece, although it

occasionally uses more traditional notation (i.e. a five-line staff with notated pitches).

Stockhausen's piece adds the parameter that the piece may be started at any point in

the score, and must be "run through all pages in the given order without interruption and

finish with the first stroke of the page", 15 to complete the cycle.

"While this score bears many similarities in philosophy to Cage's piece, there is one

notable difference: Stockhausen explicitly defines every

instrument in the score and even gives a diagram of how

the instruments are laid out." 16 The instruments used for this

work are: vibraphone, four tom-toms, four cowbells,

marimba, snare drum, gong, guiro, tam-tam, tambourine,

two cymbals, hi-hat cymbal, and several triangles.

Figure 1. Placing of instruments

17 Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum, P. 15.18 Steven Schick, The Percussionist's Art: Same Bed, Different Dreams, 2006, P. 4.19 Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum, P. 3.

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Furthermore, there are two pieces that are more similar to timeline-style compositions

rather than conventionally notated scores as following.

- Morton Feldman(1926-1987): The King of Denmark (1964)

- Helmut Lachenmann(1935- ): Intérieur I (1965)

These four early works, composed between 1956 and 1965 by Cage, Stockhausen,

Feldman, and Lachenmann, "may be grouped into a category of early sonic exploration

pieces for the solo multi-percussionist. They represent the earliest efforts by serious

composers to realize solo multi-percussion music as an art form. It is of note that none

of these four scores contain dedications to any particular performers, which may be an

indication that there were very few percussionists in this day even capable of performing

these works."17

Although very few multi-percussion works have been composed by the mid-1970s,18 this

kind of unaccompanied solo was the most rapid growing field of solo repertoires for the

percussionists. "The genre has since continued to expand, with hundreds of works

available" 19 from diverse composers.

Norio Fukushi’s Ground, composed in 1976, used perhaps the largest array of

instruments to date, calling for some 44 instruments. "Iannis Xenakis also composed his

Psappha in 1975 for a large array of wood, metal, and skin instruments. Of note, Ground

20 Charles, Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum, P. 17.21 ibid.

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and Psappha are dedicated to percussionists Atsushi Sugahara and Sylvio Gualda,

respectively, each of whom gave these pieces their premieres. This is an indication that

by the mid-1970s, multi-percussion virtuosi began to emerge."20

"By the time the 1980s came, it was clear that the solo multi-percussion genre was well

out of its infancy. Solo performers such as Steven Schick, Robyn Schulkowsky, and

Atsushi Sugahara had begun to emerge, and premiered works by James Wood, Kevin

Volans, and Maki Ishii, respectively".21

2.3.2. Multi-percussion pieces by Japanese composer

There are another Japanese composers, that composed pieces for multi-percussion solo.

Among them, the representative works written in the 20th century are listed.

Many of these pieces were premiered by Atsushi Sugahara (1947-) and Sumire

Yoshihara (1949-), who are known well as the Japanese pioneers of playing

multi-percussion solo.

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<Example pieces of multi-percussion solo in the 20th century by Japanese composer>

Shin-ichiro Ikebe (1943-), Monovalence IV for Marimba & other percussions (1975)

Instrument required: marimba, 6 tom-toms, some mouth instruments* and Naruko

(bamboo wind chime).*for example: Bidoro, Jew's harp, Mukkuri, siren etc. except melody instrument like harmonicaand pipes.

Norio Fukushi (1945-), Ground I (1976)

Instrument required: 5 crotales, bells, 5 cowbells, 3 rins, brass windchimes, woodwindchimes, 3 suspended Cymbals, tubular chime (F), gong, tam-tam, 4 wood blocks, 3temple blocks, wood bell, wood chime, guiro, marimba, maracas, harmonica, bird call,tambourine, bongos, 5 tom-toms.

Norio Fukushi, Anima of a tree for solo Percussion (1995)

Instrument required: Marimba and 5 Wood blocks.

Michio Kitazume (1948-), Shadows III-A/ III-B (1976)

Instrument required: 6 temple blocks and marimba.

(or any two different sounding woody percusion instruments with 6 piches)

Michio Kitazume, Side by Side (1989)

Instrument required: bongo, 2 congas, 2 tom-toms and bass drum with pedal.

22 Toru Takemitsu: Klang im Ostern, Klang im Western, in: Musiktext, heft 59, 1995, P. 53-59, here P. 57.23 Maki Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, in: Sound of West and

Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke,Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 13-70, here P. 13.

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Maki Ishii (1936-2003), Thirteen Drums for percussion solo (1985)

Instrument required: 12 drums consisting of bongo, conga and any drums with calf skin

(or Japanese drum such as shime-daiko and oke-do) and bass drum.

Yuji Takahashi(1938- ), The wolf (1988)

Instrument required: 8 drums, 2 gongs and 3 wood blocks.

There are differences between Japanese music and western music. Often dubbed as

"Sounds of the West and Sounds of the East", they were scrutinized and debated among

the composers. Japanese composer, Toru Takemitsu (1930- 1996) talked about the

differences between the two. According to him, the music in Japan is not the same as

music in the West. In the West there are the three key factors of music: melody, rhythm

and harmony. In Japan, we think about the tone color and tone quality, not the melody.

Japanese music has developed in such a way that we find pleasure in the vibrating

complexity of sound as it exists in the interior, surrounded by the sound that has been

described as the voice of a cicada. 22

At the same time another Japanese composer, Maki Ishii, struggled to compose with the

vast gap that separates worlds of western and eastern music.23

24 Maki Ishii- profile, http://ishii.de/maki/en/profile/, (07.09.2019).

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3. Maki Ishii

3.1. Maki Ishii- Japanese composer

"Maki Ishii was born on May 28th, 1936 in Tokyo as the third

son of Baku Ishii, the celebrated dancer and choreographer

who played a pioneering role in establishing the genre of

modern dance in Japan.

After studying composition and conducting from 1952 to 1958

in Tokyo he moved to Berlin where he continued his studies

Figure 2. Maki Ishii at the Hochschule für Musik Berlin (West), as student of e.g.

Josef Rufer and Boris Blacher. In 1962 he returned to Japan.

In 1969 he was invited to Berlin by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)

to take part in their "Berliner Künstlerprogramm". Since then he has been active there as

well as in Japan as a composer and conductor. His compositions have been performed

all over the world. [...] Maki Ishii, influenced earlier by the serialism and West European

avant-garde techniques of the 1950's and 60's, turned his attention to Japanese

traditional music in the late 1960's. Since then his creative endeavor has been rooted in

the attempt to stride two musical worlds by employing both European compositional

method and elements from the sound world of Japanese traditional music in his works."24

25 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 15.26 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 27.

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His compositions were influenced by many kinds of music and his own experiences. He

stated regarding the Japanese traditional music as follows:

"attitudes to Japanese traditional music since the Meiji era, it would hardly be

exaggerating to say that composers such as myself trained in western music viewed

traditional music as little more than an accompaniment to wedding ceremonies at Shinto

shrines and Funerals at Buddhist temples. But an exceptional event occurred in my

case: being taken by my father on several occasions to performances of Gagaku

(Bungaku) given by members of the Music Department of the Imperial Household

Agency at the Imperial Palace. To be quiet honest, these childhood memories are now

extremely vague. [...] But in later years, when I was studying in Berlin, I was stuck by a

feeling of deja vu upon hearing the first piece I composed employing

twelve-note-technique; the resonance of Gagaku had remained constantly with me in

recesses of my memory."25

3.2. "Musical world based on a third image"

After experiencing traditional Japanese music such as shomyo, gagaku, heike-biwa and

shakuhachi, Ishii tried to incorporate them into western music.26 However, the "Sound of

the East" was totally different from western music, and the difference struck him. He

27 Kuniharu Akiyama, Monochrome- The Emotional Aesthetic of Japanese Drums and Maki Ishii's"Non-Musical Time", in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musicalworld, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 165-180., here P. 173.

28 Koji Sano, Maki Ishii - The Synthesis of Multi-Layered Time, in: Sound of West and Sounds of East.Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997,P.71-98, P. 71.

29 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 29.

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began to work on the new possibilities stemming from this encounter, dialogue and

unification of western music techniques and Japanese music.27

The first work he composed on the basis of a coherent critical approach to specific

musical elements was "Expressionen" for string orchestra (1967).28 About this piece Ishii

said, that he began to work cautiously in this area by incorporating the internal

resonance of shomyo. In 1970, he incorporated Japanese instrument and composed a

piece for shakuhachi and piano (So-Gu, Op.18). After that, he left several works where

he attempted to develop these ideas as "Musical world based on a third image", by

juxtaposing performers from two different musical world. He called this concept

"Abduction" of traditional instruments and described this concept as follows:

"The most effective means of highlighting the differences between eastern and western

music is to place musicians with different musical attitudes in the same temporal and

spatial setting."29

30 Seiko Suzuki, Gagaku, Music of the Empire: tanabe Hisao and Musical heritage as national identity,http://journals.openedition.org/cjs/1268 , P. 2.

31 Official website of Imperial Household Agency,http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e-culture/gagaku.html, (07.09.2019).

32 Tsuneko Tsukitani, Nihon Ongaku tono deai - Nihon Ongaku no rekishi to riron(日本音楽との出会いー

日本音楽の歴史と理論), Tokyo 2010, P. 64.

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4. Traditional Japanese arts

4.1. Gagaku (雅楽)

From approximately the 5th century, various types of music and dances were brought to

Japan from the ancient civilizations of countries such as China and three Kingdoms of

Korea30 ; at around same time that the introduction of Buddhism and cultures were

permeating the country. "Gagaku, a fusion of this music and dances, was completed in

Japanese original artistic by about the 10th century, from whence it has been passed

down from generation to generation under the patronage of the Imperial Family. The

Japanese singing style and vocal arrangements for gagaku are composed of advanced

musical techniques, and gagaku has not only contributed to the creation and

development of modern-day music, but also has by itself the potential to develop in

many aspects, as a global art form."31

There are three forms of performance of gagaku- kangen (管弦: Instrumental

ensemble), bugaku (舞楽: dances and music), and kayo (歌謡: songs and chanted

poetry). The gagaku performance by the Imperial Household agency of Japan (宮内庁

職楽部) is probably best known, but gagaku performances are also held at Buddhist

temples and at shrine festivals. This dance of gagaku as a Buddhist performing art is

called "Hoe-bugaku(法会舞楽)". 32

33 Steven G. Nelson, Court and religious music (2): music of gagaku and shomyo, in: The AshgateResearch Companion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokita and David W. Hughes,Routledge 2008, P. 49-76, here P. 49.

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4.1.1. Instruments of gagaku

There are various types of musical instruments used in gagaku, some of them peculiar

instruments that are only used in gagaku, and then those that are widely known and

utilized in other types of traditional music. The instrumentation of gagaku is made up of

wind, string, and percussion instruments. These three sections are traditionally referred

to as fukimono (blown things), hikimono (plucked things) and uchimono (struck things). 33

Fukimono (吹き物: wind instrument) (Figure 2. and 3.)

Figure 3. from the top ryuteki, komabue and kagurabue Figure 4. from left hichiriki, sho

Ohteki (横笛) is a general term for ryuteki (龍笛), komabue (高麗笛) and kagurabue

(神楽笛). These three transverse flutes are composed of bamboo and wrapped with

strips of cherry or rattan bark. They are approximately 40 cm, 36 cm and 45 cm long

and have seven, six and six finger-holes respectively. They are designed with a lead in

the pipe on the left side of the mouthpiece and layer of lacquer is applied to harden the

surface, so that instrument produces a loud and stable sound.

34 Miki, Composing for Japanese Instruments, P. 54-55.35 Helmann Gottschewski, Nineteenth-Century gagaku Songs as a Subject of Musical Analysis: An

Early Example of Musical Creativity in Modern Japan, in: Nineteenth-Century Music Review, volume10/ issue 2, 2013, P. 239 - 264. here P. 254.

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The hichiriki (篳篥) is a short double-reed pipe instrument of lacquered bamboo, with

seven (front) and two (back) finger-holes and a comparatively large reed made from ashi

or mountain bitter bamboo. It has a high-volume sounds that have a strong presence in

the performances of gagaku. Therefore, it is mostly used for the main melody in gagaku

events.34

The sho (笙) is a free-reed mouth-organ with 17 bamboo pipes (two reed less) inserted

into a wind chamber, and is sounded by both exhaling and inhaling.

Hikimono (弾き物: String instruments)(Figure 5.)

The gakusou (楽琴) is a 13-stringed long zither, tuned pentatonically. It is played with

plectrum placed on the thumb and two fingers (index and middle) of the right hand.

The wagon (和琴) is a six (or five) -stringed long zither. It was often believed to be

indigenous to Japan, but also opposed that instrument was imported from China or

elsewhere. "Since the wagon can only play the five main scale degrees in a closed

one-octave register, its melodic possibility is very limited. Therefore it is often used as an

accompaniment to follow a song, or to emphasize song on important point."35

36 Official website of Imperial Household Agency.37 Miki, Composing for Japanese Instruments, P. 192-193.

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The biwa or gakubiwa (楽琵琶) is a large four-stringed lute with four frets, played with a

large hand-held plectrum. In gagaku ensembles, it is rather difficult to catch the timing of

returning from the fourth beat to the first beat. Consequently, biwa plays the role of

clearly showing the first beat to other instruments by plectrum's movement.36

Figure 5.from the top gakusou, Wagon, gakubiwa

Figure 6. from the left of top, shoko, gaku-daiko,kakko, san-no-tsuzumi, shakubyoshi

Uchimono (打ち物: Percussion)(Figure 6.)

The shoko (鉦鼓) is a small, suspended brass gong struck with two mallets. The tip of

these mallets are made from the horns of a water buffalo.37 Shoko is a generic name of

the dai-shoko, tsuri-shoko and ninai-shoko. Usually, the tsurishoko is being most used in

gagaku. During performance, the mallets are slowly raised and put lightly to the center of

the gong and it is played on only the downbeat of each measure.

38 Miki, Composing for Japanese Instruments, P. 169-171.39 Miki, Conposition for Japanese Instruments, P. 169.

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The performance techniques are as follows:

Kin (金): playing with only one hand.

Kikin (金金): playing with both hands. First stroke is played like ornamental stroke and

the other stroke follows the first one.

The gaku-daiko or taiko(楽太鼓, 太鼓) is a large shallow barrel-drum with oxhide heads,

struck on one side with two mallets. Similar to another instruments related to the shoko,

the gaku-daiko is the generic name for the da-daiko, tsuri-daiko, and ninai-daiko.38 For

performance, two mallets with their heads wrapped in deer skin are used. Two main

playing techniques are:

Dou (百): strike with the right mallet.Zun (図): strike a little weaker than the right one with the left mallet.

After strike Dou with right hand, put the end of both mallets on the drum to muffle the

finish to prevent the drum from vibrating.

The notes of the taiko represent a cycle of time in gagaku ensemble. The taiko is beaten

at the turning point of the music, and then the time axis is reset.

The kakko (羯鼓) is a small barrel drum struck with separate mallets on each of its two

heads. In performances of togaku, kakko has a role as the leader of ensemble.

There are three different techniques used to play the kakko in classical gagaku

performance.39

40 Goshoraku-no Kyu: one movement of the togaku suit Goshoraku, literally 'Music of the Five Virtues'.41 Miki, Composition for Japanese Instruments, P. 184.

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Sei (正) : strike with the right mallet on the first beat

Katarai (片来): a pattern consisting of a right-mallet stroke on the first downbeat

followed by a left-mallet stroke as accelerando from second beat

Mororai (諸来): continue to strike with the right and left mallets in alternation.

Figure 7. Rhythm patterns used in Goshoraku-no Kyu40

The san-no-tsuzumi (三ノ鼓) is a small double-headed hourglass drum struck on only

one head with a single stick. In current performance practice, it is placed directly on the

floor and struck with a stick held in the right hand while the left hand is used to

manipulate the pitch. It leads the whole ensemble in performance of komagaku, "uhoh"

gagaku music and gives a signal at the beginning and end of a song.

The shakubyōshi (笏拍子)is a pair of clappers consisting of two flat pieces of wood. This

is the oldest Japanese percussion instrument. It has been used to keep performance

time in ancient genres such as Kuniburi-no-utamai.41

42 Nelson, Court and religious music (2): music of gagaku and shomyo, P. 49-50.43 Official website of Imperial Household Agency.

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4.1.2. Categories and instrumentation of gagaku

There are various music types in the present gagaku. The major categories can be

summarized as follows:42

a) Accompanied vocal music and dance of indigenous origin employed in imperial and

Shinto ceremony. In addition, Kuniburi-no-Utamai(国風歌舞)43

: Japanese ancient songs and dance, consists of mikagura(御神楽), yamato-mai(倭舞),

azuma-asobi(東遊), outa(大歌), kume-uta(久米歌)and Ruika(誄歌).

Instrumentation:instrument from Asia original Japanese instrument

wind wind string percussion

song dance hichiriki ryuteki komabue kagurabue wagon shakubyoshi

mikagura ● ● ● ● ● ●

azumaasobi ● ● ● ● ● ●

yamatouta ● ● ● ● ●

outa ● ● ● ● ● ●

kumeuta ● ● ● ● ● ●

ruika ● ● ●

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b) Instrumental music and accompanied dance deriving from the ancient performing arts

of the Asian mainland:

- Togaku(唐楽): Introduced from ancient China, called as Sahoh(左方: music of left).

- Komagaku(高麗楽)Introduced from the Kingdom of Korea, called as Uhoh(右方:

music of right).

Instrumentation:wind string percussion

hichiriki ryuteki koma sho biwa sou kakko san-no- dai- tsuri- dadaiko gaku--bue tsuzumi shoko shoko daiko

togaku/ B ● ● ● ● ● ●

togaku/ K ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

komagaku ● ● ● ● ●

* togaku/B: bugaku, togaku/K: kangen

c) Accompanied vocal music originating at the early Heian period court of the ninth and

tenth centuries:

- Saibara(催馬楽):With stable beats and tempo.

- Rōei (朗詠): Without stable beats and tempo.

instrumentation:wind string percussion

hichiriki ryuteki sho biwa sou shakubyoshi

saibara ● ● ● ● ● ●

roei ● ● ●

44 Tsukitani, Nihon Ongaku tono deai, P. 53.

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4.2. Jo-Ha-Kyu (序破急)

Jo-ha-Kyu is one of the theoretical terms that is indispensable in discussing Japanese

art. This term was originally used to describe the composition of dance movements in

Gagaku. Meaning of "Jo(序: Introduction)" is a slow dance without beat, "Ha(破: Break)

" is an elegant dance with a long beat, and "Kyu(急: rapid)" is a light dance with fast

beat. This concept eventually influenced Noh, the oldest theatrical Japanese art, and in

addition to the original meaning of speed, aesthetic elements for artistic content and skill

of performance were added. Zeami, a Noh writer, states that, "Jo-Ha-Kyu" is common to

the performing Japanese arts. For example: in literary forms such as renka (連歌: linked

verse), in flower arrangement, and in the tea ceremony. Furthermore, in modern

Japanese music such as koto songs, it meant a state where the speed gradually

increases in one song. And eventually, it started to be used in that sense Japanese

music in general.44

Zeami discussed about the idea of the achievement and process in the art of Noh from

the standpoint of Jo-Ha-kyu:

"Accomplishment (Joju 成就)in Noh corresponds to the process which has hitherto been

described by the term Jo-Ha-Kyu This is because the word joju literally implies a fixed

and conclusive result which occurs after a logical process of development. If an end is

reached without passing through such a process, there will be no sense of

'accomplishment' in people's minds. The moment that a particular stage effect is brought

45 Ishii, "Sounds of West- Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 61.46 Takashi Funayama, Reverberations between east and West- Observations on Maki IShii's Composition

"Fu Shi", in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musical world, editedby Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 119-150, here P. 139.

- 26 -

to a completion, is precisely the moment that an audience will feel the highest degree of

artistic satisfaction. Proper unfurling of the tripartite developmental principle of Jo-Ha-Kyu

('preparation' - 'breaking' -, i.e. development - 'rushing', i.e. accelerated conclusion) is

thus synonymous with the concept of 'accomplishment'."45

Jo-Ha-Kyu is not only a time division of art works but also it is a unit that subdivides one

dance and even one of the actions in the dance. These descriptions show that

jo-ha-kyu's temporal progression is very complicated and works in different ways.

In other words, In the "Jo" of the large Jo-Ha-Kyu, there is "smaller Jo-Ha-Kyu".

Furthermore, in the Jo of the smaller Jo-Ha-Kyu, there is more smaller Jo-Ha-Kyu. This

idea is also widely used in Ishii's works.46

4.3. Ma (間)

Ma: "Translated as nothingness or emptiness, Ma emphasizes the space, in time or

dimension, which is prevalent in all Japanese art forms including theater, architecture,

gardening, and of course music. It is the space between objects, the silence between

sounds, and the stillness between movements. Much more than the absence of

something, it is a palpable entity. In music, Ma typically manifests as the silence we

'hear' between phrases. It is that nothingness that separates sound and removes it from

47 James Nyoraku Schlefer, Elements of Japanese Music, 2018,https://nmbx.newmusicusa.org/elements-of-japanese-music/, (26.08.2019).

48 Lother Mattner, Halting Time - The Composer Maki Ishii, in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. MakiIshii's music. Striding two musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997,P. 151-164, here P. 157-159.

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a position of prominence. [...] Ma can create a tension that brings a small relief when

the next phrase eventually begins. Or if that silence separates the sounds completely,

and allows each phrase to be independent, then the silence becomes its own world

upon which to meditate." 47

Ishii describes the concept of musical time in comparison with Western music as follows:

"It is extremely difficult to analyze Japanese traditional music according to the rules of

western logic. One reason for this are the differences between the respective

conceptions of musical time. One example is the so- called 'halting time'. In gagaku

(bugaku), [...] as well as shomyo, there are often moments in which musical time

seems to stand still. This has nothing to do with rhythmic direction. Rather it is a kind of

feeling which occurs when particular passages are repeated, often in the same way, so

that the tones seem to cumulate. In such music, the tones assume a kind of movement,

thus they can also stand still, or 'halt'. Musical time is transformed, it acquires a spatial

dimension. This is completely different from the western conception of musical time, in

which a dramatic form is determined by a guiding rhythmic impulse." 48

49 Tsuneko Tsukitani, The shakuhachi and its music, in: The Ashgate Research Companion to JapaneseMusic, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokita and David W. Hughes, Routledge 2008 , Farnham 2008,P. 145-168, here P. 145.

50 Miki, Composing for Japanese instruments, P. 35.

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4.4. Shakuhachi (尺八)

The shakuhachi is a bamboo vertical Japanese flute. It is shaped very simple, "with a

sharp blowing-edge(Utaguchi) at one end, on the side of the cylinder opposite the

performer, and five finger holes, four on the front and one thumb-hole on the back."49

The name of this instrument is derived from the length of one shaku (尺: 30.3 cm) and

eight (八 - hachi, Japanese kanji symbol for number 8) sun (寸: 3.03 cm) in the

traditional Chinese measuring system, for a total length of 54.5 centimeters.50 The

shakuhachi has exited in Japan for 1300 years and developed - changing of its shape,

its performers and its music. The ancient shakuhachi was imported from T'ang China

along with togaku ensemble of gagaku in the late seventh or early eighth century.

Afterwards, it has disappeared from togaku, but several shakuhachis from the period are

preserved in Japanese temples such as Shosoin treasure hause of Todaiji in Nara and

Horyuji temple (now housed in the Tokyo National Museum).

Long after the disappearance of acient shakuhachi once used in gagaku, at least four

more kinds have appeared in Japan.

1) The hitoyogiri shakuhachi(一節切尺八) was popular in the late sixteenth and

seventeenth century, but the tradition has since died out. The name comes from hito

'one', yo 'segment of bamboo' and giri 'cut', this being a short instrument (about 33.6

cm) cut from a single segment of bamboo.

51 Tsukitani, The shakuhachi and its music, P. 145-146.52 Miki, Composing for Japanese instruments, P. 43.

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2) "The tenpuku is narrow, with three nodes, about 30cm long. It is native to Kagoshima

Prefecture.

3) The fuke shakuhachi or komuso shakuhachi developed as a religious ritual

instrument (hoki) of the Fuke sect of Rinzai Zen in the Edo period. With the sect's

abolotion in 1871 and the consequent end of its official monopoly on playing the

instrument, this type became the representative shakuhachi. The standard number of

nodes is seven: three in the main body, one at the utaguchi, and three at the bottom.

4) Remodeled instrument devised in the 1920s and '30s include the seven-hole and

nine-hole shakuhachi, and the okurauro, which features the Boehm key system of the

Western flute." 51

Since shakuhachi has few finger holes, it is played with some technique as flowed in

order to produce various pitches. :Adjusting the position of finger on the hole, moving the

jaw up and down(called meri and kari). There are also several other unique techniques

to play shakuhachi.

- muraiki: Blowing strongly into the to produce overtone.

- sorane: Similar to muraiki, but used with pitches of shorter duration.

- komi: Staccato produced by stopping the airflow.

- ikiyuri: Similar to Western flute vibrate, produced by emphasizing breath from the

abdomen in gentle, wave-like intervals.

- agoyuri: vibrato by keeping the lips on the mouthpiece while moving the chin.52

53 Mikio Ishibashi, dentou geinou no miryoku「伝統芸能の魅力」,https://www.bunka.go.jp/prmagazine/rensai/youkoso/youkoso_011.html, (14.08.2019).

54 Tsukitani, Nihon Ongaku tono deai, P. 76.

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4.5. Shomyo(声明)

Shomyo is a style of Japanese Buddhist chant. The origins of Buddhism are India in the

sixth century BC. It took until the middle of the sixth century before Buddhism was

introduced to Japan through the Baekje kingdom, which was located in southwestern

part of Korea. Shomyo is usually held in a Buddhist service called Hoe(法会) for

ancestor memorial service, state peace, and tribute to the Buddha.53

It is said that shomyo is the origin of Japanese vocal music. In early Buddhism in Japan,

it was called Bai(唄) or Bainoku(唄匿) to recite the verse of a sutra. Because

musicality was accompanied by the recitation, the Bai came to mean vocal music, and

the name Shomyo replaced the term Bai after the Heian period (794-1185).54

Buddhism in Japan has many different denominations. It began in a different era and

continues to be inherited today. The names of shomyo and its characteristics vary

depending on the time and denomination. For example, even if they chant the same

sutras in the three different sects of the Tendai sect, Shingon sect, and Jodo sect, it may

sound as if they are chanting different sutra.

55 Tsukitani, Nihon Ongaku tono deai, P. 78.

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The type and name of shomyo, depending on the denomination

generic name of shomyo sort of denominations

8 CE Nara shomyo (奈良声明) established in Japan at the beginning of the

eighth century after the introduction of

Buddhism

9 CE Heian shomyo(平安声明) Shingon(真言宗) and Tendai (天台宗)

13 CE Kamakura shomyo(鎌倉声明) Jodo(浄土宗), Jodoshin(浄土真宗),

Rinzai(臨済宗), Soto(曹洞宗),

17 CE Ohkushu Shomyo(黄檗宗声明) Nichiren(日蓮宗)55

4.5.1. Scale of Shomyo

During the early medieval period shomyo chants had developed an intricate pitch and

mode theory which is a combination of gosei(五声: five notes) or shichisei(七声: seven

notes)and 12 tones of chromatic scale. This concept was transmitted from China in the

seventh to eighth centuries. Gosei and shichisei consists 5 notes which are named 'kyu

(宮)", "syo(商)", "kaku(角)", "chi(徴)" and "u(羽)", in addition, "henkyu(変宮)" and

"henchi(変徴)" as the derivations from these 5 notes. These theories were

predominantly shared with gagaku. However, it's common with shomyo and gagaku that

there are slight differences in the actual scale structure, depending on the type of music

and denomination, compared to these theories.

56 Tokita, Alison McQueen/ Hughes, David W.: Context and change in Japanese music, in: The AshgateResearchCompanion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokita and David W. Hughes,Farnham 2008, P. 1-34., P.23.

57 Nelson, Court and religious music (2): music of gagaku and shomyo, P. 64.

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Figure 8. Four types of scale in medieval gagaku and shomyo

Notes of figure 8.: "For types 1 to 4, relative pitch names are those given in Ryojin HishoKudenshu. Scale degree (roman numerals) have been added by the author. Exchange tonesare indicated in lower case. There is room for argument about which tones should be consideredexchange tones in types 2 and 3; the compiler's (Nelson's) judgement is influenced bytraditional accounts of the pentatonic structures lying behind the heptatonic scales."56

Despite the fact that there was an understanding of multiple possibilities of combining

the 12 tones of the chromatic scale with different modal types (e.g. chukyoku, ryokyoku

or ritsukyoku), both denominations constrained themselves to considerably lower range

of modes. Tendai shomyo is more intricate of the two utilizing in total six or seven finals.

The five that are traditionally used in Shingon shomyo - ōshikichō (chūkyoku on A),

banshikichō (ritsu on B), ichikotsuchō (ryo on D), hyōjō (ritsu on e), and sōjō (ryo on

g) plus shimomu (F#) and uncommonly kamimu (c#).57

58 Tsukitani, Nihon Ongaku tono deai, P. 54.59 Tsukitani, Nihon Ongaku tono deai, P. 58.

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4.5.2. Notation of Shomyo

The world's oldest printed music score is a "Shomyo-shu"(collection of Shomyo)

published in Koyasan in

1472.58 The vocal music

score in Japanese traditional

music is basically written with

texts, therefore the line of the

melody is a little difficult to

understand from the score. Figure 9. Shomyo-syu

Shomyo's notation is said to be similar to the

systems of neumatic notation. In the score of

shomyo, the melodies are added by the lines

next to the large written lyrics. Still, the amount

of information about pitch and length of note is

extremely small compared to the vocal music

written in the western style notation which is the

mainstream at the present time.59

Figure 10. Shomyo score of "Ungabai"

60 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 21.61 Akiyama, Monochrome - The Emotional Aesthetic of Japanese Drums and Maki Ishii's "Non-Musical

Time", P. 173.62 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 23.

- 34 -

Ishii had first experience with shomyo in 1966 at Horyu-ji temple, Nara. He wrote about it

the following:

"[...] Within the relatively confined space of the Yumedono, about twenty monks were

chanting 'namukan, namukan...' Although I had no idea what was going on at the time, I

learned later that I had walked in on a ceremony of repentance. [ ...] They then began

quietly to chant a sutra. The texture gradually increased in density until the whole of the

hall was reverberating with the power of the sutra. This continued without variation for

several hours until deep into the night."60

"The rich sound of the monk's voice, the rhythmic movement which made one forget the

passing of time, the dramatic moments present within the musical structure: this was an

unforgettable experience for me. Despite a extended period of foreign study, a Japanese

composer about to enter his thirties had become aware for the first time that music on a

high level existed in his country. This experience stimulated in me a keen interest in

genres of Japanese traditional music such as Gagaku and Shakuhachi. But I was aware

that, it terms of sound, structure, and indeed of its conceptual background, this was

music totally different in nature from the type I had until then been pursuing."61

" [...] All I can say is that I sensed that this music possessed something utterly different

from the music with which I had lived until then."62

63 Uchiyama, Traditional Japanese Drums "Wadaiko" The relationship between Wdaiko and Japaneseculture - The evolution of Wadaiko, Linz 2010, P. 6.

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4.6. Wadaiko

Ishii had also strong interest in Japanese drum called Wadaiko. From 1976, Ishii

developed a new style of composing with Japanese drums and Asian percussion

instruments. This was an important part of his composition development that had a major

impact on the world of contemporary music.

The word of Wadaiko is used as a generic term for Japanese traditional drums such as

Nagadou-daiko or Miya-daiko (長胴太鼓 /宮太鼓) , Okedou-daiko (桶胴太鼓) ,

Shime-daiko (締太鼓), Hira-daiko (平太鼓), Tsuzumi (鼓), and Uchiwa-daiko (団扇太

鼓). "It is a compound word, which consist of Wa meaning Japanese and Daiko meaning

drum when it appears as a suffix. When it is not a suffix the simple Japanese term for

drum is Taiko."63

Figure 11. Nagadou/Miya-daiko Figure 12. Okedo-daiko Figure 13. Shime-daiko

Figure 14. Hira-daiko Figure 15. Uchiwa-daiko Figure 16. Tsuzumi

64 Uchiyama, Traditional Japanese Drums "Wadaiko" The relationship between Wdaiko and Japaneseculture - The evolution of Wadaiko, P. 21.

65 Ebby Y. L. Chang, Wadaiko from East to West: An Overview of Contemporary Japanese Drumming inthe World Today,https://www.academia.edu/14568091/Wadaiko_from_East_to_West_An_Overview_of_Contemporary_Japanese_Drumming_in_the_World_Today, (02.10.2019), P. 4.

66 Rossing, Science of percussion instruments, P.3-5.

- 36 -

"Standard Taiko-sticks are usually 32 cm to 42 cm in length and 18 mm to 30 mm

thickness. The standard form of the Japanese drum stick is cylindrical and made of

wood. The thickness and weight used depends on the individual performer's body

strength, the size of the drums, the playing style and the stick material. This generally

comes down to a personal taste, similarly to the classical musicians who play on the

western instruments."64

4.6.1. History of Japanese drumming

"Different strands of Japanese drumming culture that exist today can be generally

classified as follows:

I. Traditional 1. Religious music [Buddhist and Shinto rituals and ceremonies]

2. Court music [Gagaku]

3. Stage music [Kabuki, Noh]

II. Contemporary 4. Creative drumming as stage performance"65

"There are thousands of different types of drums found throughout the world. For a

multi-year period, drums have been played for signaling, for sending messages, for

marshaling troops to battle, for conveying the time of day, for sending soldiers into battle,

and for warning of impending danger as well as for performing music."66

67 Uchiyama, Traditional Japanese Drums "Wadaiko" The relationship between Wdaiko and Japaneseculture - The evolution of Wadaiko, P. 16.

68 Rossing, Science of Percussion instruments P.42.

- 37 -

The origin of Japanese drumming, as commonly introduced, dates back Jomon era

(10000 BCE - 300 BCE). "It was used for the ceremony, communication during hunting

to attract or threaten animals."67

The discovery of earthenware drums and Haniwa(埴輪: a clay figure placed in ancient

burial mounds)(Figure 17) in ancient Japanese tomb indicated, that it was used for

religious ceremonies. Even as time went by, drum continued to be used as a musical

instrument to express the spiritual world. Japanese people, who were basically

agricultural people, prayed for fertility and struck drums to eliminate disasters.

In the sengoku period (ca. 1467-1573), drum was used to inspire soldiers in the battle.

In the medieval period of Japan (about the 4th to 15th century), Japanese drums were

used at festivals as well. The Buddhist summer festival called Obon(お盆) which

commemorates and remembers deceased ancestors was a very important annual event

that used taiko. In Bon Dance people dance around a tower. On the tower, singers,

drummers, and whistling people perform the dance music. The dances are beeing lead

by the drum beating so that they can easily dance and sing to the beat. "In Buddhist

temples, It has been said that the sound of the drum is the voice of Buddha. In Shinto

temples it is said that drums have a spirit (kami) and that with a drum one can talk to

the spirits of animals, water and fire."68

69 Masumi Izumi, Taiko no Rekishi, 2010, http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/article/3317/?show=ja,Translated from "伝統的には、太鼓は決められた[...]国境をも越えて広がりました。", (01.10.2019).

70 Chang, Wadaiko from East to West: An Overview of Contemporary Japanese Drumming in the WorldToday, P. 2.

- 38 -

Traditionally, a taiko was supposed to be played by a designated person in a certain

place. Each village carefully guarded its own rhythm and passed it across generations.

Many Japanese villages still inherit these rhythms, but some rhythms have spread

beyond the borders of the village.69

Figure 17. Haniwa from Gunma(6CE)

4.6.2. Today's wadaiko performance

There are now some internationally known taiko songs, but this phenomenon manifested

itself after the dramatic change in the social functions of the taiko after the Second World

War. Today's wadaiko culture spans only a little more than half a century. It became

more a drumming of stage performing than traditional drumming.70

The year 1951 can be considered as the birth year of wadaiko as a creative style with

the restoration of the Osuwadaiko(御諏訪太鼓) by Daihachi Oguchi that had been

interrupted in the Meiji era(1868-1912). It was triggered by placing drums of different

71 Chang, Wadaiko from East to West: An Overview of Contemporary Japanese Drumming in the WorldToday, P. 4.

72 ibid.

- 39 -

sizes next to each other and hitting them simultaneously. Thus a new modern group

form of drumming performance was established. This performing style is called

Kumitaiko (組太鼓) or more technically Fukushiki fukudahou (複式複打法). After that,

Japanese drums became known throughout the world as a result of the establishment

and popularity of professional kumitaiko groups named Oedo sukeroku daiko (大江戸助

六太鼓), Ondekoza (鬼太鼓座)and Kodo (鼓童).71

4.6.3. Ondekoza

Ondekoza is a crucial creative Japanese drumming group needed to describe the

development of this genre. In 1969, Ondekoza was formed of young people under the

direction of its founder, Den Tagayasu(1931- 2001). The group was originally created

on the Japanese island of Sado, where a group of young men and women gathered to

follow the ideals of Den Tagayasu. Den envisaged the establishment of a four-year

college training to nurture young professionals in traditional crafts. The group included

marathon as part of their training for their performances and has set the famous image

of male members wearing nothing but a piece of loincloth, as a way to show the power

and strength of the drum and its performer.72 The foundation of Ondekoza's activity is

known as "Sogakuron (走楽論)"- that means "running and drumming are one, and a

73 Official website of Ondekoza, http://www.ondekoza.com/aboutus.html, (02.10.2019).

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reflection of the drama and energy of life"."73

Their dramatic international debut performance was made at the Boston marathon in

1975. After completing marathon, Ondekoza's members immediately went to stage to

perform on their 350 kg big drum. Since then Ondekoza has expanded across not only

Japan but also rest of the world, popularizing taiko along the way. And they are widely

recognized as one of the groups to have set the groundwork for taiko as a performance

art.

74 Akiyama, Monochrome - The Emotional Aesthetic of Japanese Drums and Maki Ishii's"Non-MusicalTime", P. 167.

75 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 53.76 ibid.

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5. Ishii and percussion

5.1. Ishii's concept of percussion

His work consists of wide range of genres such as stage, ballet, instrumental music and

vocal music. Amongst them he had a particulary strong interest in percussion

instruments. It is considered by Akiyama Kuniharu, Music critic (1929-1996), that Ishii's

obsession with percussion instruments might have been rooted in his childhood

experience.

"During Ishii's infancy, he used to play in his father's dance studio, which was equipped

with five pianos as well as numerous percussion instruments- especially drums, gongs,

and cymbals- which his father had acquires in the course of his performance tour of

Asia. The young Maki and his friends would thrash away at these instruments and play

on them." 74

His interest in percussion instruments stems "essentially from their antiquity as a family

of instruments which can be traced back to the origins of mankind, and their novelty in

the history of western music."75 Furthermore, his special interest in these instruments

was in its intrinsic, elemental power and the richly expressive potential. He stated that

percussion remains a relatively undeveloped field and "there are still many blank

canvases which remain to be painted in the case of percussion instruments. These are

instruments which retain much potential for new creative development."76

77 Sano, Maki Ishii- The Synthesis of Multi-Layered Time, P. 73.

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Ishii composed 178 pieces for orchestra, stage, solo, chamber music; including 4

arrangements.

Despite of the interest in percussion instruments, his compositions for solo

multi-percussion are not numerous. He only composed 4 pieces for solo

multi-percussion: Sen- ten op. 20 (1971), Search in Grey II op. 37 (1978), Thirteen

Drums op. 66 (1985)and Episode I op. 102 (1994). Among them two pieces are

accompanied by electric sounds.

This is a result of his philosophy. Ishii believed that composer must handle the

percussion instruments very carefully, since the quality of their tone alone makes their

sound effective.77

5.2. Encounter with wadaiko

The following works are listed as examples of Ishii's composition of wadaiko ensemble.

- 'Monochrome' for Japanese drums and gongs op. 28 1976)

- 'Mono-Prism' for Japanese drums and orchestra op. 29 (1976)

These pieces brought the idea and new techniques of contemporary Western music to

Wadaiko.

Monochrome is Ishii's first composition for Japanese drums. Ishii met the Japanese drum

group Ondekoza(鬼太鼓座) in 1975 and composed this work for them. He lived together

78 Uchiyama, Traditional Japanese Drums "Wadaiko" The relationship between Wdaiko and Japaneseculture - The evolution of Wadaiko, P. 46.

79 Ishii, "Sounds of West- Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 57.80 Official website of Maki Ishii, http://ishii.de/maki/en/works/1976-mono-prism/, (02.10.2019).81 Ishii, "Sounds of West- Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 43.

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with member of Ondekoza before composing and experimented with development of

performance technique that was different as the Japanese drum performance at that

time. (For example: "fast beats and patterns in pianissimo, crescendo until forte and

keeping continuous energy and power, recording it in an improvised style."78 As the

result of their practice, they managed to achieve "a truly incredible and extraordinary

percussion and dynamism in their performance." 79

Building on the line of development from monochrome, Mono-Prism was written in the

same year. This work is performed by Japanese drums and western orchestra. "The title

Mono-Prism is a compound word consisting of the elements "Mono" which refers here to

the monochromatic tonal quality of Japanese drums, and "Prism", referring to the

prismatic tonal quality of the Western orchestra."80 This piece was pointed out by Ishii as

one of the his compositions that offer a clear indication of his creative evolution and

development.81

He mentioned that wadaiko obviously falls within the category of percussion, however

they are radically different from rest of percussion. "They indeed belong to the same

family of membranophones as the side-drum, tom-toms, and bass drum of western

music, but, with their distinctive history of development in Japan, they have little else in

common with these western instruments in respect of both structure and playing

82 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 55.83 ibid.84 "sounds of K. Stockhausen and Maki Ishii" at sogetsu hall (Tokyo) in September 1985.

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technique."82 In the performance of wadaiko, "musical time and the rhythm, which

emerges as a result of a "self-forgetting", continuous striking of the drums until the

physical limits are reached, is nothing other than a presentation of "halting musical

time"."83

Figure 18. Performance of monochrome in Chiba, Japan (19. 09.2014)

5.3. Thirteen drums

5.3.1. General information

Thirteens drums, numbered 66th in his 178 compositions, was composed in 1985. It was

dedicated to Japanese percussionist Atsushi Sugahara and performed as premiere by

him at his percussion recital84. Since then it has been performed all over the world.

85 Official website of Maki Ishii, http://ishii.de/maki/en/works/1985-thirteen-drums/, (04.06.2019).

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The following is a description of Thirteen Drums by Ishii:

"In Thirteen Drums I have flown in the face of this awareness by using only thirteen

membranophones. I make no use here of gongs, cymbals or any other instruments with long

sound envelopes, nor of percussion instruments conventionally used for providing tonal

coloration.

Percussion music is a field of enormous variety. There is a general awareness today that

drumming is a musical activity involving the use of many techniques on many diverse

instruments to create tonal colors of exquisite subtlety and sounds of symphonic breadth.

My aim in composing this work was to draw attention again to the dynamic fascination of drums

of the membranophone category. I decided on this combination of instruments so as to permit a

clear perception of the interaction and development of two musical elements, first, a simple

rhythmic series consisting of twelve beats of semiquavers (see the music example below) and,

second, an indeterminate rhythm which intrudes on the thirteenth beat.

This confronts two main challenges, namely the return to the essence of what it means to strike

drums and the search for new possibilities for the interaction of determinate and indeterminate

rhythms."85

87 Ishii, "Sounds of West - Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, P. 55.

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<Choice of instruments and sticks>

Thirteen Drums is composed literary for thirteen drums. For the instrumentasion, Ishii

specified instruments in two options. Choice of twelve drums are written at the beginning

of score as follows: "Bongos, Congas and other skin instruments with calf skin.

(or Japanese drums: Shime-Daiko, Oke-Do.)". The lowest drum, which is numbered as

13, must be a bass drum with pedal.

Someone might wonder, whether these two different groups of instruments could be

combined into the 13 drums. It is clear from Ishii's description of Japanese drums, that

they are radically different from another types of drums, and should not be mixed

together. Playing on Japanese drums requires from percussionist not only a different

technique, but also specific sticks. Ishii was particular about the sound of the drums

made of calf skin such as Bongo, Conga and Japanese drums. This reasoning was

obviously influenced by his experience with Japanese drums. Consequently, it seems

like when it came to drums, these had the foremost place in his mind.87

In the main part, there is no specification about what kind of sticks or mallets should be

used for playing, so it is entrusted to the performer's judgment. What appears in the

middle is the playing method using mallet and the part played directly with hand /

fingers.

- 47 -

<Setting of the instruments>

In case there is no specific arrangement of instruments in a multi-percussion piece by

composer, the position of the instruments depends on the dominant hand and physique

of each player. In addition, it is preferable to place the main instrument in the piece at

the center of the whole setting. In Thirteen drums, the drum No. 5 is often played, so it is

preferred to place it around the center of the set-up. It is also necessary to arrange the

twelve surfaces of drums as smoothly as possible without any surface bumps.

<Theme of Thirteen Drums>

This rhythm series appear in most of the

piece and is the important theme.

Figure 19. Rhythm series of thirteen drums

As the figure shows, the numbered sections from 1 to 12 are retrograde, which means,

playing from 12 to 1 makes the same rhythm pattern. This is a composition method often

used in the twelve-tone technique. The performer must get the sense of the sound of the

13 instruments that make up this piece as 12 + 1, and consider that the sound of 12

drums are written with the technique of the twelve-tone technique. Since Ishii stated

about his aim of composition regarding time as "incorporation into work a sense of

88 Sano, Maki Ishii - The Synthesis of Multi-Layered Time, P. 71.

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musical time qualitatively different from the European sense of meter as used in the

past",88 the contrast of the determinate rhythm and the indeterminate rhythm can be

considered as a sense of Western rhythm and a sense of Japanese rhythm.

5.3.2. Analysis

As this piece has almost no bars, the guides of score are shown by the number of pages

and line in this analysis. The entire piece is divided into four main sections (A to D).

A (Introduction), B (Development), C (Recapitulation of the A), D (Coda)

It is considered that the musical elements such as mechanism of Jo-Ha-Kyu, idea of

traditional Japanese music, etc. are reflected in various place of the piece.

A. Introduction

Figure 20.

The expected performance speed is simply written "very fast" and there is no detailed

description. However, it is necessary to consider the the speed of tempo will later

- 49 -

increase. The performer should bear in mind this escalation, when they're setting up the

initial tempo. They must be able to play this sixteenth note with one and later on.

Twelve beats of sixteenth note are played by a single instrument with diminuendo, after

that, an indeterminate rhythm appears with an accent and loud dynamics in thirteenth

beat. This is the simplest part of the interaction of determinate and indeterminate

rhythms. It is also considered as "Jo" of Jo-Ha-Kyu(1).

This pattern is repeated two times more with changing drum of the sixteenth notes.

The indeterminate rhythm on the thirteenth beat stays every time in same pattern until

section B.

Figure 21. Page 1, line 2.

This part (Figure 21) is considered as "Ha" of Jo-Ha-Kyu(1). The accent of the

sixteenth note appears on every four beats and has regularity as rhythm series. In three

divided part (Figure 22-24) the rhythm series appears in every four beats.

- 50 -

Figure 22. Page 1, line 2.

Figure 23. Page 1, line 3 to

page 2, line 1.

Figure 24. Page 2, line 2.

- 51 -

Figure 25. Page 2, line 2.

Page 3, line 1.

Figure 26.

After that, these accents appear in shorter cycle now in every 3 beats (Figure 25), and

later in 2 beats (Figure 26) with adding crescendo. Therefore, music increases in

volume, and without an actual accelerando performer can create an impressssion of

boost in speed.

- 52 -

From the beginning of the piece to the end of first line of page 3, the sequence of

sixteenth notes appears 12 times. Each time, all the drums numbered 1 to 12 are used

equally once in the following order: 5-3-9-8-1-11-4-7-10-6-2-12. This shows the influence

of the twelve-tone technique in this piece.

Page 3, line 2.

Figure 27.

Here (Figure 27) is "Kyu" of Jo-Ha-Kyu(1).

This is the first time that the rhythm series appear as the prototype. For the second beat,

the note with an accent is placed on the fourth note instead of the third note.

Considering the place of the second accent note in rhythm series (Figure 27),

presumably, this is an error that occured during printing. This series are repeated four

more times with adding single grace note.

89 From the score of Thirteen drums.

- 53 -

Page 4, line 1.

Figure 28.

From here, the double grace notes are placed and also accelerando with crescendo are

added. The density of the notes increases and the music gets intensely uplifted as the

speed and volume increase. This part is annotated as follows in the paragraph below.

Annotation ※) a: "with the use of quick tempo (including accelerando), will necessarilycause the disruption of the stipulated rhythm. Rhythmic accuracy is less important thanperforming the patterns in a speed that is very fast or as fast as possible".89

Page 4, line 2.

Figure 29.

- 54 -

This(Figure 29) is a connection to section B. The beating of sixteenth notes stops here

and the six grace notes cause a tempo collapse. This creates a completely different

sense of tempo, but by focusing on the relationship between notes and sixteenth rests,

we can see that it is written with basic rhythm series here as well.

Page 4, line 3.

Figure 30.

Page 5, line 1.

Figure 31.

Furthermore, the sound pattern changes and looks like a broken rhythm. However, by

following accented notes it is obvious that the base of rhythm is still following the same

pattern here as well. Ritardando is added from here. The number of notes decreases.

With ritardando the music calms down and leads to the next tempo of 60 BPM.

- 55 -

<Section B>

With change in tempo, another scene with completely different atmosphere begins here.

Page 5, line 2.

This is a response to the previous part (Last part of

figure 31) and played by striking with finger. The finger

strokes playing is mainly written for the higher sound

instruments in order to make its sound clear and

effective.

Figure 32.

Figure 33.

Here (Figure 33), there is a return to playing with mallet again and a gentle passage

like vocal song appears. In actual performance the soft mallet is often utilized to make

legato sound. After a short fermata, a sequence appears with different dynamics and

change to finger strokes. It seems like answer to the previous gentle passage.

After that, tremolo of half note are repeated four times. These bear a resemblance to

sound of shakuhachi by muraiki technique.

- 56 -

Page 5, line 3.

Figure 34.

Rhythm pattern is similar to page 4, line 3. Here sixteenth notes come to the same place

as the accent notes of rhythm series again.

Page 6, line 1.

Figure 35.

The lowest notes (bass drum) roughly fit the accent of the rhythm series, but regularity

is gradually lost due to the extended long notes (between 1 and 2, 3 and 4) and the

appearance of indeterminate rhythms (between 6 and 7, 9 and 10).

- 57 -

<section C>

Page 6, line 2.

Figure 36.

Here is the introduction of section C, and "Jo" of Jo-Ha-Kyu(2).

It this piece pianissimo is written as the weakest dynamics and here is the only scene

where pianissimo continues for a while.

Page 6, line 2 to 3.

Figure 37.

Here is "Ha" of Jo-Ha-Kyu(2). The rhythm series appear for every two beat. A single

sixteenth note is written without resound and performer uses the playing method, where

sticks or mallets stay the surface of drum skin without rebound after beating drum. This

playing method is a way to keep the music with a low dynamics as pianissimo. It is

- 58 -

similar to the "Sei" method which is used by Kakko in gagaku. Also these muted notes

are played on drums with different pitches all 12 times, like a method of 12-tone

technique. Ishii might have been inspired by them.

This pattern(Figure 27) is repeated again with the same rhythm. At this time

accelerando and crescendo are added and the music goes up with pianisssimo.

page7, line 1

Figure 38.

As "Kyu" of jo-ha-kyu(2), rhythm series appear again and the tremolo comes as an

indeterminate rhythm on the thirteenth beat. The second tremolo with long fermata is an

introduction to the next scene and it brings slower tempo of 80 BPM.

The Jo-Ha-Kyu structure from page 6, line 2 until this point is repeated three more times.

Each of the tremolo part which comes after the fast part as "Kyu" become shorter - 8

seconds, 7 seconds, 5 seconds and in the end 2 seconds (Figure 39-41).

- 59 -

Figure 39.

Figure 40. Figure 41.

The tempo after tremolo section gets faster and faster with each repetition.

The rhythm series finally appear at a fast tempo after the third iteration.

- 60 -

Figure 42.

Figure 43.

- 61 -

In page 9, line 1(Figure 42), the rhythm series appear here, but quarter rests are added

in various places. This creates a disorder in the beats and sounds as if the entire song is

slowing down or moving backwards, despite maintaining a fast tempo.

In page 9, line 2(Figure 43), the tempo changes suddenly to 66 BPM, however, it is

expressed obscurely due to the disordered beats before. Leaving only the accent part of

the rhythm series, it gradually slows down with diminuendo.

In these parts (Figure 42 and 43), the time space created by rests is similar to the

concept of "Ma". Although it sounds like an irregular rest to the listener, it was

intentionally created by the composer, as "Ma" can create a stronger tension than

absence.

- 62 -

<Section D>

It starts from page 10, line 2. Overall, the rhythm appears at the same time with the

fundamental note of tremolo, so the whole sound is relatively dense. The structure of this

section can also be regarded as a Jo-Ha-Kyu form.

"Jo": Page 10, line 2.

Figure 44.

"Ha": Page 10, line 3.

Figure 45.

Two rhythms appear alternately. Here, the contrast of determinate rhythm and

indeterminate rhythm becomes clear.

- 63 -

Page 11, line 2.

Figure 46.

Around here(Figure 46) the score becomes more complicated than before. However,

the pattern of the rhythm series - twelve beats of determinate rhythms and indeterminate

rhythm on the thirteenth beat stay here as well.

Page 12, line 1.

Figure 47.

The pitch of drums rises and a short cadenza is played on any of the drums for 7

seconds.

90 ibid.91 Maki Ishii, preface, in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musicalworld, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 10.

- 64 -

"Kyu": page 12, line 2.

This part, as an end has no limit on the

length of the performance and is annotated

as follows in the paragraph below.

Annotation ※) b: "From here, the questionof whether repetitions are to be employed,and if so how many times, is left to thediscretion of the performer."90

Figure 48.

This may be the "non-logical nature of sound" which is a part of Ishii's musical concepts.

91 This part is played by keeping continuous energy and power. It is similar to what Ishii

sought in a rehearsal with Ondekoza.

92 ibid.

- 65 -

6. Conclusion

Japanese traditional arts and music have been preserved and passed down over many

years. However, it has been found by tracing their history, that there are not many things

that have been passed down to the present day in the form they were in at the time of

their conception. They have been affected by various fields over the ages, evolving, and

transforming.

By the virtue of research for this thesis, I was able to understand, that every music piece

has its own intricacy. There is more to it than just information one can be read from the

music score.

This kind of research process is important for the performance of all musical works, and

especially in the multi-percussion genre. The reason behind this is that even if new

works are produced, if the understanding of the song does not deepen, it will remain just

an "avant-garde work".

Ishii stated about composing:

"A composer communicates with his or her audience by writing compositions and

through performances. This is everything. Music can be literary or philosophical or

conceptual, but music is nevertheless an art of sounds and is neither literature nor

philosophy nor concepts." 92

This shows how important it is for a performer to play with a deeper interpretation of the

composition. I hope that the multi-percussion genre, which have been developing rapidly

in over 50 years, will continue to develop in the future.

- 66 -

7. Bibliography

Literature

Akiyama, Kuniharu: Monochrome- The Emotional Aesthetic of Japanese Drums andMaki Ishii's "Non-Musical Time", in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii'smusic. Striding two musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle1997, P. 165-180.

Cage, John: 27'10.554" for a Percussionist, New York 1960.

Funayama, Takashi: Reverberations between east and West- Observations on MakiIShii's Composition "Fu Shi", in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music.Striding two musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997,P. 119-150.

Gottschewski, Helmann: Nineteenth-Century gagaku Songs as a Subject of MusicalAnalysis: An Early Example of Musical Creativity in Modern Japan, in:Nineteenth-Century Music Review, volume 10/ issue 2, 2013, P. 239-264.

Ishii, Maki: preface, in: Sound of West and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Stridingtwo musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 10.

Ishii, Maki: "Sounds of West- Sounds of East" Striding two Musical Worlds, in: Sound ofWest and Sounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musical world, edited byChrista Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 13-70.

Mattner, Lother: Halting Time- The Composer Maki Ishii, in: Sound of West and Soundsof East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musical world, edited by Christa Ishii-Meinecke,Tokyo and Celle 1997, P. 151-164.

Mihaud, Darius: Concerto pour batterie et petit orchestre op.109, Vienna 1930.

Miki, Minoru: Composing for Japanese Instruments, Martlesham 2008.

Nelson, Steven G.: Court and religious music (2): music of gagaku and shomyo, in: TheAshgate Research Companion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokita andDavid W. Hughes, Farnham 2008, P. 49-76.

Rossing, Thomas D.: Science of percussion instruments, Singapole 2000 (=Series InPopular Science Vol. 3).

Sano, Koji: Maki Ishii- The Synthesis of Multi-Layered Time, in: Sound of West andSounds of East. Maki Ishii's music. Striding two musical world, edited by Christa

- 67 -

Ishii-Meinecke, Tokyo and Celle 1997, P.71-98.Schick, Steven: The Percussionist's Art: Same Bed, Different Dreams, Rochester 2006.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz: Zyklus Nr.9, London 1960.

Takemitsu, Toru: Klang im Ostern, Klang im Western, in: Musiktext, heft 59, 1995,P. 53-59.

Tsukitani, Tsuneko: Nihon Ongaku tono deai - Nihon Ongaku no rekishi to riron (日本音楽との出会いー日本音楽の歴史と理論), Tokyo 2010.

Tsukitani, Tsuneko: The shakuhachi and its music, in: The Ashgate ResearchCompanion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokita and David W. Hughes,Routledge and Farnham 2008, P. 145-168.

Uchiyama, Emiko: Traditional Japanese Drums "Wadaiko" The relationship betweenWdaiko and Japanese culture- The evolution of Wadaiko, Linz 2010.

Internet sources

Charles, Andrew B.: Multi-percussion in the Undergraduate Percussion Curriculum,https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations/1324, (22.09.2019).

Chang, Ebby Y. L.: Wadaiko from East to West: An Overview of ContemporaryJapanese Drumming in the World Today,https://www.academia.edu/14568091/Wadaiko_from_East_to_West_An_Overview_of_Contemporary_Japanese_Drumming_in_the_World_Today, (02.10.2019).

Ishibashi, Mikio: dentou geinou no miryoku「伝統芸能の魅力」https://www.bunka.go.jp/prmagazine/rensai/youkoso/youkoso_011.html, (14.08.2019).

Izumi, Masumi: Taiko no Rekishi, 2010,http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/article/3317/?show=ja, (01.10.2019).

Official website of Imperial Household Agency,http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e-culture/gagaku.html, (07.09.2019).

Official website of Maki Ishii,Mono-prism, http://ishii.de/maki/en/works/1976-mono-prism/, (02.10.2019).Profile, http://ishii.de/maki/en/profile/, (07.09.2019)Thirteen drums, http://ishii.de/maki/en/works/1985-thirteen-drums/, (04.06.2019).

Official website of Ondekoza, http://www.ondekoza.com/aboutus.html, (02.10.2019).

- 68 -

Repertoire of ARD International Music Competition in Munich,https://www.br.de/ard-musikwettbewerb/teilnahmebedingungen/repertoire-4-/index.html,(08.08.2019).

Repertoire of Geneve Competition,https://www.concoursgeneve.ch/site/app/webroot/kcfinder/upload/files/re%CC%80glement%20percussion%202019-eng.pdf, (08.08.2019).

Schlefer, James Nyoraku: Elements of Japanese Music, 2018,https://nmbx.newmusicusa.org/elements-of-Japanese-music/ (26.08.2019).

Smith, David L. : Multiple Percussion,https://www.moderndrummer.com/article/january-1977-complete-percussionist-multiple-percussion/, (28.05.2019)

Solomon, Samuel: John Cage– 27' 10.554" for a percussionist,http://szsolomon.com/john-cage-27-10-554-percussionist-1956/, (10.10.2019).

Suzuki, Seiko: Gagaku, Music of the Empire: Tanabe Hisao and Musical heritage asnational identity, http://journals.openedition.org/cjs/1268, (18.07.2019)

Figures

Figure 1: placing of instrumentsStockhausen, Karlheinz: Zyklus Nr.9, London 1960.

Figure 2: Maki Ishiihttp://salida1.web.fc2.com/ishiimakiafuroconcert.html, (24.06.2019).

Figure 3: ryuteki, komabue and kagurabuehttp://iha-gagaku.com/instrument.html, (26.09.2019).

Figure 4: hichiriki, shohttps://sunchi.jp/sunchilist/tokyo/43013, (26.09.2019).

Figure 5: hikimonohttps://sunchi.jp/sunchilist/tokyo/43013, (26.09.2019).Figure 6: uchimonohttps://sunchi.jp/sunchilist/tokyo/43013, (26.09.2019).

Figure 7: Rhythm patterns used in Goshoraku-no Kyu

- 69 -

Nelson, Steven G.: Court and religious music (2): music of gagaku and shomyo, in: TheAshgate Research Companion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokita andDavid W. Hughes, Routledge 2008, P. 49-76, P.59.

Figure 8: Four types of scale in medieval gagaku and shomyoTokita, Alison McQueen/ Hughes, David W.: Context and change in Japanese music, in:The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison Mcqueen Tokitaand David W. Hughes, Farnham 2008, P. 1-34., P.23.

Figure 9: Shomyo-syuhttps://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/dglib/contents/learn/edc8/deao/syomyo-k/gakufu.html,(19.01.2019).

Figure 10: Shomyo score of "Ungabai "Tsukitani, Tsuneko: Nihon Ongaku tono deai - Nihon Ongaku no rekishi to riron (日本音楽との出会いー日本音楽の歴史と理論), Tokyo 2010, P.58.

Figure 11-16: Wadaikohttps://www.miyamoto-unosuke.co.jp/products/list.php?category_id=1, (02.07.2019).

Figure 17: Haniwa from Gunma (6 CE)https://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=684, (02.10.2019).

Figure 18: Performance of monochrome in Chiba, Japan (19.09.2014).http://www.kodo.or.jp/blog/performers/20140924_3227.html, (22.02.2020).

Figure 19: Rhythm series of thirteen drumshttp://ishii.de/maki/en/works/1985-thirteen-drums/, (04.06.2019).

Figure 20- 48: Music score of Thirteen drumsIshii, Maki: Thirteen drums for percussion solo op 66, Leipzig 1985.

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Eidesstattliche Erklärung

„Hiermit erkläre ich eidesstattlich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbstständig und ohne

fremde Hilfe verfasst habe. Alle Stellen oder Passagen der vorliegenden Arbeit, die

anderen Quellen im Wortlaut oder dem Sinn nach entnommen wurden, sind durch

Angaben der Herkunft kenntlich gemacht. Dies gilt auch für die Reproduktion von Noten,

grafischen Darstellungen und anderen analogen oder digitalen Materialien.

Ich räume der Anton Bruckner Privatuniversität das Recht ein, ein von mir verfasstes

Abstract meiner Arbeit sowie den Volltext auf der Homepage der ABPU zur

Einsichtnahme zur Verfügung zu stellen.“