an overview of tectonosedimentary framework of the salt range pakiatan

8/12/2019 An Overview of Tectonosedimentary Framework of the Salt Range Pakiatan

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ORIGINAL PAPER

An overview of tectonosedimentary framework of the Salt Range,

northwestern Himalayan fold and thrust belt, Pakistan

Shahid Ghazi &Syed Haroon Ali &

Mohammad Sahraeyan &Tanzila Hanif

Received: 14 August 2013 /Accepted: 16 January 2014# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2014

Abstract The Salt Range is the youngest and the most south-

ern part of the western Himalayan Ranges in Pakistan. The

oldest rocks that crop out are the Infra-Cambrian Salt RangeFormation. The Salt Range Thrust separates the Infra-

Cambrian from Proterozoic rocks, and deposits ranging in

age from Infra-Cambrian to Recent are present in the Salt

Range. A particular feature of the Salt Range is the presence

of a thick salt sequence, and its distribution has affected thrust,

normal, and reverse faults. The structural changes across the

Salt Range area reflect a systematic variation in the stage of

their tectonic development. These structural features are relat-

ed to the presence of incompetent formations in the succes-

sions. The sedimentary record of the Salt Range is filled with

thick Infra-Cambrian calcareous to siliciclastic sediments of

the Indian Plate and relatively very thick Miocene-Pliocene

mollassic deposits of the Indus foredeep. To better understand

the relationship of the main tectonic features, these features of

the Salt Range are marked on Landsat satellite imagery. Over-

all, structural interpretation associated with sedimentation

styles permits the differentiation between the eastern, central,

and western Salt Range.

Keywords Regional geology. Tectonics. Sedimentation .

Infra-Cambrian to Recent . Salt Range

Introduction

About 70 km south of the main Himalayan Ranges, the SaltRange rises as a 180-km-long and 85-km-wide ridge of hills at

the southern edge of the Potwar Basin, Pakistan. It is widest in

its central part, between the Khewra and the Warchha (Fig.1),

where it also contains the best exposures of Palaeozoic and

Eocambrian sequences (Fig. 1). The name Salt Range was first

used by Elphinston, a British envoy to the court of the Kabul.

He visited this territory (18081815) and noticed the extrac-

tion of salt from the Salt Range. Hence, historically, the Salt

Range derives its name after the occurrence of gigantic de-

posits of rock salt embedded in the Precambrian bright red

marls that are stratigraphically known as the Salt Range For-

mation (formerly Punjab Saline Series). Apart from the easily

available roadside geology, here are some prominent gorges

cutting the Salt Range. Among these gorges, the most famous

are Khewra, Nilawahan, Warchha, Nammal, and Chichali

gorges, which provide the fantastic locations to study the

sedimentary successions.

The Salt Range contains wealth of geological features, for

which it has been rightly called as the Field Museum of

Geology. In fact, it represents an open book of geology,

where the richly fossiliferous stratified rocks such as the

Permian carbonate succession contains brachiopod fauna with

recently established conodont biostratigraphy (Wardlaw and

Mei 1999) and foraminifera biostratigraphy (Mertmann

2000). The Salt Range is also famous for the study of

Permian-Triassic marine sections. Ammonites are especially

well studied and provide an excellent stratigraphic framework

of the region (e.g., Brhwiler et al.2010,2011,2012).

The Salt Range represents a longitudinal east-west trough,

bounded on the east by the Jehlum River and on the west by

the River Indus, between 3215330N and 71347345 E

(Fig.2). Beyond the River Indus, it takes a hairpin bend to

develop a north-south trend. The east-west extension is the

S. Ghazi (*) :T. Hanif

Institute of Geology, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590,

Pakistan

e-mail: [email protected]

S. H. Ali

Earth Sciences Department, KFUPM, Dharan, Saudi Arabia

M. Sahraeyan

Department of Geology, Khorasgan (Esfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad

University, Isfahan, Iran

Arab J Geosci

DOI 10.1007/s12517-014-1284-3


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Salt Range, while the north-south segment is the Trans Indus

Salt Range. It is arcuate and convex to the south with a general

east-west trend but turns to the north-west near the western

end and to the north-east near the eastern end (Fig. 2). The

average elevation of the Salt Range is about 800 m, and the

highest peak, Mount Sakesar (3232N, 7156E), is 1,570 m

high. The upper part of the scarp exposes Permian or Eocene

limestone, or Tertiary sandstones. The Potwar Basin, with an

average altitude of 500 m, is bounded on the south by the Salt

Range and on the north by the Kala Chitta Hills, which are a

short distance north of the Rawalpindi (3337 N, 738 E;

Fig.2).

Previous work suggests the idea that thrust sheets have

been elevated from the Punjab Foreland Basin, because they

thrust over the basin (Khan and Chen 2009). The Salt Range is

the youngest and southernmost east-west trending frontal fold

PROTEROZOIC

Precambrian

Salt Range Formation

(Base not exposed)

ERA PERIOD EPOCH GROUP FORMATION

C

E

N

O

Z

O

I

C

Pleistocen

Soan Formation

Dhok Pathan Formation

Nagri Formation

Chinji FormationS

iw

a

lik

Pliocene

Miocene RawalpindiKamlial Formation

Murree Formation

Eocene

Chorgali Formation

Sakesar Limestone

Nammal Formation

C h h a r a t

Palaeocene

Patala Formation

Lockhart Limestone

Hangu Formation

Cretaceous Lamshiwal Formation

Chichali Formation

Samana Suk Formation

Shinawari Formation

Datta Formation

Kingriali Formation

Tredian Formation

Mianwali Formation

Jurassic

Triassic

Chhidru Formation

Amb Formation

Wargal Formation

Sardhai FormationWarchha Sandstone

Dandot Formation

Tobra Formation

Baghanwala FormationJutana Formation

Kussak FormationKhewra Sandstone

P

e

r

m

i

a

n

CambrianP

A

L

E

O

Z

O

IC

M

E

S

O

Z

O

IC

Late

Middle

Early

Middle

Early

Early

Early

Middle

Early

Late

Middle

Early

Late

Middle

Early

Late

Early

Early

Middle

Musakhel

Zaluch

Nilawahan

Jhelum

S

u

rg

h

a

r

Makarwal

Lei Conglomerate

Fig. 1 Generalized exposed

stratigraphic units with major

breaks in deposition in the Salt

Range, Pakistan

Arab J Geosci


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and thrust belt of the Himalaya, which developed as a result of

ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates

(Baker et al. 1988; Grelaud et al.2002). Two regional scale

distinguishing features are the characteristics of the Salt

Range: the first is the occurrence of the thick salt deposits

and the second is the presence of several regional and local

scale nondepositional events ranging from Eocambrian to

Pleistocene age (Gee and Gee 1989). To the north, the Salt

Range overrides its own fan material along the active Salt

Range Thrust (Yeats et al.1984). Along its northern slope, the

range is comprised of simple, broad, and shallow folds and a

gentle northerly dipping monocline. To the south, the folding

becomes tighter, and east-west-trending faults and over-folds

are developed along the southern scarp. Tectonically, the

Himalayas are recognized as a young collisional mountain

belt formed as a result of collision between the northward

drifting Indian Plate (to the south) and the Asian Plate (to the

north) that occurred at about 67+ 2 Ma (Powell and Conaghan

O33

0 10 20 40 60 80 100 Km

PESHAWAR

Amb

Warchha

Jhelum

Jogi Tilla Karian

Khushab

Nilawahan

Jhelum

R.

Kohat

MA A

GE

SA N

RAN

EGNARATTIHCALAK

ISLAMABAD

RawalpindiFatehjang

Mirpur

Khewra

Sardhi

Zaluch

Musa Khel

Isa Khel

Kingriali Peak

Bannu

SE

GN

AR

SU

DNI

SNA

RT

ENGARRAHG

RU

STalagang

ISABA NRWTOP

reviRliS

reivRnSoa

EGNARTARUME-IR-KHA

EGNARALAGRAM

Kotli

Sanwans

Siran

Saloi

WatliKaruli

Measured section

Localities

LEGEND

Matan

ISL M B D

Lahore GHNISTN

ARA I N SEABA

JammuKashmir

CHIN

NI I

N

R

Peshawar

Karachi

Quetta

INDEX MAP OFPAKISTAN

I

r

ndus

Riv

e

S A L T

G EN

AR

Diljab

ba-Ba

kerala

Ridge

O32

O71 O72 O73 O74

Fig. 2 Location map of the Salt Range in northern Pakistan

Arab J Geosci


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1973; Powell et al.1988). This collision was not accompanied

by major mountain building, but only accommodated by

closure of the Tethyan Ocean and the lateral displacement of

rigid blocks, out of the way of the Indian sub-continental with

no crustal thickening.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the

regional geology of the Salt Range in terms of main tectonics

and their mutual relationship, stratigraphy and sedimentation,and structural style. The extracted structural features from

Landsat imagery (courtesy of Google Earth) are marked to

highlight the relationship between tectonic processes and to-

pography in the Salt Range region. Also, the lateral distribu-

tion of the thrust front is explained with help of these images.

Regional geological setting

The Indo-Pakistan Plate belongs to the east of Gondwanaland

(Valdiya 1984, 1997). Gondwanaland was named after a

district in India where the fossil plantGlossopteriswas found(Gansser 1964, 1981; Krishnan 1966; Smith and Hallam

1970; Wadia1994). The Gondwanaland domain is character-

ized by a continental crust and crystalline basement consoli-

dated in the Precambrian and a platform type developed in the

Palaeozoic times known as the Indian Shield and it forms the

Indo-Pakistan Plate. Its northern margin comprises the crys-

talline thrust sheets of the Himalayan fold and thrust belt.

Wadia (1994) divided the Indo-Pakistan Plate from north to

south, into three principal physiographic and geologic parts,

namely, (a) the Himalaya, (b) the Himalayan foredeep, and (c)

the Peninsular Region.

The Himalaya represents the most extensive and active

collision belt in the world. The great Himalayan fold and

thrust belt extends westward from Burma through India, Ne-

pal, and southern Tibet into northern Pakistan. Southward

migrating thrust sheets from the Himalaya shed their erosional

products into the active foredeep (e.g., Ganga Basin in India

and Punjab Plain in Pakistan) which itself migrated south-

wards (Acharyya and Ray 1982; Johnson et al. 1985,2009;

Raynolds and Johnson1985). The Peninsular Region is main-

ly comprised of elements of the Indian Shield and it is char-

acterized by granite-greenstone terrains comprised of Archean

to Proterozoic age magmatic rocks, banded gneiss, and gran-

ites. Proterozoic mobile belts (eastern Ghat and Aravalli-

Delhi) were tectonically wrapped around the earlier Archean

and Proterozoic rocks. Late Cretaceous age basalts (Deccan

Trap) are covering vast tracts of the Peninsular Region.

Subdivision of the of Himalaya in northern Pakistan

Gansser (1981) subdivided the Himalaya from south to north

into the six parts (Fig.3).

Indian shield and Punjab Plain Foreland

The Indian Shield consists of Archean granite and gneiss

which are overlain by Precambrian strata of various ages,

including the more metamorphosed Aravalli system and large-

ly unmetamorphosed Vindhyan system which may extend up-

section into the Cambrian (Gansser1964). The Malani acidic

volcanic rocks and pinkish, medium-grained granite are alsoyounger than the Aravalli system and are dated as 500

700 Ma (cf. Krishnan1966; Kochhar1982). Rhyolite and tuff

of the Kirana Hills, south of the Salt Range, may also be part

of the Malani volcanic (Heron 1953; Davies and Crawford

1971). The Aravalli Range and to a lesser extent the Vindhyan

Range trends are at the right angle to the Himalaya, and it is

generally believed that the Aravalli structural belts continue

northward at depth beneath the Ganga Basin and the Himala-

yan thrust sheets (Krishnan1966). Structurally, the Siwaliks

of the Ganga Basin have faulted contact with deformed

Siwaliks of the foothills along the Late Quaternary Himalayan

Frontal Fault (Yeats et al. 1984; Davis and Engelder 1985;Baker et al.1988; Jaum and Lillie1988; Sinha2013), called

the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) (Gansser1981). Rocks of the

Indian Shield are exposed in Pakistan only at Nagar Parkar

near the Ran of Cutch and in the Kirana Hills south of the Salt

Range. The Kirana Complex occurs as isolated hills extending

out of the alluvium of the Indus Plain covering an area of

about 200 km2. The outcrops occur in Sargodha, Chiniot,

Sangla, and Shahkot areas and lie between longitudes 7238

48724800 and latitudes 315100321500 (Fig. 3).

The Kirana Complex constitutes the oldest remnants of wide-

spread volcano-plutonic suites, which mark important

tectono-magmatic events in the Late Proterozoic period in

Pakistan.

Sub-Himalaya

The Himalayan foothills form the Sub-Himalayan zone,

which is bounded to the north by the Main Boundary Thrust

(MBT) and to the south by MFT or Himalayan Frontal Fault

(HFF) (Fig. 3). The area of the Salt Range and the Potwar

Basin belongs to the Sub-Himalaya. The Sub-Himalaya of

Pakistan in a longitudinal sense can be subdivided into Azad

Kashmir Zone in the east and Punjab Zone in the west.

Southward, the folded Siwalik sequence is covered by the

alluvium of Indo-Gangetic and Punjab Plain.

The Punjab Plain Foreland, in a transverse sense is

subdivided into:

1. Northern Potwar or Rawalpindi Zone: a fold and thrust

belt culminating in the Khairi Murwat structure.

2. The Soan Zone comprises a broad syncline under a pla-

teau in the east and the Kohat Basin in the west.

Arab J Geosci


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072

073 074

075

076

037

035

036

034

032

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H d

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K sh

Kak

rum

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Chitral

Hunza

in a ak r m hrus ( KTMa K r o u T t M )

MKTM

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(MM )

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S U B H I M A L A Y A

EL S S

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A L A Y

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Kala Chitta Range

Peshawar Basin

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Jhelum

Kas

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si

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ra

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Srinagar

LESSER HIMALAYA

SUBHIMALAYA

Mianwali

Attock

Mansehra

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IANJA

PRP

LTP

T

M

B

K

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as

r

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dary

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(KBT)

H

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axs

az

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ti

0 50Km

Main

y

Boundar usThr t (MBT)

Thust

r

Fig. 3 Generalized tectonic map of northern Pakistan, showing subdivisions of the Himalayan Mountains (modified after Gansser1981; Kazmi and

Rana1982)

Arab J Geosci


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3. The only slightly deformed Punjab Platform is further to

the south.

4. The Punjab Zone of the Sub-Himalaya is characterized by

a salt-related decollement and the salt-related tectonics

known as the Salt Range.

Lesser Himalaya

The zone is bounded to the north by the Main Central Thrust

(MCT) and to the south by MBT (Fig. 3). The Hill Ranges,

Plio-Pleistocene basins, and Southern Kohistan probably ele-

ments of the structural block are included in the Lesser

Himalaya (Seeber and Armbruster1979; Seeber et al. 2013).

The Lesser Himalaya is comprised of Precambrian to Late

Palaeozoic meta-sediments and Palaeozoic sedimentary and

volcanic rocks, in its western part. These meta-sediments have

been overridden by thrust nappes of high-grade gneisses de-

rived from the Central Crystalline Axis (Valdiya1980,1984,1989,1997; Sinha2013). The southern sedimentary zone of

the Lesser Himalaya occurs in the form of a fringe along

PirPanjal, Kaghan, and over the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis

(HKS) and as a rider belt in the area of southern Hazara, Kala

Chitta, and Attack Cherat Ranges.

Higher Himalaya

The MCT marks the base of a huge 1015-km-thick slab of

high-grade metamorphic rocks, which overlie the Lesser Hi-

malayan sequence (Gansser 1981). This intracrustal thrust

sheet of Precambrian Central Crystallines forms the High

Himalaya that lies between the Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone

or Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) to the north and MCT to the

south (Fig.3).

Tethyan or Tibetan Himalaya

The Tethyan Himalayan Zone occurs north of Higher

Himalaya (Gansser1964). The Late Precambrian sequences

of turbidite, deltaic, and shelf sediments grade upward into

similar Cambrian and Early Ordovician sediments (Thakur

1981). The Ordovician limestone forms the summit of the

worlds highest peak, the Everest. The Tethyan Himalaya is

limited to the north by the Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone known

as the Indus Suture in the northwest Himalaya. The Tethyan

sequence has developed as a continental margin shelf deposit

on the northern edge of the Indian Plate (Thakur1981). The

Tibetan-Tethys Himalaya is truncated to the north by the Indus

Tsangpo Suture Zone in the central and eastern Himalaya

(Valdiya1989).

Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone

The Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone is an ophiolite belt which

follows the Tsangpo River and the upper part of the Indus

River for nearly 2,000 km2, mostly in Tibet. This suture zone

terminates the Tethyan Himalaya on the north and marks the

boundary between the Late Mesozoic India and various con-

tinental fragments (Valdiya 1989). Some of these fragmentswere part of Gondwanaland, and they migrated northward

separately from India in the Early Mesozoic (Valdiya1984,

1989). It seems probable that most of the continental slope and

the continental rise deposits of the former, passive margin

have disappeared, presumably due to subduction beneath

Tibet (Gansser1981).

Regional tectonics of the Salt Range

Stratigraphy and sedimentation

The Precambrian to Miocene succession is exposed in the Salt

Range (Fig.1). The oldest rock unit exposed in the area is the

Salt Range Formation and the youngest are the Recent Con-

glomerates. The base of the Precambrian rocks is not exposed,

but it is confirmed by subsurface data that beneath the Salt

Range Formation sequence of metamorphic rocks are present

(cf. Gee and Gee1989). The whole sequence of the rocks in

the Salt Range is punctuated by several regional and local

scale unconformities (Fig. 1).

The first major stratigraphic break is marked by the

glaciofluvial conglomeratic deposits of the Tobra Formation

overlying the Cambrian succession (Ghazi et al. 2012). In the

Salt Range, the second major unconformity occurs between

the Jurassic age Samana Suk Formation and the Palaeocene

Hangu Formation, marked by the presence of laterite deposits.

The third major unconformity is between the Early Eocene

and Mio-Pliocene sequence. The last major unconformity is

recognized between the Mio-Pliocene sediments and the Re-

cent Conglomerates.

The Eocambrian age Salt Range Formation is widely dis-

tributed in the Salt Range and it is about 8002,000 m thick

(Fatmi1973; Gee and Gee1989). The most important feature

of the Salt Range Formation is its behavior as a zone of

decollement between underlying rigid basement and overly-

ing sequence. This evaporite sequence is mainly composed of

rock salt, gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, marl, and occasionally

oil shale. It was developed in the arm of the Tethys Sea that is

cut off by the main sea during regression and adopted the

shape of a lake (Latif1970; Calkins et al. 1975). It shows a

shallow marine-restricted environment under arid conditions

in which evaporite sequence developed and extended up to the

Hazara area (Latif1970; Calkins et al.1975). The rocks of the

Cambrian age are collectively known as the Jehlum Group

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and extensively exposed along the southern boundaries of the

Salt Range.

During the Cambrian times, mostly warm climatic condi-

tions existed in the Salt Range area in which mainly shallow

marine clastics were deposited (cf. Shah 1977). The Jehlum

Group represents different cycles of sedimentation during the

Cambrian and composed of the Khewra, Kussak, Jutana, and

Baghanwala formations (Noetling 1901; Fatmi 1973; Fatmiet al.1984; Yeats and Hussain1987). The Permian succession

in the upper Indus Basin is exposed only in the Salt Range

which has been divided into Nilawahan and Zaluch groups.

The Nilawahan Group in the Salt Range represents the conti-

nental environment with glaciofluvial and marine conditions

in early Permian (Ghazi et al.2012). The Zaluch Group of the

Upper Permian widely distributed in the western Salt Range is

characterized by highly fossiliferous shallow shelf carbonate

deposits (Fig.1).

Triassic rocks are mainly exposed in the western Salt

Range and composed of the Mianwali, Tredian, and

Kingriali formations of the Musa Khel Group (Fatmi1973; Shah 1977). The Lower Triassic Mianwali Forma-

tion overlies unconformably the Chhidru Formation of the

Upper Permian age (Balme 1970; Kummel and Teichert

1970; Mertmann 2003). Shallow marine conditions

prevailed during most of the period, supporting a charac-

teristic cephalopod fauna in the lower shale-limestone unit

in the Mianwali Formation, arenaceous deposition with

the preservation of imperfect plant fragments in the

Tredian Formation during Middle Triassic, followed by

calcareous and dolomitic sedimentation of the Kingrialli

Formation during Late Triassic times. In the Late Triassic

to Early Jurassic, a break in sedimentation occurred which

represents a major unconformity. The Jurassic succession

in the Salt Range is composed of the Datta, Shinawari,

and Samana Suk formations of the Baroch Group (Fatmi

1973).

The Jurassic system shows varied environments of deposi-

tion ranging from continental, deltaic to high energy oolite or

reef. The advent of the Jurassic is marked by large deltaic

deposits of the Datta Formation, mainly composed of conti-

nental arenaceous, with carbonaceous and lateritic deposits. A

widespread marine transgression followed and continued dur-

ing Middle Jurassic times, resulting in deposition of the

Shinawari and Samana Suk formations, predominantly com-

posed of limestone (Fatmi and Haydri1986). The absence of

the Cretaceous sedimentation from the sloping shelf of the

Punjab Platform and in the eastern Salt Range marks the limit

of final regression in the Upper Cretaceous times (cf. Fatmi

and Haydri1986). In the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous

age, the Chichali Formation was deposited in reducing envi-

ronments and is followed by the Lower Cretaceous age

Lumshiwal Formation that was deposited in shallow marine

conditions. Regression and emergence occur near the end of

the Middle Jurassic and were followed by the clastic, shallow

marine sedimentation in the Late Jurassic and Early Creta-

ceous times (Fatmi 1973; Hallam and Maynard 1987). The

latter part of the Cretaceous period witnessed a regression of

the Tethys Sea towards northwest. At the end of the Mesozoic

time, the land surface consisted of the Lower Triassic and

Upper Permian formations over the central part of the Salt

Range. Prior to widespread marine transgression of thePalaeocene time, the land surface was weathered at many

places to form an impure laterite and bauxite.

Late Cretaceous uplift, erosion, and weathering of the

land surface were followed by the Nummulitic marine

transgression in the Early Tertiary times during widespread

subsidence. In the Salt Range, deposition of the Makarwal

Group commenced with a variable sequence of sandstone,

shale, and limestone, the Hangu Formation. Subsequent

deposition included the predominantly calcareous Lockhart

Formation that is overlain by the carbonaceous shales of the

Patala Formation. During the Late Palaeocene, a lacustrine

environment developed over part of the eastern and centralSalt Range resulting in the formation of workable sub-

bituminous coal within the Patala Formation. More stable

marine conditions followed during the Early Eocene, with

the deposition of calcareous Nammal, Sakesar, and Chorgali

formations of the Chharat Group. Towards the end of the

Palaeocene, a second Tertiary regression is evident in most

parts of the region. Marine sedimentation continued in the

upper Indus Basin with deposition of a mainly calcareous-

argillaceous sequence. The larger forams are present in the

Eocene rocks showing shallow marine conditions. Upper

Eocene rocks are absent in the Salt Range, suggesting that

epeirogenic movements resulting in the emergence of the

area above sea level had commenced and continued with

erosion, during the Oligocene time. Following the marine

regression of the Late Eocene-Oligocene time, sedimentation

occurred in lacustrine and fluviatile environments. Clastic

deposition took place rapidly, with no regional unconfor-

mities until Late Pliocene time.

The Salt Range remained relatively elevated during the

Early Miocene. The Miocene Rawalpindi Group consists of

the Murree and Kamlial formations. The fluvial and fluvio-

deltaic Rawalpindi Group deposits indicate the initiation of

significant Himalayan uplift (Johnson et al. 1985). The Plio-

Pleistocene Siwalik Group consists of the Chinji, Nagri, Dhok

Pathan, and Soan formations. These strata are nonmarine, time

transgressive, and molassic facies that represent the erosional

products of southward advancing Himalayan thrust sheets

(Wells 1984; Yeats and Hussain 1987). The Siwalik Group

records continued uplift of the Salt Range (Keller et al. 1977;

Abid et al. 1983). The Lei conglomerate provides important

timing information, and the conglomerate, which has a basal

age of about 1.9 Ma (Raynolds and Johnson1985; Fig. 1), is a

valley fill deposit with Eocene clasts. Disregarding the recent

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alluvial cover, the youngest deposit is the Potwar silt (Yeats

et al.1984) which reflects pounding behind the rising of the

Salt Range and its age is less than 0.7 Ma (cf. Raynolds and

Johnson1985).

Structure of the Salt Range

The Salt Range is an east-northeast trending complex saltanticlinorium with a series of salt anticlines, bent northward

at both ends (Fig. 4). The Kalabagh Reentrant bounds it on the

west, on the east the frontal thrust becomes blind, and the Salt

Range dies out into the Chambal Ridge and Rohtas Anticline

(Krishnan 1966; Yeats et al. 1984; Fig. 4). The Pabbi Hills

anticline appears to be the eastward extension of the deforma-

tion front across the Jhelum River. The Jhelum Plain marks its

southern boundary. Its southern escarpment, rising 800900 m

above the plains, marks the southernmost extent of significant

deformation along the Himalayan fold and thrust belt in

Pakistan (Figs.3and4). The northern slope of the Salt Range

is gentle, gradually passing into the Potwar Basin (Fig. 3). TheSalt Range and Potwar Basin form a large allochthonous

block, which has been thrust and differentially rotated along

a decollement within, or at the base of, an incompetent,

evaporite-bearing sequence that directly overlies metamorphic

bas eme nt (Gans ser 1964; Crawford 1974; Seeber and

Armbruster 1979; Yeats et al. 1984; Yeats and Lawrence

1984; Lillie et al. 1987; Wadia 1994; Grelaud et al. 2002;

Seeber et al.2013). Krishnan (1966) divided the area of the

Salt Range and Potwar Plateau into four zones: Salt Range,

Soan Syncline, anticlinal zone, and faulted zone. The south-

ernmost zone is the scarp slope of the Salt Range, where a

thick evaporite-clastic sequence is exposed along the Salt

Range (Fig. 5). The Salt Range Formation evaporites have

been interpreted as the decollement zone responsible for the

anomalous rotation of the Salt Range relative to the Himala-

yan trend (Seeber and Armbruster 1979; Kazmi and Rana

1982; Seeber et al.2013).

Southeast of the Salt Range, in the Punjab Plain, the Indian

Shield slopes gently northward, interrupted by the Precambri-

an exposures in the Sargodha High, a basement ridge that has

Himalayan trend (Farah et al. 1977; Yeats and Lawrence 1984;

Fig. 5). However, this basement ridge is considered as an

integral part of the Aravalli Range (cf. Gansser1981; Wadia

1994). In the northern part of the Punjab Plain, the Jehlum

River flows west-southwest along the present axis of the

Himalayan Foredeep. To the north, the Salt Range overrides

its own fan material and alluvium along the Salt Range Thrust

(Yeats et al.1984). Major structural features of the Salt Range

include a number of flat-based synclines separated by some-

what narrow, sharp-crested anticlines (Krishnan 1966;

Gardeszi and Ashraf1974; Yeats and Hussain 1987). As in

inverted topography, the synclines occupy spurs, transverse or

oblique to the main east-west structural trend of the

homocline. The anticlines occur along the deeply eroded

gorges and canyons, locally known as Wahans. Even the side

streams seem to follow the anticlinal trends. Axial lines of

various anticlines and synclines show no particular parallel-

ism. Rather, in certain cases, the angular divergence becomes

as large as 80 or so. As far as faulting is concerned, small-

scale normal faults are numerous, particularly along the steep

slopes of deep ravines, more or less in the manner of stepfaulting (cf. Krishnan1966; Gardeszi and Ashraf1974).

Salt Range Thrust

The Salt Range is truncated along the southern margin by Salt

Range Frontal Thrust (SRFT), which is bounded between

Jehlum and Indus River (Figs. 4 and 5). It has pushed the

older successions of the Salt Range upon the less deformed

tertiary sequences of the south lying in the Punjab Plain. The

thrust zone is largely covered by Recent fanglomerates and

Jehlum River alluvium (Yeats et al.1984). However, near theJalalpurand the Kalabagh areas, the thrust is exposed and

shows the Palaeozoic rocks overlying the Neogene or Quater-

nary deposits of the Punjab Plain (Yeats et al.1984; Gee and

Gee1989). Along the Salt Range Thrust, effective decoupling

of sediments from the basement along the salt layer has led to

southward transport of the Salt Range and Potwar Plateau in

the form of a large slab over the Punjab Plain. The Salt Range

is thus the surface expression of the leading edge of the

decollement thrust (Yeats et al. 1984).

Jehlum Fault

The Jehlum Fault marks the eastern limit of the Salt Range

(Figs.3and4). Kazmi (1977) pointed out that Jehlum Fault is

a left-lateral strike slip fault that originated along the western

margin of the axial zone of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis

(HKS). Baig and Lawrence (1987) described the Jehlum Fault

as a left-lateral strike slip fault and reported that along this

fault, Murree, Abbottabad, and Hazara formations are highly

deformed between the Balakot and Muzaffarabad areas.

Blocks of the Panjal volcanics and Eocene limestone have

also been dragged several kilometers southward. The rocks

are brittly deformed and a left-lateral offset of about 31 km is

indicated on the western limb of the syntaxis. The Jehlum

Fault apparently dislocates the MBT and terminates the east-

ward continuation of some of the structures of northwest

Himalayan fold and thrust belt, which shows that it is the

youngest major tectonic feature in the syntaxial zone (Baig

and Lawrence1987). A number of east-west trending faults

join the Jehlum Fault at an acute angle pointed towards

northward, indicating a relative left-lateral strike slip

movement.

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Kalabagh Fault

The Kalabagh Fault forms the western margin of the Salt

Range (Figs.3 and4) and extends about 20 km north of the

Indus River, before bending to the west along several north

dipping reverse faults (McDougall 1989; McDougall and

Khan1990). It cuts folds and faults in the Eocambrian of the

Salt Range Formation into Quaternary Conglomerates

HA

N

AFG

NISTA

PAKISTANINDIA

KASHMIR

ltSa

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in

Karakorum

Thrust

Kohistan Arc eIndusRiv r

Nanga Parbat

MBT

Manl

et T rus

th

Peshawar Basin

Potwar Basin

aa

g

F

lt

K

lba

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au

Main

Main

Boun

ary

d

Th ustr

Sl

Rn

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e h

sT r

u t

P u n j a b P l a i n

Kohat Basin

Kala Chitta Range

BannuBasin

Sulai

nR

an

e

ma

g33

32

31

69 70 71 72 73 74 75

34

35

Jeu

mRiv

e

hl

r

In

usRiv

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od

i

SarghaH

gh

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Fig. 4 Generalized regional tectonic map of the Salt Range, Pakistan (modified after Kazmi and Rana1982)

Arab J Geosci


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(Kalabagh Formation). Tectonic slivers of the Permian and

older rocks occur along the fault zone (Gee 1980). In the

western Salt Range, the Salt Range Formation forms diapirs,

which are localized along high-angle faults including the

Chamba

l

Rid

geS

ardhai

ral-

kl

Ka

nga

Ba

raa

KallarKahar

Nila

wahan

Cam

al

hV

asnal

a

Sir

kkaW

archha

west

DiljabbaJogi Tilla

Ara

Jalalpur

SaloiBashrat

Watli

KhewraDandot

Dalwal

Karuli

Kallar Kahar

Sardhai

MatanKalan

Nilawahan

BhuchalKalan

Pail

Katha

Sodhi

Dhok Katha

Naushehra

Amb

Sakesar

Musa Khel

NammalBuri Khel

Sarin

Sanwans

DaudKhel

Warchha

3230

3372 72

307330 73

0 10 20 30 Km Locality

Central Salt RangeWestern Salt Range Eastern Salt Range

east

SaltRangeThrust

a

b

Fig. 6 a Schematic illustration of the three subdivisions of the Salt Range (modified after Gee and Gee 1989). b Generalized map showing major

structural trends in different parts of the Salt Range

North

Kala Chitta Range

Potwar Basin

Soan Basin MurreeThrust

Salt RangeThrust

Salt Range(central part)

SargodhaHigh

Punjab Plain

KarampurWell

South

200 km 80 km 120 km

Tertiary Rocks Mesozoic and Palaeozoic Rocks BasementRocksSalt Range Formation

Fig. 5 Generalized cross section across the Potwar Basin and the Salt Range, showing Salt Range decollement (modified after Gee1983). No vertical

scale is intended

Arab J Geosci


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right-lateral tear faults. The largest of these diapirs is found at

Kalabagh near the Indus River. The Siwaliks are overlain with

angular unconformity by Late Quaternary conglomerates

(Kalabagh Formation), which themselves are folded. These

conglomerates have been dated as 2.91.9 Ma, which also

constrain the Kalabagh Fault (Yeats et al. 1984).

Structural style

The Salt Range is structurally very complex and consists of

three basic structural styles: (1) compressional deformation

(thrusting and folding), (2) transform deformation (strike

faults), and (3) extensional deformation (normal faults).

Compressional deformation

The uplift of the Salt Range is due to the compressional

deformation, which represents the southern part of the Hima-

layan orogeny (Krishnan1966). Thrusting is a specific featureof the compressional deformation. The lowermost thrust, that

is, the MFT, brings the entire sequence over late Quaternary

fanglomerates and Jehlum River alluvium (Baig and

Lawrence 1987). It is covered by the younger fanglomerate

deposits of the Salt Range provenance but evident at few

places, e.g., west of the Jalalpur at the eastern end of the Salt

Range. Where near the foot of the scarp, the Cambrian se-

quence and the uppermost stage of the Salt Range Formation

are thrust upon late Tertiary sandstone. Similar reverse

faulting is evident near the Indus River at the Kalabagh

(Yeats et al.1984). At several localities along the foot of the

scarp, local outcrops of conglomerates of probably late Pleis-

tocene age are overthrust by the Palaeozoic sequence. This is a

clear evidence of the very recent age of the earths movement

(Yeats et al.1984).

The effect of compression on the strata is increased mark-

edly towards the north (Krishnan 1966). In addition, high-

angle fault-bound narrow horsts bring Salt Range Formation

to the surface. Because the Salt Range Formation is easily

eroded, these horsts form deep gorges in which some of the

classic stratigraphic sections of the Salt Range (Khewra,

Nilawahan, and Warchha gorges) are found. The Salt Range

Formation plays a role of decollement zone in this process.

Gravity and seismic data support the existence of detached

zone under the Potwar Basin and the Salt Range (Gee and Gee

1989; Grelaud et al.2002).

Transform deformation

Transform deformation causes strike slip faults. Strike slip

faults are well developed in the Salt Range. Two major strike

slip faults, namely, the Jehlum Fault and the Kalabagh Fault,

mark the eastern and western boundaries of the Salt Range,

respectively. The sense of shear of the Jehlum Fault is left

lateral while the Kalabagh Fault is a right-lateral strike slip

fault (Gee and Gee1989). Some small-scale high-angle strike

slip faults, which are also called tear fault, are present in the

Salt Range. The southward movement of the Salt Range

becomes easier due to the presence of these faults.

Extensional deformation

In the Salt Range area, a number of normal faults are observed

which show extensional deformation. Extensional deforma-

tion is mostly caused by tectonic activity but it is due to salt

diapirism. Salt diapirism is formed due to the upward move-

ment of the salt of the Salt Range Formation.

Subdivisions of the Salt Range

Based on structural style, stratigraphy, and sedimentation, the

Salt Range is divided into three parts: eastern, central, andwestern Salt Range (Gee and Gee 1989; Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,

and 11).

Eastern Salt Range (Jogi Tilla to Khewra)

The area between the Jogi Tilla and Khewra is marked as

the eastern Salt Range (cf. Gee and Gee 1989). The

easternmost end of this unit of the Salt Range loses its

stature and bifurcates into two prominent narrow northeast

trending ridges, the Diljabba and the Chambal Jogi Tilla

(Fig. 7). The latter comprises steeply dipping monoclines,

complicated by complex thrusts and tear faults, whereas

the Diljabba Hill is a steeply dipping anticline, which is

transversed by Diljabba Domeli Thrust (Fig. 8). With the

exception of the Domeli Thrust, other faults at the surface

display relatively less displacements. The eastern Salt

Range is dominated by northeast-southwest trending folds,

which show a wide contrast to the east-west trending folds

in the central Salt Range and northwest-southeast trending

folds on the eastern side of the Jehlum Reentrant (Fig. 6).

On the basis of stratigraphic studies and seismic analysis

across the eastern Salt Range/Potwar Plateau, several im-

portant characteristics are revealed which can be summa-

rized as follows:

1. Overall, anticlines are tight structures, separated by broad,

open synclines. Dips in the axial zones of most of the

anticlines are steep to overturn. Despite the intense defor-

mation in the cores of the anticlines, surface faulting is

comparatively rare (cf. (Martin 1962; Raynolds and

Johnson1985).

2. Disharmonic folding and thrusting of all strata above the

gently north dipping basement indicate that the regional

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10km0 5

Fig. 7 Landsat image shows Mangal Dev Rigde, Chambal Ridge, and Jogi Tilla Ridge, the easternmost part of the Salt Range. The dominant style of

deformation is brittle deformation (courtesy of Google Earth)

20km0 10

Fig. 8 Landsat image shows the Karangal-Diljabba Thrust terminating

near the locality of Choa Saidan Shah and replaced by one of similar

trends but of the opposite throw repeating the complete sequence in the

Ghandhalla Valley known as Ghandhalla Nala Thrust, eastern Salt Range

(courtesy of Google Earth)

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20km0 10

Fig. 9 Landsat image shows both brittle and ductile deformation in the central Salt Range. Note steep angle fault zones like Vasnal and Kalar Kahar

running oblique to the general east-west trend of the Salt Range (courtesy of Google Earth)

Nammal

Uchalli

Khabhiki

20km0 10

Fig. 10 Landsat image shows maximum width in the western part of the central Salt Range. The dominant structures are the series of narrow anticlines

and broader synclines, which are often faulted (courtesy of Google Earth)

Arab J Geosci


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decollement in the eastern Salt Range lies within the Salt

Range Formation (Davis and Engelder1985; Lillie et al.

1987; Fig.8); the decollement has not cut up-section into

molasse (Butler et al. 1987). Surface folds are cored by

both foreland and hinterland dipping, blind thrusts. Salt

has flowed away from beneath synclines into the cores of

adjacent anticlines.

3. Basement offset appears to localize thrusting in someinstances (Fig. 9). Fault propagation folds and triangle

zones and pop-up structures are all common deformation-

al styles (Butler et al.1987).

Johnson et al. (1985, 2009) suggested that the folded

structures in the eastern Salt Range and Potwar Basin

are cored by blind thrusts. They argued that these

thrusts cut up-section due to increased basal friction

caused by an eastward thinning of salt along the edge

of an extensive Eocambrian salt basin, as predicted by

Davis and Engelder (1985). However, Jaum and Lillie

(1988) suggest that thrusts may cut up-section due tothe extremely shallow dip of the basement (


15/17

southwards, towards the toe of the thrust, as well as toward the

eastern Salt Range. Three active strike slip faults lie oblique to

the Main Frontal Thrust that occurred within the central Salt

Range (cf. Yeats et al. 1984). These three faults appeared to be

a function of tear faults, segmenting the Salt Range (Fig.9).

Western Salt Range (Warchha to Kalabagh)

The area between the Warchha and Kalabagh is marked as the

western Salt Range (Gee and Gee 1989; Figs. 10 and 11).

Westward of the Warchha area, the Salt Range takes a north-

west bend (Fig.6). This directional change coincides with the

change in the strike of the formations accompanied by the

complex fault lineaments (Gee and Gee 1989). The Salt Range

Thrust is abruptly truncated by the Kalabagh Fault System (cf.

(McDougall and Khan 1990; Fig. 10). This fault extends

20 km north of the Indus River, before bending to the west

along several north dipping reverse faults (McDougall 1989;

McDougall and Khan1990).

In the western Salt Range and northward in the KohatPlateau, the Salt Range Formation forms diapirs which are

localized along high-angle faults including the right-lateral

tear faults (Fig. 11). The largest of these diapirs is found at

Kalabagh near the Indus River. The northern Salt Range is a

fold belt which includes strata as young as the Siwaliks. The

Siwaliks are overlain with angular unconformity by late Qua-

ternary gravels (Kalabagh Formation) which are themselves

folded (Yeats et al.1984).

Discussion

One dataset was used to extract the structural and tectonic

features. These were interpreted from five Landsat images

(courtesy of Google Earth). To get the whole map view of

the study area, five scenes were taken. The quality of images

was enhanced by geo-referencing, fine adjustments, color

balancing, and brightness matching, thereby helping to iden-

tify structures and lateral variations. The image was obtained

by combining red, green, and blue bands, respectively. This

procedure was found useful for extracting the features of

interest for the study from the Landsat imagery (courtesy of

Google Earth).

Overall, the regional structural style of the Salt Range

region is a function of compressional, extensional, and trans-

forms forces. A sharp bend near the easternmost part of the

area is marked near Chamkon Valley and identified as the

Jalapur Structure. The Salt Range here (Mangle Dev Ridge)

bends into Chambal Ridge and Jogi Tilla Ridge. The Mangle

Dev Ridge shows decollement level at Pre-Cambrian Salt. In

Chumkon Valley, a set of stacked ridges has been trapped

between Mangle Dev and Chambal ridges, striking northwest,

and each ridge is bounded by a thrust fault verging southwest.

The Karangal-Diljabba Thrust is replaced by a similar thrust

having the same trend but opposite throw near the locality

ChoaSaidan Shah. This thrust repeats the same succession in

the Ghandhalla Valley and is known as Ghandhalla Nala

Thrust (Fig.8).

In the central Salt Range area, both brittle and ductile

deformation is present in this area. Kalar Kahar and Vasnal

are the steep angle fault zones running oblique to the directionof the Salt Range. The thickest part is near the western part of

the central Salt Range. Most of the structures identified here

are anticlines and synclines, which are often faulted (Fig. 10).

A right-lateral strike slip fault is identified near the western

Salt Range. This shows a displaced Salt Range trend, which

divides the Salt Range from the Trans Indus Range. The

characteristics of this area are the steep angle faults which

have resulted in vertical outcrops of the Salt Range Formation

(Fig.11).

Conclusions

The Salt Range structure in the northwestern Himalayan fold

and thrust belt, Pakistan accommodates differential thrusting

induced by lithological deviations along the basal

decollement. Due to topographical and structural data, the

Main Salt Range Thrust is marked that controls the whole

succession from Precambrian to Recent. Based on structural

style, stratigraphy, and sedimentation, the Salt Range is divid-

ed in to three parts, i.e., eastern, central, and western Salt

Range. The image interpretation shows a sharp bent near the

easternmost part of the area, Karangal-Diljabba Thrust, whichis replaced by thrust near ChoaSaidan Shah. The thickest part

is identified in the central Salt Range. The Kalar Kahar and

Vasnal are identified as the steep angle faults running oblique

to the direction of the Salt Range Thrust. A right-lateral strike

slip fault is identified near the western Salt Range that

displaced the Salt Range and separates the Salt Range from

the Trans Indus Range.

Acknowledgments Ghazi is supported by a scholarship from the Uni-

versity of the Punjab. We are grateful to Nigel Mountney for providing

valuable discussions regarding the interpretation of this manuscript. We

express our gratitude to Aftab Ahmad Butt for the advice and guidance.We also acknowledge the careful reviews performed by Abdullah M. Al-

Amri (Editor-in-Chief).

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an overview of tectonosedimentary framework of the salt range pakiatan

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