an investigation of the frequency of squatting facets in later stone age foragers from south africa

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 15: 371–376 (2005)Published online 9 August 2005 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/oa.791

An Investigationof the Frequencyof Squatting Facets in Later StoneAge Foragers fromSouth Africa

N. DLAMINI* AND A. G. MORRISDepartment of Human Biology, Medical School, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7925

South Africa

ABSTRACT Distinctive morphological changes attributed to a habitual squatting posture were observedon the distal femur, distal tibia and on the talar neck of Later Stone Age (LSA) foragers. Thefrequency of squatting in LSA foragers (n¼ 56) was determined by the presence ofanatomical features of joint hyperflexion. Three South African comparative skeletal groupsfrom different time periods were also analysed: skeletal remains of early farming populations(n¼ 17), 18th century ‘Free Blacks’ and/or slaves from Cobern Street, Cape Town (n¼ 21),and a modern cadaver sample (n¼ 29).

The results show that 28 out of 56 LSA foragers (50%) were habitual squatters; 13 out of 17farmers (76.5%) and one of 21 individuals from the Cobern Street collection (4.8%) demon-strated squatting facets. No anatomical squatters were found in the modern cadaver sample.There was no significant sex difference between squatters and non-squatters.

Hence at least half of the LSA foragers and farmers were habitual squatters, according tothe signs of joint hyperflexion. Squatting is a comfortable position for those used to it becausethe body weight is supported with minimal muscular activity. Two probable reasons aresuggested for the difference in postures adopted by the different groups: (1) availability orlack of availability of furniture and (2) cultural and individual differences in resting posture.Copyright � 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: squatting facets; Later Stone Age foragers

Introduction

Squatting has been observed in many humanskeletal remains from archaeological contexts, andis generally assumed to be adopted by non-Westernpopulations. The squatting posture was commonamongst the Neanderthals (Trinkaus, 1975;Lovejoy & Trinkaus, 1980), in the French MiddleAges (Boulle, 2001), among the aborigines ofAustralia (Pounder, 1984), and the Medieval (11thto 16th centuries AD) peasants from WharramPercy, London (Mays, 1998). People in modernWestern-oriented societies prefer to sit upon chairsand find a squatting posture difficult to assume.

Morphological changes in articular surfaces(i.e. facets), observed on the lower limb arelinked to hyperflexion of the joints during asquatting posture. It was, therefore, the aim ofthis study to identify the frequency and pattern ofsquatting in Later Stone Age (LSA) foragers andto compare this with three other South Africangroups from different time periods.

Materials and methods

Osteological sample

The distal tibia, distal femur and talar neck ofadult individuals were evaluated for the presenceof squatting facets. The skeletal remains studied

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 22 June 2004Revised 6 July 2004

Accepted 2 September 2004

* Correspondence to: Department of Human Biology, MedicalSchool, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7925 South Africa.e-mail: [email protected]

were obtained from many different academicinstitutions and museums around South Africa(see Appendix for list of specimens). The mainsample for this study included a group of LSAforagers from the Western Cape, South Africa,dating within the first millennium BC. Threecomparative groups from different time periodswere also analysed: (1) early and late farmingpopulations or ‘Iron Age’ (IA) farmers from dif-ferent sites around South Africa, dating from the5th to the 19th centuries AD; (2) 18th century‘Free Blacks’ and/or slaves from Cobern Street,Cape Town; and (3) a modern cadaver samplefrom 20th century Cape Town. Table 1 sum-marises the sample size and sex distribution of thespecimens under study.

Most of the archaeological skeletons hadalready been sexed and aged by previousresearchers (Morris, 1992; Constant & Louw,1997; Sealy & Pfeiffer, 2000). For the moderncadaver sample, sex and age were obtained fromthe University of Cape Town cadaver records.For the skeletons that were not aged and/orsexed, standard ageing and sexing techniquesfor the adult skeleton were employed on thebasis of pelvic and cranial morphology (Sucheyet al., 1986; Iscan et al., 1993).

Anatomical signs of squatting

A squatting posture is defined anatomically as a‘crouched position which hyperflexes the hip andknee joints and hyperdorsiflexes the ankle andsubtalar joints’ (Trinkaus, 1975). Figure 1 showsthe position of the lower limb and the anatomicalposition of the joints in a squatting position.

Many anatomical features attributed to a habi-tual squatting posture have been proposed byinvestigators, with Trinkaus’ 1975 paper on squat-ting among the Neanderthals being the most

extensive work done on anatomical signs ofsquatting. For the purpose of this study, however,only four anatomical signs of squatting wererecorded: (1) facets on the superior-posteriormargin of the distal femoral condyles (Figure 2);(2) facets on the superior-posterior condylarsurface; (3) squatting facets on the distal tibia(Figure 3); and (4) squatting facets on the talarneck (Figure 4). These facets owe their presenceto the influence of a posture that causes extremeflexion of the knee and ankle joints such as in asquat, which leads to extensions of the articularsurface whereby bone-on-bone contact is

Table 1. Summary of specimens under study

Sample Male Female Total Chronologyn n n

LSA foragers 32 24 56 1st millennium BC‘IA’ farmers 7 10 17 5th–19th centuries ADCobern Street 12 9 21 18th century ADModern cadavers 17 12 29 20th century AD

Figure1. Position of the lower limb in a squatting posture (Dlamini,

2002).

Figure 2. Facet on the superior-posterior margin of distal femoral

condyle (Dlamini, 2002).

372 N. Dlamini and A. G. Morris

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 15: 371–376 (2005)

achieved (Charles, 1894; Warwick & Williams,1973; Trinkaus, 1975; Boulle, 2001). The chi-square (�2) test was used to determine statisticalsex difference between anatomical squatters andnon-squatters.

Results

The initial step for the analysis of the data was toseparate each sample into anatomical squattersand non-squatters. Male and female individualswere analysed separately in order not to mask anysex-related differences, such as those that couldbe caused by differences in activity patterns.

The frequency of squatting for all groups (i.e.LSA foragers, early farmers, Cobern Street ‘Free

Blacks’ and modern cadavers) is given in Tables 2,3, 4 and 5 respectively.

Twenty-eight out of 56 LSA foragers (43.8%male; 58.3% female) were found to be squatters;85.7% of ‘IA’ male farmers and 70% of ‘IA’ femalesdemonstrated squatting facets. There was nosignificant sex difference when comparing

Figure 3. Squatting facets on anterior surface of distal tibia

(Dlamini, 2002).

Figure 4. Squatting facet on talar neck (Dlamini, 2002).

Table 2. Frequency of squatting in LSA foragers

Sex Squatters Non-squatters Total

n % n % n

Male 14 43.8 18 56.2 32Female 14 58.3 10 41.7 24Total 28 50 28 50 56

Table 3. Frequency of squatting in ‘IA’ farmers


n % n % n

Male 6 85.7 1 14.3 7Female 7 70 3 30 10Total 13 76.5 4 23.5 17

Table 4. Frequency of squatting in Cobern Street‘Free Blacks’


n % n % n

Male 0 0 12 100 12Female 1 11.1 8 88.9 9Total 1 4.8 20 95.2 21

Table 5. Frequency of squatting in modern cadavers


n % n % n

Male 0 0 17 100 17Female 0 0 12 100 12Total 0 0 29 100 29

Stone Age Squatting Facets 373


squatters from non-squatters for both LSA for-agers and early farmers (�2¼ 0.656, P¼ 0.418and �2¼ 2.919*e-02, P¼ 0.864). Only one(female) of 21 individuals from the Cobern Streetsample was found to be a squatter, by anatomy.There were no anatomical squatters in the mod-ern cadaver sample (Table 5).

Discussion

Are squatting facets a reliable indicator of squat-ting posture ? Anatomically, the extended facetsdo allow for hyperflexion of the lower limb joints.The joint capsule and articular cartilage along thebone extend to prevent bone-on-bone contact inextreme movement of a joint, such as in squatting(Mays, 1998).

Some investigators have also included forwardprolongation and medial and lateral extensions ofthe trochlear surface of the talus as signs ofsquatting posture (Charles, 1894; Thomson,1889). However, Singh (1959) critically demon-strated that these modifications of the talus arenot true squatting facets, as their anatomicalrelationship to one another is incomplete. Healso pointed out that squatting facets on the tibiaare not always accompanied by any facets on thetalus (Singh, 1959).

In hyperdorsiflexion of the foot, such as in asquat, the anterior aspect of the distal tibiaarticulates with the superior surface of the talus,more especially the lateral aspect of the neck(Singh, 1959; Warwick & Williams, 1973). Facetsdevelop due to an increased articular angle in thehyperdorsiflexion of the ankle joint.

The facets on the superior-posterior aspect ofthe distal femur, above the medial condyle, arean extension of the articular condylar surface(Charles, 1894; Kostick, 1963). This facet,upwards to the origin of the gastrocnemius bursa,articulates with the internal semilunar cartilageon the internal tuberosity of the tibia in extremeflexion of the knee joint, such as in a squat(Charles, 1894).

Squatting facets on the distal tibia and on thetalar neck have been observed on the skeletalremains from the Middle Ages in France (Boulle,2001). In his investigation, Boulle (2001) wasable to find a chronological change in these

skeletal markers through historic times. Thefrequency of the signs of squatting demonstratea pattern that the habitual use of a squattingposture was quite common in the Middle Ages(from the 2nd to the 10th centuries AD), andthat there was a progressive decline after thisperiod. This pattern is also comparable withevidence from the literature, archaeological andiconographic data, which indicate that cookingon open-fire hearths located on the floor wassystematically used until the end of the MiddleAges. Moreover, the decrease in the frequencyof squatting corresponds to an apparent changein interior space organisation and availability offurniture, especially chairs and tables (Boulle,2001).

Similarly, in Medieval London, chairs were ararity. Squatting facets are common on the ske-letal elements of the medieval inhabitants ofWharram Percy (Mays, 1998).

The data from this study indicate that over half(76.5%) of the early farmers and 50% of the LSAforagers were habitual squatters, according tosigns of joint hyperflexion in the lower limb. Itis suggested that both the farmers and the LSAforagers must have used the squatting posture inrepose and when engaged in their daily voca-tions. In a squatting position, the body weight issupported with minimal muscular activity and is acomfortable position for those used to it (Mays,1998).

Photographic evidence lending support to ahabitual squatting posture in the descendants ofsouthern African LSA populations is seen on astereograph of ‘Bushmen’ at Koobie, taken byJames Chapman during his African travelsbetween 1860 and 1864 (Bull & Denfield,1970:80). It is important, however, to mentionthat this photographic evidence does notimply that all forager communities haveadopted a squatting posture as a preferred wayof sitting. Roughly half of the prehistoricindividuals did not show signs of hyperflexedjoints and were presumably, therefore, usingother rest postures. It is also clear from thedata that the Cobern Street individuals (4.8%squatters) and the modern cadaver group(0% squatters) had adopted other postures dif-ferent from those of the LSA foragers and thefarmers.



Clearly, choice of rest posture is at the discre-tion of the individual, determined by that indivi-dual’s comfort level. Nearly all young childrenbelow the age of five years have the ability tosquat. However, as the ratio of the length of thefemur to the length of the tibia alters, squattingbecomes more uncomfortable and mechanicallyless efficient. Although the elongation of thefemur makes squatting more difficult in adult-hood, hyperflexion of the joints, including theformation of facets, compensates for the changein femoral length for those individuals who con-tinue to squat into adulthood.

The results of the present study are compar-able with those of previous studies looking atsquatting among ancient populations and modernsamples (Charles, 1894; Thomson, 1889; Boulle,2001). Two probable reasons are suggested forthe difference in postures adopted by the groups:(i) availability or lack of availability of furniture;and (ii) cultural and individual differences inchoice of resting posture.

It is generally accepted that foraging orhunting/gathering groups are nomadic and livein camps without furniture in the Western sense(Stock & Pfeiffer, 2001). Also, the architectureand organisation of interior space of houses offarmers is different from that of Western socie-ties. Their houses are usually built too short toallow room for standing while inside the house.The hearths or cooking fires of both foragersand farmers are at floor level. All of thesefeatures are contrary to what one would findin a ‘typical’ Western household. A squattingposture thus seems likely to have been aneffective way of resting or engaging in seden-tary daily vocations.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge CarolinePowrie, Graham Avery, Mark Debenedictis,Kevin Kuykendall, Louisa Hutten, Maryna Steyn,Gavin Whitelaw, Penny Letley and James Brinkfor granting access to work on their collectionsand their assistance with the skeletal remains. Wethank the Raith Foundation through the Univer-sity of Cape Town for their financial support.Sincere thanks go to Isabelle Ribot, Jacqui

Friedling, the reviewers and George Maat fortheir comments.

Appendix

List of skeletons studied and the institutions inwhich they are located.

� Department of Human Biology, University ofCape Town (UCT)

(1) LSA ForagersUCT: 29, 43, 44, 45, 50, 54, 58, 67, 97,106, 107, 112, 113, 120, 148, 152, 162,199, 200, 201, 220, 230, 246, 254, 318,347, 363, 373, 385, 391, 394, 395, 396,412, 531, 539.

(2) Cobern Street CollectionUCT: 460, 490, 498, 499, 501, 502, 504,508, 510, 514, 516, 526, 536, 551, 552,554, 555, 557, 559, 562, 563.

(3) Cadaver CollectionUCT: 43/83, 13/84, 20/84, 26/85, 40/86,44/86, 21/87, 27/87, 28/87, 22/88, 23/88,42/88, 50/88, 21/89, 22/89, 27/89, 29/89,32/89, 21/90, 30/90, 15/91, 23/91, 37/91,54/92, 16/94, 29/94, 40/94, 13/95.

� South African Museum, Iziko, Cape TownLSA ForagersAP: 34, 1443, 1449, 1878B, 1893, 4203, 4305,4306, 4308, 4720, 4813, 4943, 5041, 5075,5082, 5095, 6017, 6023, 6031, 6083.

� Department of Anatomical Sciences, Univer-sity of the WitwatersrandEarly Farming PopulationsA299, A1836, A2234, A2235a, A2745, A2854.

� Department of Anatomy, University ofPretoriaEarly Farming PopulationsUP: 8, 73, 95, 139.

� National Museum of Bloemfontein, FlorisbadEarly Farming PopulationsNMB: 12, 1215, 1420, 1571.

� Natal Museum, PietermaritzburgEarly Farming PopulationsPMB: 80/2.1, 90/11, 97/08.

Stone Age Squatting Facets 375


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an investigation of the frequency of squatting facets in later stone age foragers from south africa

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