an investigation of japanese university students’ english ... · students’ english-speaking...

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1 【Article】 An Investigation of Japanese University Students’ English-Speaking Skills Noriko IWAMOTO 1. Introduction With the internationalization of Japan, the need for improving the English VNLOOV RI VWXGHQWV LV LQFUHDVLQJO\ EHFRPLQJ VLJQL¿FDQW +RZHYHU LQ WKH (QJOLVK as a Foreign Language (EFL) FRQWH[W RI D FRXQWU\ VXFK DV -DSDQ ZKHUH (QJOLVK is not used in daily life, it is difficult to improve English skills, especially speaking skills. In order to remedy this situation, Practical Guide on the New Course of Study Foreign Language & Education of the Ministry of Educa- tion, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2010) made the teaching of English in high schools a fundamental policy. Moreover, learning a foreign ODQJXDJH KDV UHFHQWO\ EHFRPH PDQGDWRU\ IRU ¿IWK DQG VL[WKJUDGH HOHPHQWDU\ school students. These changes in English education in Japan seem to target WKH PDMRULW\ RI -DSDQHVH SHRSOH PRVW RI ZKRP GR QRW VSHDN (QJOLVK ZHOO HYHQ after learning the language for six years in secondary schools (Torikai, 1996). This is probably because English education in Japan focuses on grammar and reading, rather than speaking, in order to make students ready for high school and university entrance examinations. Therefore, even though they have a JRRG NQRZOHGJH RI (QJOLVK JUDPPDU DQG FDQ UHDG WKH ODQJXDJH ZHOO PDQ\ -DSDQHVH IHHO WKDW WKHLU VSRNHQ (QJOLVK LV SRRU ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W KRZ JRRG DUH WKH (QJOLVKVSHDNLQJ DELOLWLHV RI -DSDQHVH XQLYHUVLW\ VWXGHQWV ZKR KDYH OHDUQHG WKH ODQJXDJH LQ VHFRQGDU\ VFKRROV LQ -DSDQ" ,Q RUGHU WR DQVZHU WKLV TXHVWLRQ RQH Studies in English Linguistics and Literature 26 (2016) 1-16 ©2016 by the Japan Association of English Linguistics and Literature

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Page 1: An Investigation of Japanese University Students’ English ... · Students’ English-Speaking Skills Noriko IWAMOTO 1. Introduction With the internationalization of Japan, the need

1

【Article】

An Investigation of Japanese University Students’ English-Speaking Skills

Noriko IWAMOTO

1. Introduction

With the internationalization of Japan, the need for improving the English VNLOOV�RI�VWXGHQWV�LV�LQFUHDVLQJO\�EHFRPLQJ�VLJQL¿FDQW��+RZHYHU��LQ�WKH�(QJOLVK�as a Foreign Language (EFL)�FRQWH[W�RI�D�FRXQWU\�VXFK�DV�-DSDQ��ZKHUH�(QJOLVK�is not used in daily life, it is difficult to improve English skills, especially speaking skills. In order to remedy this situation, Practical Guide on the New Course of Study – Foreign Language & Education of the Ministry of Educa-tion, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2010) made the teaching of English in high schools a fundamental policy. Moreover, learning a foreign ODQJXDJH�KDV�UHFHQWO\�EHFRPH�PDQGDWRU\�IRU�¿IWK��DQG�VL[WK�JUDGH�HOHPHQWDU\�school students. These changes in English education in Japan seem to target WKH�PDMRULW\�RI�-DSDQHVH�SHRSOH��PRVW�RI�ZKRP�GR�QRW�VSHDN�(QJOLVK�ZHOO�HYHQ�after learning the language for six years in secondary schools (Torikai, 1996). This is probably because English education in Japan focuses on grammar and reading, rather than speaking, in order to make students ready for high school and university entrance examinations. Therefore, even though they have a JRRG�NQRZOHGJH�RI�(QJOLVK�JUDPPDU�DQG�FDQ�UHDG�WKH�ODQJXDJH�ZHOO��PDQ\�-DSDQHVH�IHHO�WKDW�WKHLU�VSRNHQ�(QJOLVK�LV�SRRU��,Q�WKLV�FRQWH[W��KRZ�JRRG�DUH�WKH�(QJOLVK�VSHDNLQJ�DELOLWLHV�RI�-DSDQHVH�XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�KDYH�OHDUQHG�WKH�ODQJXDJH�LQ�VHFRQGDU\�VFKRROV�LQ�-DSDQ"�,Q�RUGHU�WR�DQVZHU�WKLV�TXHVWLRQ��RQH�

Studies in English Linguistics and Literature 26 (2016) 1-16©2016 by the Japan Association of English Linguistics and Literature

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RQ�RQH�LQWHUYLHZV�ZHUH�FRQGXFWHG�LQ�(QJOLVK�WR�LQYHVWLJDWH�KRZ�ZHOO�-DSDQHVH�XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�KDYH�FRPSOHWHG�(QJOLVK�HGXFDWLRQ�LQ�-DSDQHVH�VHFRQGDU\�schools actually speak English.

2. Literature Review

� 7KH�SUR¿FLHQF\�RI�/��VSHDNLQJ�LV�PHDVXUHG�LQ�GLIIHUHQW�ZD\V��6RPH�VWXG-LHV�XVH�LQGLUHFW�WHVWLQJ�VXFK�DV�FRXUVH�JUDGHV�DQG�ZULWWHQ�WHVWV�LQFOXGLQJ�FOR]H�tests and dictation tests, to measure L2 speaking abilities (&KHQJ��+RUZLW]���6FKDOOHUW��������&OpPHQW��'RUQ\HL���1RHOV��������/H�%ODQF��3DLQFKDXG��1985). It is easier to collect data using indirect tests than by conducting direct WHVWV�VXFK�DV�RUDO�LQWHUYLHZV��ZKLFK�DUH�ODERULRXV�DQG�WLPH�FRQVXPLQJ��,Q�DG-dition, Folse (2007) mentions that scoring an indirect assessment is easier WKDQ�VFRULQJ�D�GLUHFW�WHVW�EHFDXVH�HUURUV�FDQ�EH�HDVLO\�LGHQWL¿HG�LQ�WKH�IRUPHU��+RZHYHU��IRU�WKH�DVVHVVPHQW�RI�VSHDNLQJ��GLUHFW�PHWKRGV�DUH�FRQVLGHUHG�EHWWHU�than indirect ones because the former evaluates speaking skills in actual perfor-mance (Ginther, 2012). In some studies, researchers directly assessed L2 speaking of students by PDNLQJ�WKH�VWXGHQWV�VSHDN�WKH�/���WKURXJK�RUDO�LQWHUYLHZ�RU�SUHVHQWDWLRQ��VR�that they could collect the participants’�DFWXDO�RUDO�SHUIRUPDQFH�GDWD��+RZHYHU��many studies did not correctly assess these speaking data because, instead of including multiple raters, they utilized only one teacher rater (Chen, 2008; 0DF,QW\UH��1RHOV���&OHPHQW��������3HLUFH��6ZDLQ���+DUW������). Often, it is unlikely that raters are consistent across all items and all candidates because they may display some patterns of severity or leniency to some candidates, or particular items alone. When there is only one rater, no interrater reliability can be reported; hence, it is doubtful that the teacher assessment in such studies accurately measures the actual speaking ability of participants. On the other hand, some studies employ multiple raters. Several studies have investigated the L2 speaking skills of Japanese university students. For example, in the study by Ockey (2009), 225 Japanese university students took D�JURXS�RUDO�WHVW�DQG�WZR�WHDFKHU�UDWHUV�PHDVXUHG�WKH�VWXGHQWV’ speaking perfor-

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An Investigation of Japanese University Students’ English-Speaking Skills

3

PDQFH�RQ�D�VFDOH�RI���WR����LQFOXGLQJ�KDOI�SRLQWV��7KHLU�PHDQ�JUDPPDU�VFRUHV�ZHUH�ORZ�(����)��ZKHUHDV�WKH�VFRUHV�IRU�ÀXHQF\�(2.69) and pronunciation (2.59) ZHUH�KLJKHU��,Q�D�ODWHU�VWXG\��2FNH\�(2011) examined the skills of 360 Japanese XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�WRRN�D�JURXS�RUDO�WHVW�XVLQJ�WKH�VDPH�PHDVXUHPHQWV�as those used in the previous study (Ockey, 2009) and reported that the mean JUDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�VFRUHV�ZHUH�WKH�VDPH�(����)��ZKLFK�ZHUH�ORZHU�WKDQ�the mean pronunciation (2.56)�DQG�ÀXHQF\�(2.63) scores. Sato (2011b) com-pared the assessments made by Japanese and native English-speaking teachers of the oral English performances of Japanese students. Both the Japanese and English teachers gave the highest mean scores for pronunciation (Japanese WHDFKHU��RU�-7� �������QDWLYH�(QJOLVK�WHDFKHU��RU�1(7� �����), and second high-est mean scores for grammar accuracy (JT = 3.32; NET = 2.92)��ZKLOH�WKH\�JDYH�VOLJKWO\�ORZHU�VFRUHV�IRU�YRFDEXODU\�UDQJH�(JT = 3.08; NET = 2.91) and ÀXHQF\�(JT = 3.10; NET = 2.88). � +RZHYHU��HYHQ�ZKHQ�PXOWLSOH�UDWHUV�ZHUH�HPSOR\HG��UHVHDUFKHUV�RIWHQ�XVHG�UDZ�VFRUHV�IRU�WKHLU�DQDO\VHV�(H�J���$O)DOOD\��������+HZLWW��6WHSKHQVRQ��������3KLOOLSV������)��,QVWHDG�RI�XVLQJ�UDZ�VFRUHV��PDQ\�IDFHW�5DVFK�PHDVXUH-ment (0)50) can be employed to assess L2 speaking data more accurately, VLQFH�0)50�LV�PRUH�DGYDQWDJHRXV�IRU�/��VSHDNLQJ�DVVHVVPHQW�WKDQ�D�FRQ-YHQWLRQDO�DSSURDFK�XVLQJ�UDZ�VFRUHV��:KLOH�VSHDNLQJ�VFRUHV�LQ�D�FRQYHQWLRQDO�approach are likely to be degraded due to the differences in rater severity or OHQLHQF\��0)50�FDQ�SURYLGH�HVWLPDWHV�RI�DELOLW\�WKDW�DUH�DGMXVWHG�IRU�UDWHU�bias. Often, interrater reliability is examined by calculating intercorrelations EHWZHHQ�WKH�UDWLQJV�SURYLGHG�E\�WKH�UDWHUV��KRZHYHU��LQ�WKLV�FDVH��RQO\�WKH�consistency among the rank orders of candidates is indicated. Nonetheless, by XVLQJ�0)50��ZH�FDQ�XQGHUVWDQG�WKH�VHYHULW\�RU�OHQLHQF\�RI�GLIIHUHQFHV�EH-WZHHQ�MXGJHV�(%RQG��)R[������). Moreover, this approach can provide more information on interrater reliability than traditional methods. Due to the joint calibration of facets, rater severity can be measured on the same scale as rater SHUIRUPDQFH�DQG�WDVN�GLI¿FXOW\�VR�WKDW�UHVHDUFKHUV�FDQ�“GUDZ�XVHIXO��GLDJQRVWL-cally informative comparisons among the various facets” (0\IRUG��:ROIH��������S����).

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� 6R�IDU��YHU\�IHZ�UHVHDUFKHUV�LQYHVWLJDWHG�/��VSHDNLQJ�VNLOOV�XVLQJ�0)50��Bonk and Ockey (2003) used this approach to examine the English-speaking VNLOOV�RI�������-DSDQHVH�XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV��7KH\�FROOHFWHG�WKH�VSHDNLQJ�GDWD�RI�SDUWLFLSDQWV�WZLFH�WKURXJK�D�JURXS�GLVFXVVLRQ�EDVHG�RQ�WKH�VSHDNLQJ�DVVHVVPHQW�LQVWUXPHQW�RI�WKH�.DQGD�(QJOLVK�3UR¿FLHQF\�7HVW�(.(37)��7KH�5DVFK�PRGHO�FRQYHUWV�RUGLQDO�UDZ�VFRUHV�WR�LQWHUYDO�PHDVXUHV�NQRZQ�DV�ORJLWV�(i.e., log-odd units)��7KH�YDOXH�RI�����ORJLWV�LV�WKH�PHDQ�RI�LWHP�GLI¿FXOW\�HVWLPDWHV��WKH�YDOXH�RI�ORJLWV�JUHDWHU�WKDQ�����UHSUHVHQWV�WKH�FDWHJRU\�IRU�ZKLFK�LW�LV�PRUH�GLI¿FXOW�WR�REWDLQ�D�KLJKHU�VFRUH��DQG�WKH�YDOXH�RI�ORJLWV�ORZHU�WKDQ�����UHSUHVHQWV�WKH�FDWHJRU\�IRU�ZKLFK�LW�LV�HDVLHU�WR�REWDLQ�D�KLJKHU�VFRUH�(%RQG��)R[������). In WKH�¿UVW�DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ��WKH�ORJLW�VFRUHV�ZHUH����������������DQG������IRU�WKH�FDW-HJRULHV�JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��UHVSHFWLYHO\��,Q�WKH�VHFRQG�DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ��������������������������IRU�JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��and pronunciation, respectively. In both administrations, the grammar and vo-FDEXODU\�FDWHJRULHV�ZHUH�IRXQG�WR�EH�GLI¿FXOW�IRU�VWXGHQWV��ZKLOH�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�ZDV�WKH�HDVLHVW�FDWHJRU\��6DWR�(2011a)��ZKR�H[DPLQHG�WKH�(QJOLVK�PRQRORJXHV�RI����-DSDQHVH�XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV��UHSRUWHG�WKDW�ÀXHQF\�(.23 logits) and vo-cabulary (.23 logits)�ZHUH�GLI¿FXOW�FDWHJRULHV��ZKLOH�JUDPPDU�(-.05 logits)�ZDV�easier, and pronunciation (�����ORJLWV)�ZDV�WKH�HDVLHVW�FDWHJRU\��

3. Research Questions

� $OWKRXJK�PRUH�VWXGLHV�RQ�/��VSHDNLQJ�XWLOL]HG�WKH�PDQ\�IDFHW�5DVFK�analysis in the past decade than previous years, their number remains limited. This approach is utilized by the current study to investigate the L2 speaking skills of Japanese university students. The students’ L2 speaking performance ZDV�DVVHVVHG�LQ�WHUPV�RI�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV��JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��ZKLFK�DUH�FRQVLGHUHG�WR�KDYH�DQ�LPSDFW�RQ�WKH�RYHUDOO�DVVLJQHG�scores of L2 speaking performance (,ZDVKLWD��%URZQ��0F1DPDUD���2’+DJDQ��2008)��,Q�DGGLWLRQ��WKH�UHODWLRQVKLSV�DPRQJ�WKHVH�FDWHJRULHV�ZHUH�H[DPLQHG�E\�FDOFXODWLQJ�WKH�3HDUVRQ�FRUUHODWLRQ�FRHI¿FLHQWV��� 7KHUHIRUH��WKLV�VWXG\�LQYHVWLJDWHG�WKH�IROORZLQJ�WZR�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQV�

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An Investigation of Japanese University Students’ English-Speaking Skills

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(1)� �+RZ�ZHOO�GR�-DSDQHVH�XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�KDYH�OHDUQHG�(QJOLVK�LQ�VHFRQGDU\�VFKRROV�VSHDN�(QJOLVK�LQ�WHUPV�RI�JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��and pronunciation?

(2)� +RZ�DUH�WKH�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV�UHODWHG�WR�RQH�DQRWKHU"�

4. Method

4.1. Participants� 7KH�SDUWLFLSDQWV�RI�WKLV�VWXG\�ZHUH����-DSDQHVH�VWXGHQWV�(37 males and 9 females) majoring in engineering at a private Japanese university. All of them ZHUH�ILUVW�\HDUV�ZKR�KDG�VWXGLHG�(QJOLVK�IRU�DW�OHDVW�VL[�\HDUV�LQ�VHFRQGDU\�VFKRRO��1R�UHWXUQHH�VWXGHQWV�ZHUH�LQFOXGHG�LQ�WKLV�VWXG\��$PRQJ�WKHP�����VWX-dents had never been abroad and three had stayed abroad for less than a month. 7KH\�ZHUH�DWWHQGLQJ�DGYDQFHG�(QJOLVK�FODVVHV�DW�WKH�XQLYHUVLW\�EHFDXVH�WKH\�KDG�72(,&�,3�VFRUHV�UDQJLQJ�IURP�����WR�����LQ�WKH�EHJLQQLQJ�RI�$SULO��7KH�English section of the entrance examination for this university mainly includes TXHVWLRQV�RQ�(QJOLVK�UHDGLQJ��JUDPPDU��DQG�YRFDEXODU\��,Q�RWKHU�ZRUGV��WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZHUH�SUR¿FLHQW�LQ�WKHVH�DUHDV�RI�(QJOLVK�VLQFH�WKH\�KDG�DOUHDG\�passed the entrance examinations of this university.

4.2. Oral Assessment Scale� 7KH�(QJOLVK�VSHDNLQJ�DELOLWLHV�RI�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZHUH�WHVWHG�WKURXJK�D����PLQXWH��WZR�SDUW�RUDO�SUR¿FLHQF\�WHVW�FRQVLVWLQJ�RI�DQ�LQWHUYLHZ�DQG�D�SLF-WXUH�WDVN��,Q�WKH�¿UVW�SDUW�RI�WKH�WHVW��WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZHUH�DVNHG�VHYHUDO�TXHV-WLRQV�DERXW�KRZ�WKH\�VSHQW�WKH�SUHYLRXV�ZHHNHQG��WKHLU�KREELHV��DQG�WKHLU�OLIH�DW�the university (e.g., “:KDW�GLG�\RX�GR�ODVW�ZHHNHQG"�” “What is your hobby?,” and “+RZ�LV�\RXU�XQLYHUVLW\�OLIH"�+RZ�LV�LW�GLIIHUHQW�IURP�\RXU�KLJK�VFKRRO�life?”)��,Q�WKH�VHFRQG�SDUW��IRXU�SLFWXUHV�ZHUH�SUHVHQWHG�WR�WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV��$IWHU�WKLQNLQJ�IRU�RQH�PLQXWH��WKH\�ZHUH�DVNHG�WR�QDUUDWH�D�VWRU\�XVLQJ�WKH�SLFWXUHV��7KLV�WDVN�ZDV�DGDSWHG�IURP�WKH�(LNHQ�SUH�¿UVW�OHYHO�WHVW�(Obunsha, 2010). � 7KH�SHUIRUPDQFHV�RI�WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZHUH�DVVHVVHG�XVLQJ�DQ�DQDO\WLF�VFDOH�EDVHG�RQ�WKH�VSHDNLQJ�DVVHVVPHQW�LQVWUXPHQW�RI�.(37�(%RQN��2FNH\��

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2003)��7KLV�VFDOH�ZDV�FKRVHQ�EHFDXVH�LW�ZDV�GHYHORSHG�IRU�WKH�DVVHVVPHQW�RI�the speaking skills of Japanese university students; moreover, it has success-IXOO\�EHHQ�XVHG�DV�D�GLDJQRVWLF�WHVW��DV�ZHOO�DV�D�SODFHPHQW�WHVW��IRU�-DSDQHVH�students (%RQN��2FNH\��������2FNH\������������)��$GGLWLRQDOO\��.(37�LQ-FOXGHV�WKH�JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�FDWHJRULHV��ZKLFK�are considered to have an impact on the overall assigned scores of L2 speaking performance (,ZDVKLWD�HW�DO�������).� 2ULJLQDOO\��WKH�.(37�VFDOH�FRQVLVWV�RI�¿YH�FDWHJRULHV��+RZHYHU��RQH�FDW-HJRU\��FRPPXQLFDWLYH�VWUDWHJLHV��ZDV�QRW�XVHG�LQ�WKLV�VWXG\�EHFDXVH�.(37�LV�W\SLFDOO\�XVHG�IRU�RUDO�GLVFXVVLRQV�LQ�JURXSV�RI�IRXU�VWXGHQWV��ZKLOH�WKLV�VWXG\�FRQGXFWHG�LQGLYLGXDO�RUDO�LQWHUYLHZV��,Q�DGGLWLRQ��WKH�RULJLQDO�.(37�VFDOH�KDV�VL[�OHYHOV��)RU�WKLV�VWXG\��WKH�¿UVW�OHYHO��“does not discuss,”�ZDV�GHOHWHG��DQG�RQO\�WKH�UHPDLQLQJ�¿YH�OHYHOV�ZHUH�XVHG��7KH�UDWHUV�FRXOG�DVVLJQ�KDOI�SRLQWV�IURP�OHYHOV���WR�����7KHUHIRUH��WKH�VFDOH�DFWXDOO\�KDG�D�QLQH�SRLQW�LQWHUYDO��/HYHO�1 (scores 1 to 2.9) = Very Weak, Level 2 (VFRUHV���WR����) = Weak, Level 3 (scores 5 to 6.9)� �)DLU��/HYHO���(scores 7 to 8.9) = Good, and Level 5 (score 9) = Very Good.

4.3. Procedure� 7KH�YROXQWHHU�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZHUH�LQGLYLGXDOO\�LQWHUYLHZHG�LQ�(QJOLVK��DQG�WKH�LQWHUYLHZV�ZHUH�UHFRUGHG�XVLQJ�DQ�,&�UHFRUGHU��6XEVHTXHQWO\��WKH�SDUWLFL-pants’�RUDO�SHUIRUPDQFHV�ZHUH�LQGHSHQGHQWO\�UDWHG�E\�IRXU�UDWHUV��7ZR�UDWHUV�ZHUH�QDWLYH�(QJOLVK�WHDFKHUV�DQG�WZR�ZHUH�-DSDQHVH�WHDFKHUV��DOO�RI�ZKRP�KDG�WDXJKW�(QJOLVK�DW�-DSDQHVH�XQLYHUVLWLHV�IRU�PRUH�WKDQ�WHQ�\HDUV��5DWHU���ZDV�D�IHPDOH�$PHULFDQ�SDUW�WLPH�OHFWXUHU��5DWHU���D�PDOH�-DSDQHVH�SURIHVVRU��5DWHU���D�PDOH�&DQDGLDQ�SDUW�WLPH�OHFWXUHU��DQG�5DWHU���D�IHPDOH�-DSDQHVH�DVVRFLDWH�professor. The participants’�VSHDNLQJ�GDWD�ZHUH�VDYHG�RQ�&'V��WKHVH�ZHUH�JLYHQ�WR�WKH�UDWHUV��ZKR�OLVWHQHG�WR�WKH�&'V�DQG�UDWHG�HDFK�VWXGHQW�XVLQJ�WKH�VFRULQJ�rubric (.(37)��7KH�)DFHWV�VRIWZDUH�ZRUNV�UREXVWO\�HYHQ�ZLWK�LQFRPSOHWH�GDWD�DQG�GRHV�QRW�UHTXLUH�HYHU\�MXGJH�WR�UDWH�HYHU\�H[DPLQHH�DV�ORQJ�DV�D�VXI¿FLHQW�overlap is maintained (/LQDFUH��:ULJKW������)��7KHUHIRUH��WKH�IROORZLQJ�MXGJ-LQJ�SODQ�ZDV�GHYLVHG��5DWHU���UDWHG�VWXGHQWV���WR�����5DWHU���VWXGHQWV���WR�����

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An Investigation of Japanese University Students’ English-Speaking Skills

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5DWHU���VWXGHQWV���WR�����DQG�5DWHU���VWXGHQWV���WR������ ,Q�RUGHU�WR�DQVZHU�WKH�¿UVW�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQ��WKH�GDWD�FROOHFWHG�IURP�LQWHU-YLHZV�ZHUH�DQDO\]HG�E\�XVLQJ�)DFHWV�������7KH�XVH�RI�0)50�SURYLGHV�QRW�RQO\�reliability indices but also useful information such as the severity and consis-WHQF\�RI�UDWHUV�DQG�GLI¿FXOW\�RI�FDWHJRULHV�(/LQDFUH������)��,Q�RUGHU�WR�DQVZHU�WKH�VHFRQG�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQ��3HDUVRQ�FRUUHODWLRQ�FRHI¿FLHQWV�ZHUH�FDOFXODWHG�DPRQJ�WKH�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV�XVLQJ�6366�������

5. Results

5.1. Research Question 1� 7KH�¿UVW�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQ�LQYHVWLJDWHG�WKH�/��RUDO�SHUIRUPDQFH�RI�QRQ�English-major Japanese university students according to Facets results. Table 1 reports the rater measurements. The Infit and Outfit MNSQ statistics met WKH�FULWHULD�RI����WR������ZKLFK�LQGLFDWHV�D�JRRG�¿W�WR�WKH�PRGHO�(%RQG��)R[��2007)��7KH�VHSDUDWLRQ�LQGH[�ZDV�IRXQG�WR�EH�������)XUWKHU��WKH�UHOLDELOLW\�ZDV������LQGLFDWLQJ�WKDW�WKH�DQDO\VLV�UHOLDEO\�VHSDUDWHG�UDWHUV�LQWR�GLIIHUHQW�OHYHOV�RI�VHYHULW\��7KH�VLJQL¿FDQW�FKL�VTXDUH�RI�������df� ����VKRZHG�WKDW�DOO�UDWHUV�ZHUH�QRW�HTXDOO\�VHYHUH��7KH�ORJLW�VFDOHV�LQ�WKH�WKLUG�FROXPQ�LQGLFDWH�GLIIHUHQW�YDOXHV�RI�VHYHULW\��5DWHU����ZLWK�D�ORJLW�RI������ZDV�PXFK�PRUH�VHYHUH�WKDQ�WKH�RWKHU�UDWHUV��2Q�WKH�FRQWUDU\��WKH�RWKHU�WKUHH�UDWHUV�VKRZHG�VLPLODU�VHYHULW\��KRZHYHU��LW�LV�FOHDU�WKDW�5DWHU����ZLWK�D�ORJLW�RI�������ZDV�WKH�PRVW�OHQLHQW�DPRQJ�DOO�UDWHUV�

Table 1. Calibration Report for Teacher RatersObserved ,Q¿W 2XW¿W

5DWHU Score Logit Error MNSQ ZSTD MNSQ ZSTD1 338 -.31 ��� .85 -.8 .87 -.62 ���� -.07 .08 .96 -.3 ���� -.53 ��� .70 .12 1.07 .5 1.06 ���� 961 -.23 .09 1.00 .0 ���� .3

Note. Fixed (all same)�FKL�VTXDUH�������df� ���VLJQL¿FDQFH��p = .00.

���7DEOH���VKRZV�WKH�FDWHJRU\�PHDVXUHPHQW�UHSRUW��7KH�,Q¿W�DQG�2XW¿W�0164�

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VWDWLVWLFV�PHW�WKH�FULWHULD�RI����WR������ZKLFK�LQGLFDWHV�D�JRRG�¿W�WR�WKH�PRGHO�(%RQG��)R[������)��7KH�VHSDUDWLRQ�LQGH[�ZDV�IRXQG�WR�EH�������)XUWKHU��WKH�UHOLDELOLW\�ZDV������LQGLFDWLQJ�WKDW�WKH�VDPSOH�ZDV�ODUJH�HQRXJK�WR�SUHFLVHO\�locate the latent variable. The logit scales in the third column indicate category GLI¿FXOW\��,W�LV�FOHDU�IURP�7DEOH���WKDW�JUDPPDU�(.26 logit)�LV�WKH�PRVW�GLI¿FXOW�FDWHJRU\�LQ�WHUPV�RI�REWDLQLQJ�D�KLJK�VFRUH��7KH�VHFRQG�PRVW�GLI¿FXOW�FDWHJRU\�is vocabulary (����ORJLW)��ZKLFK�LV�IROORZHG�E\�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�(-.11 logit), and ÀXHQF\�(-.30 logit) is the easiest category.

Table 2. Calibration Report for CategoriesObserved ,Q¿W 2XW¿W

Category Score Logit Error MNSQ ZSTD MNSQ ZSTDGrammar 669 .26 .10 .98 -.1 .99 .0Vocabulary 681 ��� .10 .66 -3.0 .66 -3.0Fluency 706 -.30 .10 1.16 1.2 1.18 ����3URQXQFLDWLRQ 725 -.11 .10 1.12 .9 1.12 .9Note. Fixed (all same)�FKL�VTXDUH�������df� ���VLJQL¿FDQFH��p = .00.

In Figure 1, rater severity, students’�VSHDNLQJ�DELOLW\��DQG�FDWHJRU\�GLI¿FXOW\�are plotted on a single logit scale on a Facets map. In this map, the numbers LQ�WKH�¿UVW�FROXPQ�UHSUHVHQW�WKH�ORJLW�VFDOH��DQG�WKH�VHFRQG�FROXPQ�GLVSOD\V�the students’�VSHDNLQJ�DELOLW\��7KH�PRVW�SUR¿FLHQW�VSHDNHU�LV�DW�WKH�WRS��ZKLOH�WKH�OHDVW�SUR¿FLHQW�RQH�LV�DW�WKH�ERWWRP��7KH�WKLUG�FROXPQ�VKRZV�UDWHU�VHYHULW\��ZLWK�WKH�PRVW�VHYHUH�UDWHU��5DWHU����DW�WKH�WRS�RI�WKH�VFDOH�DQG�WKH�OHDVW�VHYHUH�UDWHU��5DWHU����DW�WKH�ERWWRP��7KH�IRXUWK�FROXPQ�LQGLFDWHV�FDWHJRU\�GLI¿FXOW\��*UDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�DUH�WKH�PRUH�GLI¿FXOW�FDWHJRULHV��ZKLOH�ÀXHQF\�LV�WKH�HDVLHVW�FDWHJRU\��7KH�ODVW�FROXPQ�VKRZV�WKH�QLQH�SRLQW�VFDOH�WKDW�ZDV�XVHG�LQ�the scoring process. � 7DEOH���VKRZV�WKH�QXPEHU�RI�VWXGHQWV�LQ�HDFK�OHYHO�IRU�HDFK�FDWHJRU\��There are no students in Level 1 (Very Weak) or 5 (Very Good) for any cat-egory. Most of the students scored in Levels 2 (Weak) and 3 (Fair). Further, /HYHO���(Good)�ZDV�DFKLHYHG�E\�DSSUR[LPDWHO\�RQH�WHQWK�RI�WKH�VWXGHQWV�� In all categories, the average scores fell under Level 3 (Fair). According to WKH�.(37�GHVFULSWLRQV��WKH�DYHUDJH�VFRUH�IRU�JUDPPDU�ZDV������ (SD = .92),

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Figure 1. Item-person map.

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ZKLFK�LQGLFDWHV�WKDW�WKH�VWXGHQW�“relies mostly on simple (but generally accurate) sentences, has enough grammar to express meaning, complex sentences are used but often inaccurately” (%RQN��2FNH\��������S����). For vocabulary, the DYHUDJH�VFRUH�ZDV������(SD = .58)��ZKLFK�PHDQV�WKDW�“OH[LV�JHQHUDOO\�DGHTXDWH�for expressing opinion but often used inaccurately” (%RQN��2FNH\��������p.109)��7KH�DYHUDJH�VFRUH�IRU�ÀXHQF\�ZDV������(SD� ����), that is, “speech is KHVLWDQW��VRPH�XQQDWXUDO�UHSKUDVLQJ�DQG�JURSLQJ�IRU�ZRUGV” (%RQN��2FNH\��2003, p.109)��5HJDUGLQJ�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��WKH�DYHUDJH�VFRUH�ZDV������(SD = .25), ZKLFK�PHDQV�WKDW�“pronunciation is not native like but can be understood, mis-SURQRXQFHV�XQIDPLOLDU�ZRUGV��PD\�QRW�KDYH�PDVWHUHG�VRPH�VRXQGV” (%RQN��Ockey, 2003, p.109).

Table 3. Number of Students at Each Level in Each Category.Level (score) Total Grammar Vocabulary Fluency 3URQXQFLDWLRQ1 (1 - 1.9) 0 0 0 0 01+ (2 - 2.9) 0 0 0 0 02 (3 - 3.9) 2 � 6 3 12+ (�������) 10 12 6 7 153 (5 - 5.9) 18 22 22 �� 153+ (6 - 6.9) 12 � 9 16 10���� (7 - 7.9) � � 3 5 ������(8 - 8.9) 0 0 0 1 05 (9) 0 0 0 0 0

5.2. Research Question 2� 7KH�VHFRQG�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQ�LQYHVWLJDWHG�WKH�UHODWLRQVKLSV�DPRQJ�WKH�four categories used for measuring L2 speaking abilities. Using the ability PHDVXUHV�LQ�ORJLW�DV�FDOFXODWHG�E\�)DFHWV��3HDUVRQ�FRUUHODWLRQ�FRHI¿FLHQWV�ZHUH�FDOFXODWHG�WR�FODULI\�WKH�UHODWLRQVKLSV�DPRQJ�WKH�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV��7DEOH���VKRZV�WKH�UHVXOWV�RI�WKLV�FDOFXODWLRQ��IURP�ZKLFK�LW�LV�FOHDU�WKDW�DOO�WKH�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV�DUH�UHODWHG�WR�HDFK�RWKHU�VLJQL¿FDQWO\��:KLOH�JUDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�DUH�WKH�PRVW�VWURQJO\�UHODWHG��WKH�UHODWLRQVKLS�EHWZHHQ�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�DQG�ÀXHQF\�LV�ZHDNHU�WKDQ�DQ\�RWKHU�SDLUV�

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7DEOH����� Correlation Coef¿cients among Grammar� 9ocabulary� Fluency� and Pronunciation

Grammar Vocabulary Fluency 3URQXQFLDWLRQGrammar ——Vocabulary .91** ——Fluency .71** .86** ——3URQXQFLDWLRQ .75** .89** .68** ——**p < .01

6. Discussion

� ,Q�DFFRUGDQFH�ZLWK�WKH�ILUVW�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQ��WKLV�VWXG\�H[DPLQHG�WKH�English-speaking performance of engineering majors at a Japanese university. $FFRUGLQJ�WR�WKH�UHVXOWV�SURYLGHG�E\�WKH�)DFHWV�VRIWZDUH��QR�SDUWLFLSDQWV�IHOO�LQWR�WKH�ORZHVW�OHYHO��/HYHO���(Very Weak), indicating that the English-speaking DELOLWLHV�RI�WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZHUH�QRW�YHU\�ZHDN�DQG�WKH\�FRXOG�H[SUHVV�WKHP-VHOYHV�LQ�(QJOLVK�WR�VRPH�H[WHQW�GXULQJ�WKH�LQWHUYLHZV��6LPXOWDQHRXVO\��RQO\�RQH�WHQWK�RI�WKH�VWXGHQWV�UHDFKHG�/HYHO���(Good), and no students reached Lev-el 5 (Very Good). Although all the participants had studied English for at least six years in secondary schools in Japan and obtained relatively higher scores IRU�72(,&�,3�WKDQ�RWKHU�VWXGHQWV��WKHLU�SUR¿FLHQF\�LQ�VSHDNLQJ�ZDV�QRW�YHU\�high, possibly due to the shortcomings of the English education provided in -DSDQ��ZKLFK�IRFXVHV�PDLQO\�RQ�JUDPPDU�DQG�UHDGLQJ��7KHLU�DYHUDJH�VFRUHV�IRU�DOO�WKH�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV�ZHUH�/HYHO���(Fair)��WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV�PRVWO\�XVHG�VLPSOH�VHQWHQFHV�DFFXUDWHO\��DOWKRXJK�WKH\�JHQHUDOO\�XVHG�DGHTXDWH�(QJOLVK�ZRUGV��WKH�XVDJH�ZDV�RIWHQ�LQDFFXUDWH��WKHLU�VSHHFK�ZDV�KHVLWDQW��DQG�WKH\�RIWHQ�UHSKUDVHG�DQG�JURSHG�IRU�ZRUGV��DQG�WKHLU�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�ZDV�XQGHUVWDQGDEOH�EXW�XQOLNH�that of a native. � 5HJDUGLQJ�WKH�OHYHO�RI�GLI¿FXOW\�RI�WKH�FDWHJRULHV��YRFDEXODU\�DQG�JUDP-PDU�ZHUH�GLI¿FXOW��DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�DQG�ÀXHQF\�ZHUH�HDVLHU��$OWKRXJK�JUDP-PDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�ZHUH�HPSKDVL]HG�E\�WKH�SDUWLFLSDQWV’ English education, PDQ\�RI�WKHP�GLG�QRW�SHUIRUP�ZHOO�LQ�WKHVH�FDWHJRULHV�ZKLOH�VSHDNLQJ��&RQVH-TXHQWO\��JUDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�ZHUH�IRXQG�WR�EH�PRUH�GLI¿FXOW�WKDQ�ÀXHQF\�

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DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��ZKLFK�LV�VLPLODU�WR�WKH�UHVXOWV�RI�%RQN�DQG�2FNH\�(2003) and Ockey (2009, 2011) but slightly different from those of Sato (2011b)��ZKR�UHSRUWHG�WKDW�JUDPPDU�ZDV�HDVLHU�DQG�IOXHQF\�ZDV�PRUH�GLIILFXOW��+RZHYHU��WKHVH�VWXGLHV�SURYLGHG�WKH�VDPH�UHVXOWV�WKDW�YRFDEXODU\�ZDV�D�GLI¿FXOW�FDWHJRU\��ZKHUHDV�SURQXQFLDWLRQ�ZDV�DQ�HDV\�RQH��DOWKRXJK�PRUH�FRPSUHKHQVLYH�UH-VHDUFK�LV�UHTXLUHG�EHIRUH�JHQHUDOL]LQJ�WKHVH�UHVXOWV�� 7KH�VHFRQG�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQ�H[DPLQHG�WKH�UHODWLRQVKLSV�EHWZHHQ�WKH�IRXU�FDWHJRULHV��JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��$FFRUGLQJ�WR�WKH�UHVXOWV�RI�WKLV�VWXG\��JUDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�ZHUH�WKH�PRVW�VWURQJO\�FRUUHODWHG�FDWHJRULHV��VXJJHVWLQJ�WKDW�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�DUH�PRUH�SUR¿FLHQW�LQ�JUDPPDU�H[-press themselves better. This might be because Japanese students tend to study grammar and vocabulary intensively in English classes at secondary schools and for entrance examinations, so they probably improve both skills at the same WLPH��7KH�VHFRQG�VWURQJHVW�UHODWLRQVKLS�ZDV�VHHQ�EHWZHHQ�YRFDEXODU\�DQG�SUR-QXQFLDWLRQ��7KLV�VHHPV�WR�VXJJHVW�WKDW�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�DUH�DEOH�WR�XVH�DSSURSULDWH�(QJOLVK�ZRUGV�ZKLOH�VSHDNLQJ�NQRZ�KRZ�WR�SURQRXQFH�FRUUHFWO\�WKH�ZRUGV��DV�ZHOO��$OWKRXJK�WKHVH�VWXGHQWV�OHDUQHG�(QJOLVK�ZRUGV�PDLQO\�WKURXJK�JUDPPDU�DQG�UHDGLQJ��LQVWHDG�RI�/��RUDO�FRPPXQLFDWLRQ��WKH\�ZHUH�DEOH�WR�SURQRXQFH�FRUUHFWO\�WKH�ZRUGV�WKDW�WKH\�XVHG�ZKLOH�VSHDNLQJ��,QWHUHVWLQJO\��ÀXHQF\�DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��ZKLFK�DUH�VRPHWLPHV�FRQVLGHUHG�DV�D�VLQJOH�VHW�FDOOHG�“channel control” ('H�-RQJ��YDQ�*LQNHO������)��KDG�WKH�ZHDNHVW�UHODWLRQVKLS�DPRQJ�DOO�WKH�FDWHJRU\�SDLUV��7KHUHIRUH��WKRVH�ZKR�DUH�ÀXHQW�LQ�(QJOLVK�DUH�QRW�QHFHV-VDULO\�SUR¿FLHQW�LQ�SURQRXQFLQJ�(QJOLVK�ZRUGV��RU�YLFH�YHUVD��7KLV�XQH[SHFWHG�result might be due to the Japanese students’ lack of experience in L2 oral com-PXQLFDWLRQ��ZKHUHE\�OHDUQHUV�FDQ�LPSURYH�ERWK�ÀXHQF\�DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��DV�discussed by De Jong and van Ginkel (1992).

7. Conclusion

� 7KLV�VWXG\�LQYHVWLJDWHG�WKH�(QJOLVK�VSHDNLQJ�VNLOOV�RI����XQLYHUVLW\�VWXGHQWV�EDVHG�RQ�WKH�FDWHJRULHV�RI�JUDPPDU��YRFDEXODU\��ÀXHQF\��DQG�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��7KH�UHVXOWV�RI�WKH�VWXG\�KDYH�WZR�LPSOLFDWLRQV��7KH�¿UVW�LPSOLFDWLRQ�LV�D�WKHR-

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retical one. According to the results, the raters in this study displayed great GLYHUVLW\�LQ�WHUPV�RI�WKH�VHYHULW\�RI�WKHLU�MXGJPHQWV��5DWHU���ZDV�IRXQG�WR�EH�PXFK�PRUH�VHYHUH�WKDQ�WKH�RWKHU�UDWHUV��+RZHYHU��WKH�XVH�RI�0)50�FDQ�SURYLGH�estimates of the participants’ abilities that are free from the differences in terms RI�UDWHU�VHYHULW\�DQG�ELDV�SDWWHUQV��7KHUHIRUH��ZKLOH�VRPH�VWXGLHV�XVH�RQO\�D�single teacher rater, it is important that studies employ multiple raters for speaking WHVWV�DQG�H[DPLQH�WKH�UDWLQJV�XVLQJ�0)50���� 7KH�VHFRQG�LV�D�SHGDJRJLFDO�LPSOLFDWLRQ��*UDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEXODU\�ZHUH�IRXQG�WR�EH�WKH�WZR�PRVW�GLI¿FXOW�FDWHJRULHV��HYHQ�WKRXJK�LW�LV�RIWHQ�WKRXJKW�WKDW�-DSDQHVH�VWXGHQWV�ZKR�KDYH�VWXGLHG�IRU�XQLYHUVLW\�HQWUDQFH�H[DPLQDWLRQV�are better in English grammar and reading (ZKLFK�LQFOXGHV�OHDUQLQJ�PDQ\�(QJ-OLVK�ZRUGV)�WKDQ�/��FRPPXQLFDWLYH�VNLOOV��+RZHYHU��WKH�VWXGHQWV�ZHUH�DEOH�WR�VSHDN�(QJOLVK�ZLWK�VRPH�ÀXHQF\�DQG�UHODWLYHO\�FRUUHFW�SURQXQFLDWLRQ��DOWKRXJK�WKH\�UHFHLYHG�ORZ�VFRUHV�LQ�WHUPV�RI�WKHLU�SUR¿FLHQF\�LQ�JUDPPDU�DQG�YRFDEX-lary. Therefore, although many teachers hesitate to teach simple grammar and vocabulary in English-speaking classes, this study indicates that teaching these WRSLFV�ZLOO�EH�HIIHFWLYH�LQ�LPSURYLQJ�WKH�(QJOLVK�VSHDNLQJ�DELOLW\�RI�VWXGHQWV�� Three improvements can be suggested for future studies. First, in order to obtain more comprehensive results, the number of participants must be in-FUHDVHG��+RZHYHU��DOWKRXJK�WKHUH�ZHUH�RQO\����SDUWLFLSDQWV�LQ�WKLV�VWXG\��WKH�FROOHFWLRQ�RI�ODUJH�DPRXQWV�RI�GDWD�WKURXJK�LQGLYLGXDO�RUDO�LQWHUYLHZV�ZDV�QRW�HDV\��,Q�IDFW��PDQ\�VWXGLHV�RQ�/��VSHDNLQJ�SUR¿FLHQF\�KDYH�EHHQ�FRQGXFWHG�ZLWK�IHZHU�WKDQ����SDUWLFLSDQWV��IRU�H[DPSOH��������������DQG����LQ�WKH�VWXGLHV�by Dörnyei and Kormos (2000)��+HZLWW�DQG�6WHSKHQVRQ�(2012)��3KLOOLSV�(1992), and Sato (2011b)��UHVSHFWLYHO\��+RZHYHU��LW�LV�FOHDU�WKDW�ODUJHU�QXPEHUV�of participants could enable researchers to obtain more generalized results; WKHUHIRUH��D�VLPLODU�VWXG\�WR�WKH�FXUUHQW�RQH�VKRXOG�EH�FRQGXFWHG�ZLWK�PRUH�participants. Second, since this study considered only Japanese engineering PDMRUV�ZLWK�72(,&�,3�VFRUHV�UDQJLQJ�IURP�����WR������WKH�UHVXOWV�PD\�QRW�EH�DSSOLFDEOH�WR�VWXGHQWV�ZLWK�PXFK�KLJKHU�RU�ORZHU�SUR¿FLHQF\�OHYHOV��0RUHRYHU��D�VLPLODU�UHVHDUFK�RQ�(QJOLVK�PDMRU�VWXGHQWV�PD\�VKRZ�VOLJKWO\�GLIIHUHQW�UHVXOWV�as they probably have studied English more intensively for university entrance

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examinations than engineering students. Finally, a comparison of the results of WKH�SUHVHQW�VWXG\�ZLWK�WKRVH�RI�D�VWXG\�LQYROYLQJ�VWXGHQWV�RI�FRPPXQLFDWLYH�(QJOLVK��ZKLFK�LV�D�VXEMHFW�WKDW�KDV�UHFHQWO\�EHFRPH�SRSXODU��ZRXOG�EH�LQWULJX-ing. To date, there are only limited studies investigating the English-speaking VNLOOV�RI�-DSDQHVH�VWXGHQWV��+RZHYHU��HVSHFLDOO\�EHFDXVH�RI�JOREDOL]DWLRQ��WKH�value of good communication skills is being recognized, and such skills are in JUHDW�GHPDQG�WRGD\��,�KRSH�WKDW�LQFUHDVHG�UHVHDUFK�RQ�VSHDNLQJ�VNLOOV�ZLOO�KHOS�Japanese students in improving their skills even as part of EFL education.

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guage Education in -apan� ��, 17-32.Torikai, K. (1996). Ibunka o koeru eigo: Nihonjin wa naze hanasenaika (English be-

\RQG�D�IRUHLJQ�FXOWXUH��ZK\�FDQ’t Japanese speak English?)��7RN\R��0DUX]HQ� (Toyo University)QRULNRBL#WR\R�MS