an ilo special reportan ilo special report maternity ... · child labour dates back over a quarter...

No

. 24,

Ap

ril 1

998

An ILO special ReportAn ILO Special Report

Maternity protection:How women are faring worldwideMaternity protection:How women are faring worldwide

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

2WORLD OF WORK – N o 24 – 1998

The ILO in history

An institution’s history, just like a road, is marked by milestones which, at distantintervals, indicate progress on specific issues. Among the milestones dating back to thevery beginning of the Organization are efforts against child labour, first addressed atthe time of the ILO’s founding in the form of the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention,1919 (No. 5).

A more recent milestone in the ILO’s long march againstchild labour dates back over a quarter of a century. On 26 June

1973, the International Labour Conference adopted – with238 votes in favour, none against and only 24 abstentions

– the Convention concerning the minimum age foremployment (Minimum Age Convention, 1973, No.

138). The Convention states the minimum agemay not be set lower than the age of completion

of compulsory schooling and, in any event,not less than 15 years (initially 14 years indeveloping countries).

Although the principle behind thedebate was not in question, discussion wasnevertheless lively. Speakers agreed thatchild labour threatened the chances of a child

for a worthwhile future and that childhoodyears should be devoted to education and de-

velopment, rather than labour. The question, how-ever, was at what age the threshold should be set,

above all in the poorer nations where even the mostmeagre income from any family member could be essential

to a family’s survival. And, speakers asked what shouldbe done with young people if the school system was incapable

of looking after them?

In the tripartite committee established to prepare the text, a spokesman for theemployers sought to define the dilemma facing countries of the South. Speaking outof concern for the unintended consequences of a well-intentioned action rather than as

The ILO and child labour:Old milestones and new

1919

Child workersin coal mines, (Germany).(ILO Photo)


World of Work magazine ispublished five times per yearby the Bureau of PublicInformation of the ILO inGeneva. Also published inChinese, Czech, Danish,Finnish, French, German,Hungarian, Japanese,Norwegian, Russian, Slovak,Spanish and Swedish.■■■■■ Editor:

Thomas Netter■■■■■ German edition:

Hans von Rohland■■■■■ Arabic edition:

Khawla MattarILO Office, Beirut

■■■■■ Spanish edition:in collaboration with the

ILO Office, Madrid■■■■■ Production Manager:

Kiran Mehra-Kerpelman

This magazine is not anofficial document of theInternational LabourOrganization. The opinionsexpressed do not necessarilyreflect the views of theILO. The designationsemployed do not imply theexpression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part ofthe ILO concerning thelegal status of any country,area or territory or of itsauthorities, or concerningthe delimitation of itsfrontiers.

Reference to names offirms and commercialproducts and processes doesnot imply their endorsementby the ILO, and any failureto mention a particularfirm, commercial product orprocess is not a sign ofdisapproval.

Texts and photographsmay be freely reproducedwith mention of source.Written notification isappreciated.

All correspondenceshould be addressedto the Bureau of PublicInformation, ILO,CH-1211 Geneva 22,Switzerland.

Tel. +4122/799-7912Fax +4122/799-8577http://www.ilo.org

Readers in the U.S.should send their corres-pondence to the Interna-tional Labor Office, Wash-ington Branch, 1828 LStreet, N.W., Suite 801,Washington, DC 20036.Tel: +202/653-7652Fax: +202/653-7687

Printed by ATAR SA, Geneva

ISSN 1020-0010

WorkWorkWORLD OF

a sign of resistance, he said:“On the one hand, schools arescarce. And on the other handthe proposed Conventionnow aiming at 15 for ad-mission to employmentwould make it imposs-ible to employ any 14-year-old. Where wouldthis lead? To the crea-tion of a social prob-lem for which the ILOwould be partly re-sponsible.”

Ultimately, when theConference adopted theflexibility and progres-sive implementationclauses, it set standardswhich today constitute theessential guidelines of pol-icies which the Organizationproposes to its member States.

To date Convention No. 138 hasbeen ratified by 61 countries. At thesame time, data indicates that child labouris increasing relentlessly – to some degree,because information is more accurate these days, but also because the scourgeof child labour is far from abating.

As early as 1972, a worker spokesman on the tripartite committee, the Malaysiantrade unionist P. P. Narayanan, put the major difficulty in a nutshell: “Until theconsciences of all member States is really pricked, and until social reformers,including trade unionists, agitate vigorously and create a movement for the liberationof child labour, total abolishment of child labour will not be achieved to the extentthat we would wish.”

Today, thanks to an awareness campaign conducted by the ILO via the Inter-national Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in particular, aswell as by a large number of NGOs and the world’s media, consciences areawakening. One event providing symbolic evidence of this will occur this June,when a global march, including child rights advocates, NGOs, trade unionists andyouth against child labour arrives in Geneva during the 86th International LabourConference. At the same time, the Conference will hold a first discussion on anew Convention for the immediate suppression of extreme forms of child labour.And the ILO, in its struggle against child labour, will eventually be able to erectyet another milestone.

Sources: ILO Record of Proceedings of the International Labour Conference, 1972, 1973. To serve asa basis for the first discussion of the Convention in June, the International Labour Office has prepared tworeports. A first report (Child labour: Targeting the intolerable, International Labour Conference, 86th Session,1998, Report VI (1) summarizes the issues. Replies of governments to an ILO questionnaire on the contentof the new instruments have been summarized in a second report (V(2)) which also includes proposed Conclusionsfor new instruments.

1998The Global March againstchild labour which will ar-rive in Geneva during the86th International Labour

Conference in June thisyear. (ILO Project

photo)


● ● ● ● ● Governing Body.......................................................................................... 6

GOVERNING BODY MEETS, EXAMINES LABOUR RIGHTS,DRAFT DECLARATION ON FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS ANDELECTS NEW DIRECTOR-GENERAL

The Governing Body of the ILO, at its 271st meeting, established a Commissionof Inquiry to examine long-standing allegations of abuses of trade unionrights in Nigeria. A report of the Committee on Freedom of Associationcited the “grave and urgent” situations in Colombia and Sudan, but hailedprogress in the Republic of Korea and Djibouti. The Governing Bodyalso placed a draft Declaration on principle on the fundamental rightsrelating to the ILO mandate on the agenda of this June’s InternationalLabour Conference and elected Mr. Juan Somavía of Chile to serve asthe next Director-General of the ILO.

C O N T E N T S

● ● ● ● ● Global oil refining: stable for now, but expect pressure to grow on jobs................................................................................................ 9

OIL EMPLOYMENT, PRODUCTION SHIFT GLOBALLY

Although world refinery employment has been relatively stable since theearly to mid-1980s, pressure is growing on jobs in the industry. A newILO report says rising competition, excess capacity and the rising cost ofinvestments needed to meet tightening environmental controls threaten theprofitability of the oil refining industry and cast a shadow over the prospectsof oil refinery workers, particularly in OECD countries.

● ● ● ● ● Q & A on child labour.............................................................................11

MOVE TOWARDS NEW ILO STANDARDS ON CHILD LABOUR

The International Labour Conference will debate proposed new internationallabour standards on child labour in June. The subject of the new standards isextreme forms of child labour: work that is likely to jeopardize the safety, healthand morals of children; slavery and practices similar to slavery; and childprostitution and pornography. This article describes major issues likely to bedebated during the Conference.

● ● ● ● ● Maternity protection at work...........................................................................15

THOUGH LEGAL PROTECTION FOR PREGNANT WORKING WOMEN ISINCREASING RAPIDLY, THE GAP IN EMPLOYMENT TREATMENT FORMEN AND WOMEN STILL EXISTS

Since the Maternity Protection Convention (No. 103) was adopted in 1952,ILO member States have made considerable progress in providing maternitybenefits to employed women. Yet most still fall short of ensuring universalcoverage for all working women. While the vast majority of countries aroundthe world provide paid maternity leave by law and many offer health benefitsand employment safeguards, the gap between law and practice remains wide.

Cover story


Created in 1919, the International Labour Organization (ILO) brings together governments, employers and workersof its 174 member States in common action to improve social protection and conditions of life and work throughoutthe world. The International Labour Office, in Geneva, is the permanent Secretariat of the Organization.

News Section .......................................................................................... 20

● Skills training in Latin America: Private sector lends ahand to underprivileged youth

● ILO calls for more democracy and social justice in Asia

● Tripartite ILO meeting in Bangkok to discuss financialcrisis in east and south-east Asian countries

● Two years after Beijing: The ILO lists Conference

follow-up

● A case worth pointing out: Child labour in Mauritius isa thing of the past

Features

THE ILO IN HISTORY ............................................................................... 2

The ILO and Child Labour: Old milestones and new

WORKING WORLD ..............................................................................................24

Social partners, labour law, social contracts, employment,working conditions, David Morse, annual survey of targetingof media workers.

AROUND THE CONTINENTS...............................................................................26

Fighting job discrimination, Affirmative Action supportedin Namibia and South Africa, the ILO in the Arab States,Albania, Latin America, Jobs for Asian Women, etc.

MEDIA FOCUS: THE ILO IN THE PRESS .................................................28

Maternity protection, alcohol and drug abuse, the Asian crisis,child labour draw press coverage

MEDIA SHELF .......................................................................................................31

ISEP BROCHURE:INTERNATIONAL SMALL ENTERPRISE PROGRAMME ......................34

Unlocking the job-creation potential of small enterprises


The Governing Body 1 ofthe ILO, at its 271 st meeting,established a Commissionof Inquiry to examine long-standing allegations ofabuses of trade unionrights in Nigeria. A report ofthe Committee on Freedomof Association cited the“grave and urgent” situ-ations in Colombia andSudan, but hailed progressin the Republic of Koreaand Djibouti. The Govern-ing Body also placed adraft Declaration on prin-ciple on the fundamentalrights relating to the ILOmandate on the agenda ofthis June’s InternationalLabour Conference andelected Mr. Juan Somavíaof Chile to serve as the nextDirector-General of the ILO.

The Commission of Inquiry regardingtrade union rights in Nigeria was estab-lished according to procedures under Article26 of the ILO Constitution, which are

invoked in the event of persist-ent and serious violations ofinternational labour standardsand repeated refusal of a memberState to align its labour prac-tices with the recommendationsof the ILO’s supervisory mechan-isms.

The ILO’s Committee onFreedom of Association hasrepeatedly called on Nigeria torelease imprisoned trade union-ists, end harassment of tradeunions and take measures toguarantee respect for the civilliberties essential to trade unionrights. In recent findings, theCommittee underscored thepersistent deterioration of tradeunion rights and denounced thenon-respect of civil liberties inNigeria.

In its current session, theCommittee expressed its “out-rage” at the manner in whichthe Nigerian Government hasignored repeated requests tomodify its labour regime.

Ignoring calls fora mission

The Committee said theGovernment of Nigeria hadrepeatedly ignored calls for themission to examine trade unionrights in the country and to visittrade unionists detained with-out trial, at least one of whomhas been detained for more than

Governdraft Dand ele

The Governing Body of the International LabourOrganization elected Mr. Juan Somavía of Chileto serve as the next Director-General of the ILO.He was elected by a vote of 44 votes for his candidacy.A majority of the 56 eligible votes was necessaryto be elected. There were no abstentions. Ms MaríaNieves Roldan-Confesor (Philippines) received 12votes. Mr. Somavía’s five-year term of office begins

Chilean elected

Mr. Juan Somavía


three years. In light of the Gov-ernment’s persistent lack of co-operation, it said “other typesof action should be taken inorder to enable some progressin the very serious matters raisedin this case,” which led to thedecision to conduct an inquiryunder Article 26.

The procedures under Arti-cle 26 involve the naming ofan independent, tripartite com-mission of investigators whowill hold hearings and, ifpossible, conduct an on-the-spot investigation in Nigeriabefore reporting its results tothe Director-General of the ILO.

The labour practices ofNigeria were cited in specialparagraphs by delegates to theInternational Labour Confer-ence in both 1996 and 1997.The Commission of Inquiry isa final recourse in the ILOsupervisory system. The deci-sions of the Commission arenot subject to appeal by anyILO body. In the event of anunfavourable finding on itslabour practices, Nigeria’s onlyrecourse would be to theInternational Court of Justice.

One other country is cur-rently under scrutiny by aCommission of Inquiry –Myanmar, which has repeat-edly been cited for the use offorced labour.

The Committee on Freedomof Association, established in1951, oversees compliance with

the fundamental principles of freedomof association, which guarantee, inter alia,the right of workers to organize and toengage in collective bargaining. It meetsthree times annually and consists ofthree government representatives, threeemployer representatives and three workerrepresentatives.

Report of theCommittee

The latest Report of the Committee onFreedom of Association adopted at thesame session of the Governing Body drewspecial attention to the grave and urgentsituations prevailing in Colombia andSudan, where the exercise of trade unionactivity is frequently subject to violationsof human rights, including the impris-onment, torture, death and disappearanceof trade unionists.

In response to widespread allegationsof murders and other acts of violenceagainst trade union officials, membersand their families in Colombia, theCommittee deplored the extent of viol-ence, threats and intimidation directedagainst Colombian trade unionists andthe impunity of the perpetrators. TheCommittee noted that a large number ofviolent incidents have occurred in theagricultural and oil sectors, althoughevidence of violence and intimidationaffects workers and unionists in all sectorsof activity, including the banking sector.The Committee deplored the impunitythat prevails for the perpetrators of theseviolent acts and noted that since this casewas last examined in 1996, “the Gov-ernment has not provided information on

rning Body meets, examines labour rights,eclaration on Fundamental Rights

ects new Director-General

on 4 March 1999.In a statement accepting the results of the vote,

Mr. Jorge Arrate Mac Niven, Minister of Labourand Social Affairs of the Government of Chile,thanked the Governing Body members for theirsupport and said that “the election of Mr. Somavíamarks the first time in the 79-year history ofthe ILO that a representative of the Southernhemisphere has been elected to the post of Director-General,” adding that this was an importantday for Chile as the post of Director-Generalof the ILO is “the highest attained by a Chileancitizen in the UN system to date.”

An attorney by profession, Mr. Somavía hashad a long and distinguished career in civil andinternational affairs, serving, inter alia, as Chair-man of the preparatory Council of the WorldSummit for Social Development (held in Copen-hagen in 1995) and President of the UN Eco-nomic and Social Council (from 1993 to 1994).He has held the post of Ambassador of Chileand served as an Adviser to the Foreign Ministerof Chile on Economic and Social Affairs.

Mr. Somavía is currently Permanent Repre-sentative of Chile to the United Nations in NewYork, a position he has held since 1990. Herecently served as Representative of Chile inthe UN Security Council. He was born on 21April, 1941, and earned degrees in law andeconomics from the Catholic University of Chileand the University of Paris.

Voting was by secret ballot, with all 56 titularmembers of the Governing Body entitled to vote.

d to ILO top job

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard


a single case of detention, trial andjudgement of those responsible for theseacts.”

An annex to the report lists 40 tradeunionists who were killed or have dis-appeared since 1996 on which the Gov-ernment has not communicated its ob-servations. The annex also cites attemptedmurders, death threats, detentions, raidson homes and targeting of union premises.

The Committee noted that people inthe armed forces and police commit illegaland arbitrary acts in the course of theirmilitary and police activities and thatthousands of Colombians are terrorizedby paramilitary groups. It called uponthe Government of Colombia to takemeasures to guarantee the correct com-portment of its security forces and ensurerespect for human rights.

In response to allegations made by the(legitimate) Federation of Worker’s TradeUnions of Sudan of government inter-ference in trade union activity in Sudan,including anti-union reprisals, the arrestof trade unionists and acts of violenceagainst them, the Committee urged theGovernment to open an inquiry into thearrests and torture of a number of tradeunionists and the deaths of two others,and to take legal proceedings against thoseresponsible.

The Committee deeply regretted thelack of response of the Sudanese Gov-ernment to the allegations, despite thefact that it has been invited on severaloccasions to provide more information.The Committee pointed out that massivedismissals of workers in the light of Sudan’sprivatization policy continued in 1997,and underlined the many and seriousincompatibilities between Sudan’s 1992Trade Union Act and the principles offreedom of association.

Progress in theRepublic of Korea

The ILO’s Committee on Freedom ofAssociation noted the progress made onfreedom of association in the Republicof Korea. It expressed its pleasure thatthe new President of Korea, Kim Dae-Jung, ordered an amnesty concerning, inparticular, trade unionists detained as aresult of their trade union activities. Itsaid that a Ministry of Justice plan todeal fairly, rapidly and leniently with152 unionists who are the subject of in-vestigation was “welcome news”.

In addition, the Committee requestedthe Government of Korea to speed upthe process of legalizing trade unionpluralism at the enterprise level, to extendthe right of association to teachers, pub-

lic servants and othercategories of publicworkers subject to re-strictions and to regis-ter the Korean Confed-eration of Trade Unions as a trade unionorganization as soon as possible. Thepositive assessment and recommenda-tions on the Republic of Korea were madeon the basis of a tripartite mission ofthe Committee on Freedom of Associa-tion, the first of its kind, which visitedthe country in early February.

An improved situationin Djibouti

On the basis of a direct contact missionto Djibouti, the Committee on Freedomof Association also examined the tradeunion situation in Djibouti. It noted thatthere are currently no people held indetention for activities relating to theexercise of freedom of association. It wasalso pleased to note that the keys to thepremises of one of the central trade unionorganizations, which had been closed bythe police, were returned to the unionleadership, and that many workers dis-missed for their participation in strikesand demonstrations have been reinstatedin their jobs. The Committee asked, how-ever, that the Government exercise thegreatest vigilance in continuing to pro-mote and defend freedom of associationin Djibouti.

Draft Declaration onFundamental Rights

A draft Declaration of principles onthe fundamental rights relating to theILO mandate together with an appropri-ate follow-up mechanism, will be sub-mitted for approval to the Governments,trade union federations and employers’organizations of the 174 member Statesof the ILO when their representativesmeet for the Organization’s annualConference next June.

“The Governing Body authorizes theDirector-General to prepare a draft ofa possible Declaration of principles con-cerning fundamental rights and its fol-low-up mechanism for the 86th session(1998) of the International Conference,taking into account all the views pre-sented in the debate in the GoverningBody”, said Mr. Ahmed El Amawy,Egyptian Minister of Manpower andImmigration, and Chairman of the Gov-erning Body, in announcing the decision.“In order to arrive at the most acceptablesolutions”, he added, “these proposals

should beprepared in close consultationwith the tripartite constituents” of theILO, composed of governments, work-ers’ and employers’ organizations.

Though its precise content and themodalities for its follow-up have yet tobe determined, the draft Declaration isto promote the fundamental principlesand objectives of the ILO Constitutionwhich have been developed in the seven“core” Conventions of the ILO2 relatingto the right of freedom of association,the right to organize and to bargaincollectively, the abolition of forced la-bour and of child labour, equal pay forwork of equal value and nondiscrimina-tion in employment.

In the course of this session, theGoverning Body’s Committee on LegalIssues and International Standards tooknote of the progress achieved in the ILO’sdrive to promote universal ratification ofthe “core” Conventions. Since the cam-paign began, in May 1995, the Commit-tee was told, 82 new ratifications havebeen registered. The number of countrieswhich have adhered to all seven Con-ventions has risen during that time from23 to 35.

The Committee on Technical Cooper-ation discussed the achievements and futurechoices of the ILO’s International Pro-gramme on the Elimination of Child La-bour (IPEC). IPEC is recognized as theforemost operational instrument in theworldwide campaign against child labour.The members of the Committee agreedthat the programme’s strategic directionshould be built around the proposed newILO Convention against the most intol-erable forms of child labour, scheduledfor discussion at this June’s InternationalLabour Conference.

1 The Governing Body – composed of 28 govern-ment members,14 employer members and 14 workermembers – is the executive arm of the ILO and takesdecisions on the implementation of ILO programmesand policies. It meets three times annually. Ten ofthe government seats are permanently held by majorindustrialized countries. The remaining members areelected for three years by governments, workers andemployers, respectively, taking account of regionaldistribution.

The Chairman of this session of the GoverningBody was Mr. Ahmed Ahmed El Amawy, Mr. Jean-Jacques Oechslin (France) the employer Vice-Chair-man and Mr. William Brett (United Kingdom) theworker Vice-Chairman.2 Those on freedom of association and collectivebargaining (No. 87 and No.98); Forced labour (No.29 and No. 105); Non-discrimination (No. 100 andNo. 111); and Minimum age (No. 138).

❑


here was a time when the “oil shocks”of 1973-74 and 1979-80 promptedspeculation that oil was about tobecome “yesterday’s fuel”. Yet in

the years since the late 1980s, gyratingoil prices – with the exception of a brief

spike during the Gulf war – have becomea thing of the past.

Instead, an industry once known forits shock quality is today characterizedby steady growth, both in consumptionand production. World refinery employ-

ment has remained relatively stable ataround 1 million since the early to mid-1980s.

Indeed, “yesterday’s fuel” remains animportant commodity. And while thereis a growing consensus that oil demandwill continue to grow, the only uncer-tainty is by how much.

Trouble in therefining industry

Yet all is not well in the oil refiningindustry. The report on “Employmentand Industrial Relations Issues in OilRefining”, prepared for a tripartite meetingof refining industry experts, notes thatdespite growing concern about the cli-matic effects of using hydrocarbon fuels,demand for refined petroleum productsis enjoying slow, steady growth in mostcountries. At the same time, rapidly risingdemand for transportation fuels in de-veloping countries, especially in Asia,is expected to be a major source of futuregrowth. Nevertheless, the report saysenvironmental considerations related toglobal warming and urban air quality,and government fiscal measures may alsoserve to depress demand.

Governments from 19 countries metfrom 23 to 27 February at ILO head-quarters in Geneva with representativesof trade unions and employers’ organi-zations to discuss these and other chal-lenges to the oil refining industry. It wasthe first ILO meeting devoted solely tothe refining sector of the petroleum industry.

The author of the report, Mr. Jon McLin,a Senior Industrial Specialist at the ILO,said that although wages and workingconditions are generally better in oil refining

Despite a controversy about theimprisonment of oil trade union lead-ers from Nigeria which threatenedto disrupt the proceedings, the Tri-partite Meeting on Employment andIndustrial Relations Issues in OilRefining, held in Geneva on 23 to27 February, reached unanimousagreement on many of the issuesthat it considered.

These are incorporated in a twelve-paragraph text comprising the Con-clusions of the meeting on the sub-jects covered in its title and in fourresolutions dealing with freedomof association; health, safety andenvironmental protection; voluntaryoil industry initiatives aimed at pro-tecting the environment; and thepromotion of good industrial re-lations practices.

The Nigerian issue arose becausethe Worker delegates to the Meet-ing at first refused to participatein discussions in the presence ofa Nigerian government delegate un-less he could give assurances thatthe two trade union leaders inquestion would be released fromdetention. In the end, the Meetingnoted its “serious concern” about

Tripartite Meeting on Oil Refining Employment reachesunanimous agreement on many issues, expresses “serious

concern” over imprisonment of oil union leaders

this matter and lent its support toefforts under way in the GoverningBody to resolve the problem.Statements made on the questionby the workers’ and employers’groups and by the Chairman arereflected in the report of the Meet-ing.

Panel discussions, involving in-vited outside experts as well asdelegates, took place on “Staffinglevels, work practices, and refineryperformance”, and on the question“Does the oil industry have, andcan it attract, the workforce that itneeds?” On the former question,a prominent oil consultant with adetailed data bank covering sometwo-thirds of world refining capac-ity, noted that while the more efficientrefineries tend to have lower manninglevels than comparably sized refin-eries which are less efficient, it wasnot the case that an inefficient plantcould become more efficient bysacking a lot of workers. He alsoindicated that trade unions werenot a bar to excellent performance.There was also a panel on ILOactivities of interest to the oil andgas sector.

Oil employment,production shift globally

Global oil refining: Stable for now, but expect pressure to grow on jobs

Although world refinery employment has been relatively stable since the early to mid-1980s, pressure is growing on jobs in the industry. A new ILO report 1 says risingcompetition, excess capacity and the rising cost of investments needed to meettightening environmental controls threaten the profitability of the oil refining industryand cast a shadow over the job prospects of oil refinery workers, particularly in OECDcountries.

T


than in many other sectors, “industrialrelations are becoming difficult in anumber of countries; as pressures mount,they threaten employment levels andchange the nature of the remainingjobs”.

The report cites four major issuesof industrial relations in the refiningsector: job security, contract labour,health and safety, and wages andworking conditions. In addition, it pointsout the widespread allegations of non-respect in many regions for the ILO’sprinciple of freedom of associationand the right to collective bargaining(Conventions Nos. 87 and 98), whichremain hotly contested issues in theoil industries of many countries.

Despite the ILO’s insistence that“in the treatment of all such problemsof industrial relations, there should beno differentiation in respect of the pe-troleum industry,” many countries re-strict independent trade union activitiesand prohibit industrial action in the oilsector on the grounds that the industryis an “essential service” or “a strategicindustry”.

The report cites a number of casesinvolving oil refining workers, fromcountries in different regions and at differentlevels of economic development, whichhave come before the ILO supervisoryorgans, including the Committee onFreedom of Association, or have other-wise attracted international attention. Theseinclude Brazil, the Islamic Republic ofIran, Nigeria and the United Kingdom.Other countries which have been the objectof scrutiny by ILO supervisory bodiesfor their policies concerning strikes orimposing compulsory arbitration in theoil industry include Indonesia, Pakistanand Peru.

Countries in which the oil sectorcontinues to be considered a special casejustifying certain restrictions on the rightto strike, include Mexico (where theConstitution designates oil as a strategicindustry, and procedures to exercise theright to strike are very cumbersome);Egypt (where strikes are prohibited basedon sensitivity and the public sector char-acter of the industry); Kuwait (wherestrikes are illegal, though they haveoccurred); Turkey (where legislation wasenacted requiring that oil sector disputesbe settled by compulsory arbitration; andSingapore (where petroleum is classifiedas an essential service, but strikes areauthorized subject to certain conditions).

Other countries where the right to strikein the oil sector is restricted includeAzerbaijan, Belarus and Costa Rica. Thereport notes that in practice strikes havenot been common in the refining sector,

even in countries where the right exists,due to the relatively good pay and workingconditions.

The report says that while labourproductivity varies widely from countryto country, it nonetheless rose substan-tially during the past decade. Overallworld employment in oil refining remainedstable, at about 1 million. The bulk ofjob reductions came in the Organizationfor Economic Cooperation and Devel-opment (OECD) countries, where the in-dustry is mature, and in central and easternEurope, which, since 1989, experienceda decline in refinery employment esti-mated at about 200,000 jobs, with fur-ther reductions likely.

Among the major industrialized coun-tries, France, Germany, Italy, the Neth-erlands, the United Kingdom and the UnitedStates all experienced sharp declines inrefinery employment. The major causeof employment reduction in these coun-tries is increasing productivity due toadvances in technology, with virtuallyall refining companies installing inte-grated information systems to controlproduction and reducing the number ofmanagement layers.

Growth in Africa, Asiaand the Middle East

Meanwhile, employment grew in Africaand Asia, as well as the Middle Eastwhere refining capacity also grew.However, “employment levels remainmodest, reflecting both the labour mar-ket situation and the relatively modern,capital intensive character of refinery in-stallations,” the report says.

Privatization and the effects of com-mercial liberalization are making them-selves felt in a number of large refiningcountries, including Argentina, Brazil,

Mexico and Nigeria, and are gener-ating increasing fears of job losses.In regional terms, the report considersLatin America, where the oil industryis heavily protected as “second onlyto central and eastern Europe in thevulnerability of its refinery staff toemployment changes associated withprivatization and liberalization.”

In Argentina, where the processof restructuring has gone furthest, thenumber of employees of the formerlystate-owned company YPF was re-duced from 50,000 to under 6,000between 1991 and 1997. In Brazil, thestate-owned company Petrobras hasseen its protected status erode and thenumber of employees in the refiningsector drop by 23 per cent since 1989.

The report says that “Mexico has perhapsthe most uncertain employment prospectsin the region.” Pemex, the state-ownedcompany, “has undergone employmentreductions even greater in absolute termsthan those of YPF in Argentina”.

Impact of environmentalissues seen

In addition to increased commercialpressure, the report says that “environ-mental legislation related to oil productshas been getting tighter in most parts ofthe world”. It identifies a clear trendtowards “an international levelling up ofenvironmental standards”. This meansthat refiners must not only build newplants in conformity with the tighter speci-fications, but also retro-fit earlier plants.Both involve major investments if therefiners are to continue operating. Buteven exiting the business is expensive,as “the cost of closing a medium-sizedrefinery in an OECD country can be inthe order of US$ 200 million,” the reportsays.

The report also notes that the task ofrefiners is further complicated by the so-called “ratchet effect” of much environ-mental legislation in which “tighter speci-fications, which are generally introducedin accordance with a phased schedule,are frequently modified before they havehad time to take effect”. Given the severalyears’ lead time involved in building ormodifying refineries, “the equipment torespond to last year’s requirements maynot yet be in place when new legislationis enacted”.

1 Employment and Industrial Relations Issuesin Oil Refining. Report for discussion at theTripartite Meeting on Employment and Indus-trial Relations Issues in Oil Refining. Inter-national Labour Office, Geneva, 1998. ISBN 92-2-110769-8.

ELF – Chatin

❑


What is the genesis of this debate?

Over the past few years, interest hasbeen growing towards adopting new ILOstandards which would focus on the worstchild labour abuses. The decision of theGoverning Body of the ILO to place thesubject on the agenda of the InternationalLabour Conference was reinforced by aResolution on child labour adopted bythe International La-bour Conference in1996, which statedthat within the con-text of the progres-sive elimination ofchild labour, therewas a need “to im-mediately proceedwith the abolition ofits most intolerableaspects...”. Theseincluded slave-likeand bonded condi-tions, dangerous andhazardous work, in-volvement of the veryyoung and the com-mercial sexual ex-ploitation of children.

This interest in thenew standards wasexpressed once againamong the memberStates of the ILO intheir replies to a ques-tionnaire on thepossible content ofnew standards. Arecord number of 116governments replied,

with an almost equal number of ad-ditional replies from employers’ andworkers’ organizations. These replies gaveoverwhelming support for new standardson extreme forms of child labour. Therange of comments reflected a consensusthat the persistence and seriousness ofthe child labour problem warranted re-newed international action focused spe-cifically on extreme or intolerable formsof child labour.

The replies also showed a perceivedgap in international standards. While theUnited Nations Convention on the Rightsof the Child, and ILO instruments, par-ticularly the Minimum Age Convention,1973 (No. 138), and the Forced LabourConvention, 1930 (No. 29), prohibit childlabour and slavery-like practices, it wasfelt that there could be clearer prioritiesfor national and international action focusedon children in hazardous work and other

Q & A on Child Labour

Move towards new ILOstandards on child labour

The International Labour Conference will debate proposed new internationallabour standards on child labour in June. The subject of the new standards isextreme forms of child labour: work that is likely to jeopardize the safety, healthand morals of children; slavery and practices similar to slavery; and childprostitution and pornography. This article describes major issues likely to bedebated during the Conference.

Ma

rie

Do

rig

ny


intolerable situations. There would alsobe an advantage in explicitly coveringall forms of extreme child labour in onestandard.

At the same time, there was a diver-gence of opinion about various points,such as the appropriate level of detailin the Convention, the amount of flexi-bility to be given to national authoritiesto determine extreme forms of child labourand establish penalties, the type ofenforcement and monitoring machineryto be included in the Convention, andthe immediacy with which countries wouldbe obliged to act against extreme formsof child labour.

What are the existing standards?

The Minimum Age Convention, 1973(No. 138) and its accompanying Recom-mendation, 1973 (No. 146) are the mostrecent and comprehensive ILO instru-ments aimed at the abolition of childlabour. They are the pillars of ILO actionto promote improved national policy andlegislation, and in designing technicalcooperation to combat child labour. Amongthe elements:

National policy: The Conventionrequires ratifying States to “undertaketo pursue a national policy designed toensure the effective abolition of childlabour and to raise progressively the mini-mum age for admission to employmentor work to a level consistent with thefullest physical and mental developmentof young persons”. Recommendation No.146 provides guidance on necessary policymeasures.

Coverage: The Convention applies toall sectors of economic activity, whether

or not the children are employed for wages.Certain sectors may initially be excludedfrom application of the Convention bydeveloping countries. Limited categoriesof work can be excluded for special andsubstantial problems of application.Exclusions and exceptions are providedfor education and training, and artisticperformances.

Basic minimum age: The Conventionestablishes that the minimum age shouldnot be less than the age of completingcompulsory schooling and in no eventless than 15 years of age. It allows adeveloping country to specify initiallya general minimum age of 14 years ofage instead of 15.

Minimum age for hazardous work:A higher minimum age of at least 18must be set for hazardous work – “em-ployment or work which by its natureor the circumstances in which it is carriedout is likely to jeopardize the health,safety or morals of young persons”. (Workfrom age 16 can be authorized if theyoung persons concerned are fully pro-tected and adequately trained.)

Minimum age for light work: TheConvention allows a lower age for lightwork from 13 to 15 years of age, providedthat the work is not hazardous to thechild’s health or development, and doesnot hinder the child’s education. Aminimum age for light work at 12 insteadof 13 can be set in countries where thebasic minimum age of 14 is allowed,after consultation with the employers’and workers’ organizations concerned.

Enforcement: The Convention callsfor all necessary measures to ensureeffective enforcement, appropriate pen-

alties, definition of persons responsiblefor compliance, and record keeping.

Why is a new Convention onchild labour needed?

Convention No. 138 is and will remainthe fundamental international standardon child labour. It has had a profoundinfluence on national law and practiceand the number of ratifications has beenon the increase over the last couple ofyears. Its goal is the total abolition ofchild labour, but it also allows forprogressive implementation and improve-ment.

While it is recognized that eliminatingchild labour will take time, there arecertain kinds of child labour which cannotbe tolerated. These require immediateaction.There has been growing internationalconsensus that there should be a newstandard focused on the worst forms ofchild exploitation which would make theintolerable – children in slavery, pros-titution and pornography, and the mosthazardous work – the priority for na-tional and international action. Countrieswith limited resources and capacity, forexample, should nonetheless begin totake action to tackle the problem by focusingtheir efforts on eliminating extreme formsof child labour with the support andcooperation of the international commu-nity.

New international standards would alsoput into one legal instrument all extremeforms of child labour. This would notin any way make existing instrumentsless important, but would bring into asharper focus the kinds of measures neededto suppress the most dangerous andhazardous work of children, to preventtheir entry into it, to remove them fromhazardous situations and give them theassistance needed for their rehabilitation.New standards will reinforce the objec-tive of Convention No. 138: the totalabolition of child labour.

What would the proposed Con-vention and Recommendationlook like?

Proposed Conclusions have been draftedbased on replies to an ILO questionnairecompleted by 116 governments andapproximately the same number ofemployers’ and workers’ organizations.These Proposed Conclusions contain thesuggested text for a new ILO Conventionand Recommendation on extreme formsof child labour. They have been draftedin the form of a short and precise Convention

General minimum age Light work Hazardous work(Article 2) (Article 7) (Article 3)

In normal circumstances:

15 years or more 13 years 18 years(not less than compulsory school age) (16 years conditionally)

Where economy and educational facilities are insufficiently developed:

14 years 12 years 18 years (16 years conditionally)

What is the minimum age in accordance with ConventionNo. 138?


Ph

oto

s: M

ari

e D

ori

gn

y

Why new standards?

●●●●● To identify priority areas of action in the fight against child labour.●●●●● To focus on all extreme forms of child labour in one standard.●●●●● To ensure that immediate action is taken to suppress extreme forms of child labour.●●●●● To protect children and young persons in all countries, irrespective of the level

of development.●●●●● To call for more specific and effective action against extreme forms of child labour.


child labour. While the rate ofratification of Convention No.138 has grown over the last coupleof years, there is still a senseamong some member States thatthe Convention is too complexand detailed to achieve univer-sal ratification in the near fu-ture.1 It is also argued that eventhough a higher minimum ageis established for hazardous work,it does not provide the necessaryfocus for priority action. Theseconcerns have been a drivingforce behind the development ofnew standards.

The proposed new stand-ards differ from existing onesin that they are entirely focusedon extreme forms of child labourand cover all those forms in oneinstrument. They contain noexceptions based on age, sectoror type of enterprise. Theirsingular mission is to put animmediate stop to extreme forms

of child labour: those forms of child labourthat cannot be tolerated anywhere in theworld.

Forms of child labour not covered bythe new instruments remain the subjectof existing ones, in particular ConventionNo. 138, which is the fundamental ILOConvention for the abolition of child labour.

The proposal for a new Conventionalso differs from Convention No. 138in the following ways: it requires meas-ures for the immediate suppression ofall extreme forms of child labour; it callsfor criminal penalties; it specifies thatmeasures for prevention, removal of chil-dren from extreme forms of child labour,and rehabilitation of child victims areto be taken; and calls for steps towardsmutual cooperation or assistance in givingeffect to the provisions of the Conven-tion.

The June 1998 International LabourConference will debate the content ofthe proposed standards for the first time.The issues discussed in this article arelikely to be at the core of the debate.At the conclusion of the 1998 Confer-ence, member States will have an op-portunity to comment again on the text.On the basis of those comments, theInternational Labour Office will preparea report for submission to the 1999Conference. The final word will be thatof the 1999 Conference, which will decideon the final adoption of new standards.

1 There are 60 ratifications at the time of thiswriting. The Director-General has included Con-vention No. 138 in the campaign to increase rati-fication of fundamental ILO Conventions.

to complement Convention No. 138, withthe basic obligation to take measures tosecure the immediate suppression of allextreme forms of child labour, and aRecommendation which would give furtherguidance for legislative and practical action.

The expression “extreme forms of childlabour” covers all forms of slavery andpractices similar to slavery, such as thesale and trafficking of children, forcedor compulsory labour, debt bondage andserfdom; the use, engagement or offeringof a child in illegal activities, for pros-titution, production of pornography orpornographic performances; and any othertype of work or activity which, by itsnature or the circumstances in which itis carried out, is likely to jeopardize thehealth, safety or morals of children, sothat they should not be used or engagedin such work or activity under any cir-cumstances.

What is the proposed content of thenew Convention and Recommendationon extreme forms of child labour?

The proposed Convention and Recom-mendation apply to all children underthe age of 18 in conformity with thegeneral age stipulated in the United NationsConvention on the Rights of the Childand the minimum age for hazardous workin the ILO Minimum Age Convention,1973 (No.138). Unlike Convention No.138, however, the future standards wouldapply to all sectors of activity withoutthe possibility of limiting their scope tocertain sectors or branches of activity.

The proposed Convention would re-quire measures to suppress extreme forms

of child labour, to ensure effectiveenforcement, including provision ofcriminal penalties, and for prevention,removal and rehabilitation of the chil-dren and call on ratifying member Statesto take steps to assist each other throughinternational cooperation or assistance.

The proposed Recommendation wouldcall for adopting national programmesof action which would protect the veryyoung, protect girls, include measuresfor prevention, rehabilitation and socialintegration, raise awareness and mobil-ize society; establishing monitoringmechanisms to ensure effective appli-cation; determining the most hazardouswork; compiling data; designating cer-tain activities as criminal offences; andtaking effective enforcement measures.

Summary

There is overwhelming support amongILO constituents for putting an end tothe intolerable exploitation and abuse ofchildren in hazardous work and conditionsof slavery, and practices similar to slav-ery. Such exploitation and abuse not onlyjeopardize the physical and mental well-being of children but are also grossviolations of their human rights and dignity.

An important step towards the achieve-ment of this goal is the proposal for newILO standards aimed at the immediatesuppression of extreme forms of childlabour. A new standard has been calledfor to identify priority areas for nationaland international action in the fight against

❑

Ma

rie

Do

rig

ny


ince the Maternity Protection Con-vention (No. 103) was adopted in1952, ILO member States have madeconsiderable progress in providing

maternity benefits to employed women,says a new International Labour Office(ILO) report1. Yet most still fall shortof ensuring universal coverage for allworking women. While the vast majorityof countries around the world providepaid maternity leave by law and manyoffer health benefits and employment

Maternity protectionat work

Ssafeguards, the gap between law andpractice remains wide. Uneven patternsof protection result in some womenenjoying good benefits, while others areleft wholly or partly unprotected. Thosemost likely to be disadvantaged includeagricultural workers, domestic workers,home workers and part-time workers.

Even where benefits have been gen-eralized, the gains registered have so farfailed to resolve the fundamental prob-lem experienced by most, if not all working

women at some point in their profes-sional lives: unequal treatment in em-ployment due to their reproductive role.

“In all parts of the world, workingwomen who become pregnant are facedwith the threat of job loss, suspendedearnings and increased health risks dueto inadequate safeguards for their em-ployment,” explains F. J. Dy-Hammar,Chief, ILO Conditions of Work Branch,who oversaw the report.

In many countries today, incomegenerated by women is vital for the survivalof the family. Women provide the mainsource of income in some 30 per centof all households worldwide. In Europe

and the United States, 59 and 55 percentof working women, respectively, bringhome half or more of their family’shousehold income. In India, an estimated60 million people live in householdsmaintained by a woman’s paycheck. Injust more than ten years, 80 per cent ofall women in industrialized countries and70 per cent globally, will be workingoutside the home throughout their child-bearing years.

How do ILO memberStates treat mothers-to-be?

The report analyses how 152 memberStates treat women of childbearing agein both law and practice, and how thesecountries’ legislation compares to ILOinternational standards. This analysiscovers overall maternity protection atwork, including maternity leave, employ-ment protection, cash and medical ben-efits and health protection of mother andchild.

“In all parts of the world, workingwomen who become pregnant arefaced with the threat of job loss,suspended earnings and in-creased health risks due toinadequate safeguards for theiremployment.”

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard

Cover story


Here are some of the findings of thereport:

●●●●● Maternity Leave: The MaternityProtection Convention created by the ILOin 1919 was the first global standardaimed at protecting working women beforeand after childbirth. It was revised in1952 and now calls for a minimum of12 weeks of leave, although 14 weeksis recommended. In countries providingcash benefits through social security, theILO standard says that women shouldbe paid not less than two-thirds of theirprevious insured earnings, with full healthbenefits.

Currently, 119 countries meet thestandard of 12 weeks with 62 of thosecountries providing for 14 weeks or more.Just 31 countries mandate a maternityleave of less than 12 weeks.

Among the countries which providethe most paid maternity leave by law are:the Czech Republic (28 weeks), Slovakia(28 weeks), Croatia (6 monthsand 4 weeks), Hungary (24weeks), The Russian Federa-tion (20 weeks) and Italy (5months). Denmark, Norway,and Sweden all provide ex-tensive paid leave which maybe taken by either parent,although a portion is reservedfor the mother.

In the United States,the Family and Medi-cal Leave Act(FMLA) of 1993 pro-vided a total of 12work-weeks of un-paid leave duringany 12-month periodfor the birth of a childand the care of thenewborn. However,FMLA applies onlyto workers in com-panies with 50 or moreworkers.

Collective bargain-ing agreements be-tween unions and em-ployers often increasethe leave entitlement,the report finds. InSpain, for example,18,000 public schoolteachers in the Basqueregion receive 18 weeksmaternity leave, twomore than mandated bylaw, and 12,000 pri-vate school teachersin the same regionreceive 17 weeks. InMexico, two major

banks and a power company provide oneto four weeks more leave than the 12weeks mandated by law. In the UnitedKingdom, 85 per cent of 240 differentbusinesses surveyed in 1995 offered longermaternity leaves than mandated by law.

●●●●● A minimum length of servicewith the same employer is the most commoncondition of maternity leave. Someexamples include a minimum of threemonths of employment in Switzerland;six months in Libya, and Syria (in ag-riculture); six months during the yearpreceding the birth in Egypt and the Phil-ippines; one year in Australia, Bahamas,Jamaica, Mauritius, Namibia, New Zealandand United Arab Emirates, and two yearsin Gambia and Zambia.

●●●●● Advance Notice: The advancenotice required for taking maternity leavevaries from country to country. In Aus-tralia, a woman must inform her em-

ployer that she is pregnant and will betaking time off at least ten weeks beforeleaving. In Austria, a worker is requiredto inform her employer of her pregnancyand of the likely date of birth as soonas she herself knows, and also informthe employer of the date that her prenatalleave will begin four weeks before leav-ing. In Ireland and the United Kingdom,notification must follow a strict proce-dure or the woman could lose the pro-tection of the courts in any dispute. Inother countries, pregnant women enjoygreater rights – in Denmark, France, Greeceand Italy, a woman automatically enjoysprotection of maternity leave laws sim-ply by becoming pregnant, no matter howand when the employer learns of it. InFinland, a woman is required to informher employer only if she wishes to takeleave more than 30 days before the expecteddate of birth.

●●●●● In some countries, leave entitle-ment may depend on thenumber of children alreadyin the family, the frequencyof births, or both, length ofservice or working hours. InNepal, a woman may takejust two maternity leaves inher working life, and in Bar-bados, Egypt, Grenada, Ja-maica and Zimbabwe, justthree. In the Bahamas andTanzania, women are alloweda maternity leave only onceevery three years.

● ● ● ● ● Employment Pro-tection: The ILO says thatan essential element in ma-ternity protection is a legalguarantee to pregnant womenand young mothers that theywill not lose their jobs asa result of pregnancy, ab-sence on maternity leave orthe birth of a child.The guarantee is an essen-

tial means of preventing ma-ternity from becoming asource of discriminationagainst women in employ-ment, Ms. Dy-Hammar says.“Loss of continuity in em-ployment is a major handi-cap for women’s career ad-vancement and is costly interms of lost seniority andreduced pensions, paidannual leave and other em-ployment-related benefits.”In the United States, dis-

crimination is prohibitedagainst pregnant women,IL

O


women at the time of childbirth and womenwho are affected by a related medicalcondition, but only in companies with15 or more workers. In addition, policiesand practices in connection with preg-nancy and related matters must be appliedon the same terms and conditions as thoseapplied to other temporary disabilities.

The ILO has found at least 29 coun-tries, most of them in Africa and Asia,which have adopted laws that providean absolute prohibition against the dis-missal of a worker during maternity leavefor any reason. These are Bahrain, Belize,

Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi,Cambodia, Chad, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire,Djibouti, Fiji, Gabon, Ghana, India, Israel,Lesotho, Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Mau-ritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Sen-egal, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Ugandaand Uruguay.

The ILO says that if the protectionagainst dismissal is to be effective, itmust also cover the period following theemployee’s return to work. The actualperiod of protection varies considerably.In China, Haiti and Romania, the periodof protection corresponds to just the nursingperiod, which is not further defined. Theperiod of protection following maternityleave is 30 days in Belgium and SouthKorea, 12 weeks following birth in Côted’Ivoire and Luxembourg, three monthsfollowing the end of maternity leave inCyprus, 16 weeks following birth inSwitzerland, four months following birthin Austria, Ethiopia and Germany, fivemonths in Brazil, six months in Hungary,nine months in Laos, one year followingbirth in Afghanistan, Angola, Bolivia,Greece, Mozambique, Somalia, Venezuelaand Vietnam, and 15 months in Mali andSenegal.

●●●●● Cash and Medical Benefits: Thesituation of workers who become preg-nant shortly after beginning a new jobis often precarious. Qualifying periodsof three to 12 months of employmentare frequently found in national laws andcollective agreements with regard to accessto benefits. Minimum contribution lev-els may be required to qualify for socialsecurity payments. Part-time and tem-

porary workers may have difficulty meetingeligibility requirements.

“Without cash and health benefits,many women could not afford to takematernity leave, or might be forced toreturn to work before their health al-lowed,” says Ms. Dy-Hammar. In fact,a 1996 report to the US Congress onfamily and medical leave policies2 foundthat 100 per cent of the women eligiblefor leave who did not take it said thatthey could not afford to.

The report finds that working womenhave made striking progress in receivingmaternity leave paid through social securitysince the first ILO maternity conventionof 1919, when only nine countries pro-vided this benefit. The number rose to40 by 1952, and to more than 100 today.In other countries, employers are requiredto pay all or part of the benefits.

In many countries, the number ofwomen entitled to maternity protectionhas increased mainly because of the ex-tension of social security plans to womenwho were not previously covered, suchas agricultural and domestic workers andthe self-employed. In the Bahamas, CostaRica, Finland, the Philippines, Portugal,Slovakia and Tunisia, for example, self-employed women are protected under thesame qualifying conditions, at the samelevel of benefits and payment as em-ployed women. Belgium, France, Gabon,Luxembourg and Spain have set up specialsystems to protect self-employed womenduring maternity.

In countries where social securitysystems are still weak, coverage is quitelimited. For example, social security coversan estimated 5 per cent of the workingpopulation in Benin, in Côte d’Ivoire,7 per cent, and Cameroon, 10 per cent.

Where large numbers of women workin the informal sector, legislation affordslittle protection. In Colombia, 52 per centof working women are employed in theinformal sector, in Peru, 48 per cent, andPoland, 10 per cent.

●●●●● Health Protection for Motherand Child: The ILO says that specialworkplace protection is required for

working women because pregnancy,childbirth and the postnatal period arethree phases in a woman’s reproductivelife in which special health risks exist.The ILO Maternity Protection Recom-mendation, 1952 (No. 95), prohibits nightwork, overtime and work prejudicial tothe health of mother and child. Suchmeasures seek to minimize fatigue, reducephysical and mental stress and protectwomen against dangerous and unhealthywork.

Three major trends have markedchanges in law and practice concerningthe occupational safety and health of preg-nant women and nursing mothers since1952, the report finds. There has beena clear evolution away from generalizedemployment prohibitions for womentowards more targeted protection for groupsat risk, such as women before and afterchildbirth.

Another trend, closely related to thefirst, has been the move towards pro-tective measures better adapted to theneeds and personal preferences of indi-vidual workers at different periods intheir working life, rather than imposinginvoluntary restrictions for wide catego-ries of workers, such as women ofchildbearing age.

There has also been a growing aware-ness of the impact of the working en-vironment on reproductive health and ofthe negative outcomes to pregnancyassociated with both maternal and pa-ternal exposure to hazardous substances,agents and processes.

●●●●● Beyond Childbirth : The reportalso analyses how countries are adaptingto the needs of working families, withlegislation for parental, paternity andadoption leave. To date, just 36 coun-tries, mainly industrialized ones, haveenacted legislation governing parentalleave. The Nordic countries offer themost attractive policies for working parentsincluding compensation for loss of earn-ings and family allowances. Recent USlegislation guaranteeing family leave isnoteworthy, because though unpaid, itis gender neutral.

1 Maternity protection at work. Report of theMaternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952(No. 103), and Recommendation, 1952 (No. 95).ISBN 92-2-110336-6. 15 Swiss francs. InternationalLabour Office, Geneva, 1997.

2 A Workable Balance. Report to Congress onFamily and Medical Leave Policies. US Departmentof Labor, 1996.

The ILO says that if theprotection against dismissal isto be effective, it must alsocover the period following theemployee’s return to work.

“Without cash and healthbenefits, many women couldnot afford to take maternityleave, or might be forced toreturn to work before theirhealth allowed.”

❑

Algeria 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityAngola 90 days 100 EmployerBenin 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityBotswana 12 weeks 25 EmployerBurkina Faso 14 weeks 100 S.S. & employerBurundi 12 weeks 50 EmployerCameroon 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityCentral African Republic 14 weeks 50 Social SecurityChad 14 weeks 50 Social SecurityComoros 14 weeks 100 EmployerCongo 15 weeks 100 50% Employer/50% S.S.

Côte d’Ivoire 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityDem. Rep. of the Congo 14 weeks 67 EmployerDjibouti 14 weeks 50 Employer/S.S.Egypt 50 days 100 S.S./employerEquatorial Guinea 12 weeks 75 Social SecurityEthiopia 90 days 100 EmployerGabon 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityThe Gambia 12 weeks 100 EmployerGhana 12 weeks 50 EmployerGuinea 14 weeks 100 50% Employer/50% S.S.

Guinea-Bissau 60 days 100 Employer/S.S.Kenya 2 months 100 EmployerLesotho 12 weeks 0Libya 50 days 50 EmployerMadagascar 14 weeks 100 50%Employer/50% S.S

Mali 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityMauritania 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityMauritius 12 weeks 100 EmployerMorocco 12 weeks 100 Social SecurityMozambique 60 days 100 EmployerNamibia 12 weeks As prescribed Social SecurityNiger 14 weeks 50 Social SecurityNigeria 12 weeks 50 EmployerRwanda 12 weeks 67 EmployerSao Tome/Principe 70 days 100 for Social Security

60 daysSenegal 14 weeks 100 Social SecuritySeychelles 14 weeks Flat rate for Social Security

10 weeksSomalia 14 weeks 50 EmployerSouth Africa 12 weeks 45 Unemployment InsuranceSudan 8 weeks 100 EmployerSwaziland 12 weeks 0Tanzania 12 weeks 100 EmployerTogo 14 weeks 100 50% Employer/50% S.S.

Tunisia 30 days 67 Social SecurityUganda 8 weeks 100 for Employer

one monthZambia 12 weeks 100 EmployerZimbabwe 90 days 60/75 Employer

Antigua/Barbuda 13 weeks 60 S.S. and possibleemployer supplement

Argentina 90 days 100 Social SecurityBahamas 8 weeks 100 40% Employer/60% S.S.

Barbados 12 weeks 100 Social SecurityBelize 12 weeks 80 Social SecurityBolivia 60 days 100% of nat’l

minimum wage+70% of wagesabove mini-mum wage Social Security

Brazil 120 days 100 Social SecurityCanada 17-18 weeks 55 for

15 weeks* Unemployment Insurance

Chile 18 weeks 100 Social SecurityColombia 12 weeks 100 Social SecurityCosta Rica 4 months 100 50% Employer/50%S.S.

Cuba 18 weeks 100 Social SecurityDominica 12 weeks 60 S.S./EmployerDominican Rep. 12 weeks 100 50% Employer/50% S.S.

Ecuador 12 weeks 100 25% Employer/75% S.S.

El Salvador 12 weeks 75 Social SecurityGrenada 3 months 100 (2 months),

60% for3rd month S.S./Employer

Guatemala 12 weeks 100 33% Employer/67% S.S.

Guyana 13 weeks 70 Social SecurityHaiti 12 weeks 100 for

6 weeks EmployerHonduras 10 weeks 100 for

84 days 33% Employer/67% S.S.Jamaica 12 weeks 100 for

8 weeks EmployerMexico 12weeks 100 Social SecurityNicaragua 12weeks 60 Social SecurityPanama 14 weeks 100 Social SecurityParaguay 12 weeks 50 for 9 weeks Social Security

Country Length ofLeave

CashBenefits1 Who Pays? Country Length of

LeaveCash

Benefits1Who Pays?

AMERICAS

AFRICA

Maternity protection at w

Peru 90 days 100 Social SecuritySaint Lucia 13 weeks 65 Social SecurityTrinidad/Tobago 13 weeks 60-100 S.S./EmployerUnited States 12 weeks 0Uruguay 12 weeks 100 Social SecurityVenezuela 18 weeks 100 Social Security

Afghanistan 90 days 100 EmployerAustralia 1 year 0Bahrain 45 days 100 EmployerBangladesh 12 weeks 100 EmployerCambodia 90 days 50 EmployerChina 90 days 100 EmployerFiji 84 days Flat rate EmployerIndia 12 weeks 100 Employer/S.S.Indonesia 3 months 100 EmployerIran 90 days 66.7 for

16 weeks Social SecurityIraq 62 days 100 Social SecurityJapan 14 weeks 60 Social Security or

health insuranceJordan 10 weeks 100 EmployerKorea, Republic of 60 days 100 EmployerKuwait 70 days 100 EmployerLaos 90 days 100 Social Security

Lebanon 40 days 100 EmployerMalaysia 60 days 100 EmployerMongolia 101 days - -Myanmar 12 weeks 66.7 Social SecurityNepal 52 days 100 EmployerNew Zealand 14 weeks 0Pakistan 12 weeks 100 EmployerPapua New Guinea 6 weeks 0The Philippines 60 days 100 Social SecurityQatar 40-60 days 100 for civil

servants Agency concernedSaudi Arabia 10 weeks 50 or 100 EmployerSingapore 8 weeks 100 EmployerSolomon Islands 12 weeks 25 EmployerSri Lanka 12 weeks 100 EmployerSyria 75 days 100 EmployerThailand 90 days 100 for 45

days then 50%for 15 days Employer for 45 days,

then Social SecurityUnited Arab Emirates 45 days 100 EmployerViet Nam 4-6 months 100 Social SecurityYemen 60 days 100 Employer

Austria 16 weeks 100 Social SecurityBelarus 126 days 100 Social SecurityBelgium 15 weeks 82 for 30 days,

75%* thereafter Social SecurityBulgaria 120-180 days 100 Social SecurityCzech Republic 28 weeks 69* Social SecurityCyprus 16 weeks 75 Social SecurityDenmark 18 weeks 100.* 10 more

weeks may betaken by eitherparent Social Security

Finland 105 days 80 Social SecurityFrance 16-26 weeks 100 Social SecurityGermany 14 weeks 100 S.S.to ceiling;

employer pays difference

Greece 16 weeks 75 Social SecurityHungary 24 weeks 100 Social SecurityIceland 2 months Flat rate Social SecurityIreland 14 weeks 70* or fixed rate Social SecurityIsrael 12 weeks 75* Social SecurityItaly 5 months 80 Social SecurityLiechtenstein 8 weeks 80 Social SecurityLuxembourg 16 weeks 100* Social SecurityMalta 13 weeks 100 Social SecurityThe Netherlands 16 weeks 100 Social SecurityNorway 18 weeks 100, and 26

extra paid weeksby either parent Social Security

Poland 16-18 weeks 100 Social SecurityPortugal 98 days 100 Social SecurityRomania 112 days 50-94 Social SecurityRussia 140 days 100 Social SecuritySlovakia 28 weeks 90* Social SecuritySpain 16 weeks 100 Social SecuritySweden 14 weeks 450 days paid

parental leave:75%, 360 days;90 days, flat rate Social Security

Switzerland 8 weeks 100 EmployerTurkey 12 weeks 66.7 Social SecurityUkraine 126 days 100 Social SecurityUnited Kingdom 14-18 weeks 90 for 6 weeks,

flat rate after Social Security

* up to a ceiling1 Cash benefits as a percentage of wages or insured earnings.Source: International Labour Organization, 1998.

Country Length ofLeave

CashBenefits1

Who Pays? Country Length ofLeave

CashBenefits1

Who Pays?

ASIA & PACIFIC

EUROPE

work in selected countries

ILO


Several Latin American countries aredismantling state-run training institu-tions and relying increasingly on analliance of private training centres andreceptive employers. This new style ofskills training reflects the new demandsof modernizing industries and labourmarkets. But new ways of training aren’tentirely sufficient; sometimes gettingyour first alarm clock can help staveoff poverty.

LIMA – Anselmo Cruzado grew upin the 60s, when Chile was developingits own production of industrial goodsto replace imports and jobs were plentiful.

At 18 he trained with the InstitutoNacional de Capacitación Profesional(INACAP), Chile’s National TrainingInstitute, which, like similar agencies inother Latin American countries, wasfinanced by a payroll levy; industry paida percentage of its salary outlay, andexpected in return to choose each yearfrom a number of trainees with the necessaryskills.

Skilled in sheet metal cutting andmolding, Anselmo found employment ina refrigerator factory, married and hadthree sons. When the youngest, Rafael,was ready to go to work, his now-un-employed father found that skills he hadlearned 30 years ago had become ob-solete, that INACAP was no longer apublic agency and that finding a job forhis son would be difficult.

At 17, Rafael was making ends meetwith small repair jobs. He might easily,like some of his friends, have turned intowhat he himself described as a “drop-out”. But he was fortunate enough tomeet a social worker who directed himto SENCE, the National Service forTraining and Employment (ServicioNacional de Capacitación y Empleo).

There, he was helped to enrol in acourse on electrical installation, whichincluded active assistance in finding anenterprise where he could complete athree-month practice period. Within ayear he had a stable job in the boomingconstruction industry.

A new shape and stylefor training

In recent years, the curtailment of Stateeconomic activity and the impact of newtechnology, have led several LatinAmerican countries to dismantle theirpowerful state-run training institutionsand rely instead on an alliance of privatetraining centers and receptive employ-ers. These experiments are giving skillstraining a new shape and a new style,which is expected to be more responsiveboth to the needs of industry and therequirements of the labour market. It hasinvolved accommodating a large segment

of the young population currently de-prived of access to formal education andtraining.

“Youths from poor homes and withinsufficient schooling, forced to join thelabour market prematurely, end up un-employed or clinging precariously to thelabour market,” says Víctor Tokman,Regional Director of the ILO for theAmericas in Lima. “This is an acute socialproblem and holds a challenge not onlyof improving the situation of young people,but of facing poverty outright.”

Studies undertaken by the ILO’s Centrefor Research and Documentation onVocational Training (Cinterfor) inMontevideo* highlight the changes inthe training system that are bringing tothe fore the situation of underprivilegedyoungsters and the enhanced role privateenterprise can play in their employment.Cinterfor stays abreast of these changesand keeps them in public view.

“Chile Joven”

A pioneer of privatization in this andother areas of social policy, Chile hasre-focused its National Training andEmployment Service to assist a host ofyounger workers who have yet to benefitfrom surging rates of economic growth.The emphasis has been on workers inthe 16-24 year age group who were notemployed or studying.

The courses most frequently organizedunder “Chile Joven” teach industrial skills(44 per cent), followed by office-relatedwork (30 per cent) and agriculture (10per cent). A considerable number of firms(15,000) have accepted the trainees forpractice periods, and although the fitbetween offer and demand can still beimproved, the programme seems gener-ally sensitive to the type of skills re-

News Section

Facing poverty outrightSkills training in Latin America: Private sector

lends a hand to underprivileged youth

In Argentina,57 per cent ofmen and 40.5per cent ofwomengainedemploymentafter theirtrainingperiods,although ofthese onlyabout one-half foundjobs on theformalemploymentmarket.

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard


quired by potential employers, nearly 60per cent of which are small and medium-sized entrepreneurs.

Evaluations have shown a significantnumber of formerly unemployed or inactiveyoung people who found jobs after joiningthe programme. Since the percentagesare still not very high in comparison withyoung workers outside it, SENCE aimsnext at better tailoring its courses to theskills which enterprises need and can usefor practice periods.

Helping “outsiders” enterthe job market

In Argentina, during the current dec-ade GNP has stayed on an upward swing,the budget has been balanced and infla-tion has been successfully throttled. Butthese overall benefits have not “trickleddown” as expected. National unemploy-ment rates in particular, together withunderemployment, have increased. Theirchoice victims have been young people,who find fewer openings in an industrywhich is increasingly capital-intensive.

An estimated 600,000 Argentines under25 are out of work or lack a decent personalor family income – a hotbed for chronic“outsiders” who hardly ever gain entryinto the formal labour market.

One-third of the group was targetedby a new programme called “ProyectoJoven”, which four years ago set out tohelp industry achieve market-driven, com-petitive skills training under the new tech-nology. It is now run by the Ministryof Labour and has a budget of US$ 400million, of which 70 per cent is coveredby a loan from the Inter American De-velopment Bank.

After having ascertained which skillswere in demand, private training agen-cies and non-governmental organizations(NGOs) were asked to bid concurrentlywith public institutions for the provisionof training courses. They were requiredto sign agreements with a number offirms ensuring that trainees would betaken in for practice periods, which arepaid for by the project.

It was soon found that the cost of trainingunder Proyecto Joven, around $1,000 fora six-month course, was cheaper thanconventional methods – $32,000 for atechnical training course of six years,which may not even lead to employmentif changing technological requirementshave made its course work obsolete.

First enquiries into the results of“Proyecto Joven” have been encourag-ing. Fifty-seven per cent of men and 40.5per cent of women gained employmentafter their training periods, although of

these only about one-half found jobs onthe formal employment market.

The young employment seekers nowkeep searching for a job if first attemptsfail. They have also learned to applydirectly to the firms and employmentagencies, rather than relying, as before,on family and friendship networks.

After its initial phase, the programmewas reviewed for possible shortcomings.It turned out that many training agencieswere under-equipped to detect demand,and that enterprises found it difficult tobe specific about the skills to be includedin training courses. There was also aserious time lag between “reading” thedemand and fielding the necessary train-ing staff, particularly in highly seasonalsectors like agriculture, tourism andfisheries.

In spite of a recent downturn in theArgentine economy, the programme hasbrought definite advantages to the youngworkforce in terms of training opportu-nities and better social integration. It hasalso led industry to a positive re-evalu-ation of its investment in training.

Uruguay: Stepping intothe fray

The experiment in Uruguay, where bothpublic and private training facilities existedpreviously, drew on the Argentine andChilean examples. As a condition forbeing eligible, the training agenciesundertook to shorten their courses, pro-vide their trainees with employmentsupport, pattern their own curricula onlabour market demand, and make room

for poor students. Under growing eco-nomic difficulties, and with dwindlinginternational assistance, they realized thatit was to their advantage to step into thefray. By 1997, 122 agencies had beenregistered in the capital, Montevideo.

The training agencies have set up anactive placement relationship with theemployers, who often demand specificskills or propose the joint planning ofcourses which will best satisfy theirrequirements. Employers have also giventhe agencies material assistance and offeredtheir trainers on loan to conduct courses.

From the trainees’ point of view, thebig innovation in “Projoven” was receiv-ing help in the search for jobs and systematicmonitoring of their work during the threemonths after their training ends. This isall the more important since people enteringlabour markets from poor families havedifficulty adjusting to work-time and otherrequirements of formal employment.

The project aims to correct a situationin which many former trainees lose theirjobs on the first day or the first fortnightof work. The authors of the initial evaluationwere struck by the story of a young manwhose family made a living from infor-mal refuse collection. He was fired becausehe had been late at work. The monitorresponsible for his follow-up solved thisparticular problem by lending him themoney for an alarm clock – a previouslynonessential item in the family.

By Mario Trajtenberg

* E.g. Jóvenes, formación y empleabilidad (Youngpeople, training and employability), Boletin 139-140, Cinterfor/ILO, Montevideo, 1997.

LONDON – Speaking at the Jobs Summitmeeting of the G-8 in London on 21February, ILO Director-General MichelHansenne, called on the governments ofthe world’s leading industrial nations toplace promotion of democracy and socialjustice at the heart of their internationaleconomic strategies.

Pointing to the huge social costs of

ILO calls for moredemocracy and

social justice in Asiathe unfolding crisis in Asia, Mr. Hansennepredicted that “several million workerswill be adversely affected” and regrettedthat, through lack of foresight, “thecountries concerned find themselves ill-prepared to deal with the social crisis.Asa result, the suffering of those affectedis all that much greater”.

Mr. Hansenne also said that the bulk


of job losses would be concentrated inthe “modern sector”, pushing skilledworkers to inferior jobs in agricultureor the informal sector. Those who managedto keep jobs would meanwhile see realwages drop significantly as a result ofinflation induced by large currencydevaluations.

This suffering “greatly increases therisk of social and political instability”in the region, Mr. Hansenne said. Un-derlying this risk “is the fact that forseveral decades social progress has laggedbehind the spectacular economic successachieved by emerging Asian countries.Not enough was done to develop socialsafety nets, to advance basic workers’rights, or to promote social partnership.”

Social security in the countries con-cerned is generally limited to provisionsfor retirement, health care and compen-sation for industrial accidents for work-ers in the organized sector, according tothe ILO. There typically is no unemploy-ment insurance of any kind. Socialassistance for the poor is similarly meagre

and of limited coverage.“It was previously thought sufficient

to get developing countries to see thewisdom of moving ... towards greateropenness to the world economy, greaterreliance on markets and the private sector,and the adoption of macroeconomic policiesthat avoided large fiscal deficits and highinflation”, Mr. Hansenne said. But, “theAsian experience has shown that, whilenecessary, this recipe is far from suf-ficient”.

To simply liberalize and privatize isnot enough. “The effective monitoringand regulation of markets ... is also vitallyimportant”. Similarly, “the importanceof honest, transparent and democraticmanagement of the economy has beenamply underscored”.

“And it bears repeating that it is short-sighted and perilous to neglect thedevelopment of strong social institutionsand policy.”

While the immediate priority must beto contain and alleviate the social con-sequences of the crisis, “it is also important

Tripartite ILO meeting in Bangkok todiscuss financial crisis in east and

south-east Asian countriesThe ILO held a High-Level Tripartite Meeting on Social Responses

to the Financial Crisis in East and South-East Asian Countries from22 to 24 April 1998 at the Amari Watergate Hotel, Bangkok. The followingmember States (and areas) were invited: China, Indonesia, Republicof Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam and Hong Kong,China. At the ILO’s Twelfth Asian Regional Meeting in December 1997,delegates called for a strong response to minimize the adverse socialeffects through technical cooperation and assistance.

to agree on the agenda for forward-lookingaction”, said Mr. Hansenne. For the ILO,recent developments in Asia underlineabove all the importance of “adherenceto the fundamental social frameworkprovided by international labour stand-ards”.

The ILO has devoted considerable effortsin recent years towards promoting uni-versal observance of core labour stan-dards. These cover the right to freedomfrom forced labour and discrimination,the right to organize and to bargaincollectively, and the elimination of childlabour. None is more relevant in the presentcontext than the principle of freedom ofassociation.

Source: ILO Press Release ILO/98/8

Asia in crisis

Two yearsafter Beijing:

ILO listsConferencefollow-up

In the two years since the Fourth WorldConference on Women, held in Beijing,the ILO has made “substantial contri-butions to our constituents’ efforts toimprove gender equality in the workplace.”In a letter to ILO staff drafted forInternational Woman’s Day (8 March),Mary Chinery-Hesse, Deputy Director-General, said: “We concentrated on de-veloping with our partners in the ILO’smember States practical tools and strat-egies to promote women’s economic em-powerment and to combat poverty andvulnerability.”

Noting that the Beijing Conference hadfirmly placed women and gender issuesat the top of the national, regional andinternational agenda, Mrs. Chinery-Hesssaid cooperation with ILO constituentsin this area “has been greatly strength-ened and requests for our assistance haveincreased”.

“The ILO has fully accepted the re-sponsibility,” she said. “In 1997, wemade substantial contributions to ourconstituents’ efforts to improve gender

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard


equality in the work place. We concen-trated on developing with our partnersin the ILO’s member States practical toolsand strategies to promote women’seconomic empowerment and to combatpoverty and vulnerability.”

Among the new activities launched bythe ILO since Beijing are: The Inter-national Programme on More and BetterJobs for Women, to assist countries toimplement successfully the Platform forAction; a recently published Guide toCollective Bargaining; a Training Pack-age of the Capacity-Building Programmeon Gender, Poverty and Employment;the Programme on Gender Equality

KAMPALA, Uganda – Mauritius isnot just a good case study in the elimin-ation of child labour, it is almost a textbookexample. In just over two decades,this newly independent, small is-land nation has virtually eliminatedchild labour, as is evident to anyvisitor to the densely populatedcountry.

The homeless and working chil-dren who clog the streets and shopsof so many developing countriesare completely absent. The dailywhir of activity on the streets ofMauritian towns and cities is punc-tuated by crowds of smiling, blue-uniformed students,making their wayfrom home to school to lunch andback to school.

Speaking to a recent conferenceon child labour in Africa held here,Mr. Abdool Razack M.A. Peero,Attorney General, Minister forHuman Rights, Corporate Affairsand Labour, was in no doubt aboutthe essential ingredients in this suc-cessful effort to wipe out child labour.

“More than any other factor, uni-versal access to education solvedthe problem of child labour andilliteracy to a large extent,” he said,adding that in 1975, the newlyindependent country passed itsLabour Act, which stipulates thatno person is allowed to enter into

A case worth pointing outReport on Mauritius: Child labour is a thing

of the past

through Labour Administration , whichstresses the role of labour administrationin developing employment policies forwomen based on equal opportunity; theAction Programme on PromotingWomen’s Employment and Participa-tion in Social Funds, which providespractical guidelines for integrating a genderperspective in the design and operationof social funds; the Action Programmeon Labour and Social Issues relatingto Export Processing Zones, which thoughnot women-specific, has developed a setof recommendations to improve the situ-ation of female workers, who constitutethe majority of the workforce in these

a working agreement with a child, whois defined as being a person under theage of 15.

zones; and The Tripartite Meeting onBreaking Through the Glass Ceiling:Women in Management, held in Ge-neva in December 1997, highlighting theobstacles to women’s career develop-ment in the private and public sectors(see World of Work, No. 23 for full report).

In February, the ILO also issued a reporton maternity laws around the world, basedon a new ILO report, “Maternity pro-tection at work”. Report of the MaternityProtection Convention (Revised), 1952(No. 103) and Recommendation, 1952(No. 95). ISBN 92-2-110336-6. (See pp.15-19 in this issue for full report).

The law, said the Attorney General,is enforced, with particular attention tomicroenterprises, small traders and theinformal sector, where child labour mostoften flourishes. During the period, 1990-1997, he said that 310 cases of childlabour were detected and preventive actiontaken.

Mauritius’ emphasis on education islong-standing. As far back as 1968, evenbefore independence, free primary edu-cation was given to all children betweenthe ages of 5 and 11, although not allchildren could afford to attend school.In 1976, when Mauritius was still rela-

tively poor and underdeveloped, theGovernment introduced free second-ary education. In 1993, the Gov-ernment made primary educationcompulsory and began running vo-cational and technical training pro-grammes for children aged 12 to15 who had dropped out of primaryschool. Current plans foresee theintroduction of a 9-year formal schoolsystem to cater for children aged5 to 14.

In his remarks, the Minister stressedthat Mauritius, unlike many coun-tries, did not wait for economic growthto begin tackling the problem, norwas it responding to outside pres-sure.

“We undertook the commitmentwhen we were still an under-devel-oped country,” he said. “The finan-cial means of the State were verylimited and Government had to setits priorities right. Free educationand free health were made the toppriorities.”

In 1990, Mauritius ratified the ILOMinimum Age Convention (No. 138,1973) and became a party to theUN Convention on the Rights of theChild.

By John Doohan, ILO PressCIRIC

News Section


WorkingWorld

SOCIAL PARTNERS

● In Germany, six tradeunions are preparing a mergerin the year 2000 that will createthe largest labour organiza-tion in the country. The sixunions to join forces repre-sent employees in the follow-ing sectors: business, bank-ing, insurance, public service,transportation (except forrailroad workers), post offices,teaching, research and media.The new behemoth, with some3.7 million members, wouldbe larger than Germany’scurrent labour giant, the IG-Metall union, which currently

counts some 2.7 millionmembers.

● As part of a regional eco-nomic integration movement,employers’ organizations inCentral Africa have formed

A regular review of trends anddevelopments in the

world of work

a new organization called theUnion of Central AfricanEmployers. UNIPACE cur-rently includes employers’unions from Cameroon, theCongo, Gabon, the CentralAfrican Republic and Chad.

This new structure will allowemployers’ organizations fromother countries such as mem-bers of the countries of theEconomic and MonetaryCommunity of Central Africa(CEMAC) to join and has thesupport of the InternationalOrganization of Employers(IOE).

● In Sweden, the unioniza-tion rate of women now sur-passes that of men, among bothworkers and salaried employ-ees. At 83 per cent, the un-ionization rate in Sweden isthe highest in the world.(Source: Social International).

LABOUR LAW

● Zambia has substantiallymodified its law on industrialrelations following its recentratification of the ILO’s Free-dom of Association and Pro-tection of the Right to Organ-ize Convention, 1948 (No. 87).The new text guarantees theright to belong to a trade unionand to carry out union activi-ties, protects against dismissalbecause of union activity, andregulatesthe creation, registra-tion and functioning of em-ployers’ and workers’ asso-ciations.

● Thailand adopted a modi-fication of the law on theprotection of workers inFebruary. Among its princi-pal measures are the increasein severance pay for workerswith the most seniority, thereduction of legal workinghours to eight hours per dayand 48 hours per week, andclearly defined responsibil-ities with regard to subcon-tracted workers. The modifi-cations come into force inAugust.

●●●●● Comparative studies of the United States and France suggest that the highernumbers of unemployed in France and the length of unemployment, especially amongyouth, were due to the relatively higher costs of hiring unskilled workers. Thisappeared to be the case especially in certain sectors of activity, such as businessand restaurant work, in which more people are employed in the United States thanin France. (Sources: Le Monde, EuropeanEconomic Perspectives)

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard


● Brazil has just modifiedits laws aimed at reducing thecost of fixed-term contractsand creating an “hour bank”system. The system will per-mit – in consultation with tradeunions – a certain flexibilityin working hours according tothe level of activity of anenterprise, without incurringovertime costs.

SOCIAL CONTRACTS

● Following a convergenceagreement with the GeneralConfederation of Workers(GCT), signed in May 1997,the Government of Argentinahas just proposed a certainnumber of measures to Con-gress aimed at simplifyinghiring methods and promot-ing employment stability. Thenew measures will, in particu-lar, place a ceiling on certainseverance benefits, and limitthe recourse to part-time workwhile simplifying procedures.

● In Finland, the social part-ners reached agreement on aglobal pact on revenue policyfor the next two years. Thenew policy will provide thebasis for sectoral negotiations,and limit salary increases to1.6% in 1998 and 1999, witha supplementary margin – for1998 only – of 0.5% for sectoraladjustments and 0.4% forwomen’s salaries and personswith low incomes. Supplemen-tary increases would be pos-sible if inflation exceeds 3%.(Source: Social International)

● Tripartite negotiations arenow very firmly establishedin Estonia. The latest of theseresulted in an increase in theminimum wage from 845crowns to 1,100 crowns, ef-fective as of 1 January of thisyear. (Source: Social Inter-national)

EMPLOYMENT

● Soaring unemploymentrates among youth in Spainare expected to decrease fordemographic reasons. Themassive entry of young peo-ple onto the labour market is (continued on p. 33)

expected to stop with the endof the “baby boom”. Thenumber of young persons under20, estimated at around 730,000in 1994, has fallen to only600,000 today.

● In the United States, newstudies show that workers whostay in the same job for a longtime are less likely than thosewho have worked in severaljobs, to find new employmenteasily. Companies apparentlyprefer hiring people with ex-perience with various employ-ers and in varioius sectors ofactivity. Moreover, Americansappear less mobile than in thepast; according to the USBureau of Statistics, whereasin the 1980s one-fifth of thepopulation had changed resi-dence each year, that propor-tion fell to 16% in 1995-96.(Source: Argus)

● In China, the sparsity ofhighly-qualified employees andthe high demand for theirservices has resulted in anincrease in their mobility. Theturnover rate of a middle-management and top-manage-ment employee varies from

eight to twelve months. Themost sought-after workers arein the finance, accounting, salesand marketing sectors. (Source:Argus)

● A study carried out in theUnited Kingdom shows thatthe existence of “out-of-schoolchild care clubs” greatly fur-thers the employment or thereturn to work of parents(mostly mothers). One surveyshowed that before the crea-tion of such associations, 24%of mostly female respondentsdid not work, 32% worked full-time and 37% part-time. Sincethe creation of the new childcare clubs, only 10% of thewomen did not leave the hometo work, while 46% held full-time jobs and 32% part-timejobs. (Source: The Institute forEmployment Studies)

WORKINGCONDITIONS

● In 1996, Germany, Aus-tria and Belgium reported arecord low in the number ofwork-related accidents. Com-pared with 1995, the number

of accidents at work, in transitor during training fell by 8.6%in Germany, 5.7% in Austriaand 5% in Belgium. In addi-tion, the number of fatalaccidents also declined inAustria, by 20.4% and by 18%in Belgium. (Source: SocialInternational)

● According to a survey bythe American ManagementAssociation, nearly two-thirdsof the enterprises in the UnitedStates resort to some form ofelectronic control and surveil-lance of their personnel.Among the practices conductedare recording the time spenton the telephone and thenumbers called, recording andlistening to telephone conver-sations, recording and listen-ing to answering machinemessages, noting the time spenton the computer and thepasswords used, storing andreviewing computer files, andcapturing and reading elec-tronic mail. (Source: Sales andMarketing Management, U.S.,as quoted in Argus).

●●●●● Peru has clarified the mode of enforcement of its law against discriminationin employment. It applies to employers, training organizations, employmentagencies and other middle-men. Practices based on the subjective preferencesof clients, on recruitment costs or on membership in a group, trade union orassociation are not considered discriminatory.

P.

Me

rch

ezLine-up of job seekers

outside the LabourMinistry, Lima, Peru.


AROUND THE CONTINENTS

A regular review of theInternational Labour

Organization andILO-related activities and

events taking place aroundthe world.

FIGHTINGJOB DISCRIMINATION

▲ Despite recent progress, job dis-crimination on the basis of race and ethnicorigin remains pervasive around the world.A new ILO survey conducted in Belgiumsays roughly one of three applicationprocedures are closed to migrants be-cause of discrimination, the inefficiencyof existing penal code provisions regard-ing cases of discrimination, and resist-ance at the shop-floor level to introdu-

cing anti-discrimination training meas-ures. At a national conference organizedon 23-24 October 1997 in Brussels bythe Belgian Centre for Equality of Chancesand the Fight Against Racism, the BelgianMinister of Labour, Mrs. Miet Smet,underlined the need to translate theseresearch findings into concrete action.The Belgian survey is part of an ongoingILO project to help member States findbetter and more effective ways of tack-ling labour market discrimination againstforeign and ethnic minority workers.

For further information please contact Mr. RogerZegers de Beijl, Conditions of Work Branch, phone:+4122/799.8091; Fax: +4122/799.84.51; e-mail:[email protected]

TRIPARTISM IN CENTRALAND EASTERN EUROPE

▲ The ILO’s Central and EasternEuropean Team (CEET), in cooperationwith the Ministry of Labour of Cyprus,organized a tripartite seminar in Nicosiafrom 31 October to 6 November 1997to discuss the role of tripartite bodiesin central and eastern Europe. Twenty-seven participants from Bulgaria, Croatia,Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Ro-mania, Slovakia and Ukraine exchangedinformation and experiences, and con-cluded that tripartite cooperation betweengovernments, employers and workers incentral and eastern Europe was neces-sary more than ever to maintain socialcohesion and reconcile trends in eco-nomic development and social justice.The participants asked the ILO to con-tinue its numerous efforts to promotetripartite cooperation in the region.

For further information please contact Mr. GiuseppeCasale, CEET, phone: +361/301.4900; fax: +361/153.3683; e-mail: [email protected]

AFFIRMATIVE ACTIONSUPPORTED IN NAMIBIA AND

SOUTH AFRICA

▲ Two efforts aimed at overcomingthe lingering effects of apartheid on em-ployment in Namibia and South Africaare moving forward. An “AffirmativeAction in Employment in Namibia” projectincludes training, awareness-raising andinstitution-building activities, together withdevelopment of an employment equity

law, which is in the final stages ofpreparation before being submitted toParliament. The project is funded byNorway and is aimed at facilitating theratification of ILO Convention No.111on Discrimination (Employment andOccupation). Once adopted, the legis-lation will provide the Namibian Gov-ernment with a solid basis for imple-menting affirmative action in employ-ment for Blacks, women and personswith disabilities. In a similar vein, theILO’s Equality and Human Rights Co-ordination Branch has also providedtechnical assistance to the Governmentof South Africa on an Employment EquityBill, which will support the Government’santi-discrimination policy and the imple-mentation of Convention No. 111, rati-fied by South Africa in March 1997.

For further information please contact Mrs. JaneHodges-Aeberhard, Equality and Human Rights Co-ordination Branch, phone: +4122/799.7120; fax:+4122/799.6926; e-mail: [email protected]

THE ILO IN THEARAB STATES

▲ ILO technical cooperation in theArab States has more than tripled sincethe re-opening of the ILO Regional Officefor Arab States in Beirut (Lebanon) inMay 1995. After an absence of more than12 years, the resumption of service rep-resented an important step towards en-hancing the Organization’s services tomember States in the region. At the endof 1997, the technical cooperation pro-gramme of the Regional Office reachedan unprecedented level of US $15.9 million,an increase of more than 100 percentover the 1996 programme of US$ 6.4million, and more than 200 per cent overthe 1995 programme of US$ 4.6 million.This substantive increase over the lasttwo years was largely due to the successof the Beirut Office in securing the supportof international and Arab donors for projectsin the region, and for the Palestinians.Special efforts were devoted to provid-ing technical assistance to the Palestin-ian Authority and its social partners in

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard


setting up much-needed labour marketinstitutions and developing the neces-sary capacities.

For further information please contact the Re-gional Office for Arab States in Beirut, phone: +9611/371576; fax: +9611/371573.

BUSINESS AND SOCIETY: NEWPERSPECTIVES

▲ Drawing on first-hand experienceas the Chairman of OMRON, a multi-national corporation operating in 30 coun-tries, Mr Nobuo Tateisi who is also theVice-Chairman of the Japan Federationof Employers’ Associations (Nikkeiren)delivered a public lecture at the ILO’sInternational Institute for Labour Studieson “Business and Society: New Perspec-tives” on 23 March 1998. Mr. Tateisiaddressed the issues involved in recon-ciling good corporate citizenship withshareholder value in highly competitivemarkets. He called for a new corporatemanagement system which built theconcerns of consumers, employees andsociety into corporate strategy and whichwent beyond the logic of home marketsto reflect the growing globalization ofconsumer interests and values.

For further information please contact Ms. R.Greve, International Institute for Labour Studies,phone: +4122/799.6114; fax: +4122/799.8542; e-mail: [email protected]

ALBANIA: THE SOCIALDIMENSION OF RECOVERY

▲ An international conference or-ganized in November 1997 by the ILOand the United Nations Development Pro-gramme (UNDP) in cooperation with theAlbanian Ministry of Labour, has led toconcrete results for workers there. InOctober 1996, the average monthly wagein Albania was less than US$ 50. Fol-lowing the conference, tripartite nego-tiations took place within the newly createdtripartite wage committee, and the mini-mum wage as well as the wages in thepublic sector were increased by morethan 20 per cent. The ILO believes therecent dramatic events in Albania werenot only generated by a financial crisisfollowed by an institutional one, but alsoby deep social discontent due to fallingliving standards, growing unemployment,lack of social dialogue and fragile publicinstitutions. Immediately after the early1997 crisis the ILO also prepared a reportentitled “Albania – The Social Dimen-sion of Recovery: Assessment andProposals for Action”. The report not

only offers an assess-ment of the situation inthe country but also pro-poses 12 concrete proj-ects to ensure that so-cial considerations willhave their place in thecurrent programme forthe reconstruction of Al-bania.

For further informationplease contact Mr. DanielVaughan-Whitehead, Centraland Eastern European Team(CEET) in Budapest, phone:+361/301.4900; fax: +361/153.3683;e-mai l :budapes [email protected].

A detailed assessment of the wage and incomesituation in Albania and a list of policy recommen-dations are presented in the new ILO-CEET book“Tripartism against Crisis: New Incomes Policy asa Driving Force in Albania” and in an ILO reportentitled “Albania – The Social Dimension of Re-covery: Assessment and Proposals for Action”.

TRADE UNIONS INLATIN AMERICA

▲ In Latin America, where over 25per cent of the economically active popu-lation is employed in the informal sector,the existence of a system of labour relationscovering only workers of the modernsector of the economy can unleash a socialcrisis, argue J.M. Sepulveda-Malbran andM.L. Vega-Ruiz from the ILO’s multi-disciplinary team in Lima in a recentpublication (Las relaciones laborales:un desafio para el sindicato). The au-thors signal the way ahead for LatinAmerican trade unions at a time whenthey are trying to forge a new identity;the unions, they say, need to step directlyinto the productive process, trying toinfluence it rather than setting themselvesagainst it. The authors quote several ILOstandards showing how this can and shouldbe done.

For further information about publications andactivities of the ILO in Latin America please contactthe Regional Office in Lima, Peru; phone: +511/421.5286 ; fax: +511/421.5292. The Director of theMultidisciplinary Team for the Andean Countriesis Mr. Garcia.

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIESFOR ASIAN WOMEN

▲ Although women and men havebeen active participants in Asian regionalgrowth, women continue to be disadvan-taged compared to men, in the entireregion. South Asia persistently indicateslower rates in literacy, educationalenrollment and labour force participa-tion for women than for men. In south-

east Asia, the economic and financialcrisis has had a disproportionate impacton women workers, and previous gainsin women’s socio-economic status areat serious risk. The ILO’s Asian Re-gional Programme on expansion of Em-ployment for Women, funded by theJapanese Government and launched inearly 1998 in Nepal and Indonesia, isresponding to these priorities through thecreation of gender-oriented employmentpromotion schemes for poor women.Project activities will also include legalliteracy and awareness raising on womenworkers’ rights, lobbying and advocacy-skills training, and the development ofcommunity-based organizations in orderto promote the self-help capacities ofwomen.

For further information please contact Ms. MaryJohnson, ILO Regional Office For Asia and thePacific, phone: +662/288.1234; fax: +662/280 .1735;e-mail: [email protected]

“STEP” AGAINST SOCIALEXCLUSION AND POVERTY

▲ The ILO has launched a new, five-year global programme called “Strategiesand Tools against Social Exclusion andPoverty” (STEP) to promote better un-derstanding of the capacities and reali-zations of community-based participa-tory initiatives which improve social pro-tection, particularly for the most mar-ginalized population groups. The pro-gramme will identify and reproduce ex-periences and best practices gained inmany countries of the world through theinitiatives of associations, non-govern-mental organizations and other local or-ganizations. Participants in the programmewill be the ILO’s social partners, non-governmental organizations, local groupsand national and regional governmentofficials.

For further information please contact Mr. Jacquier,Coordinator, STEP, phone: +4122/799.7449; fax:+4122/799.6644; e-mail: [email protected]

Jacques Maillard


Maternity protection, alcohol and drugabuse, the Asian crisis and child labour

Media focus on...

DAWN(Pakistan) 23 January 1998

IOC, ILO to promotesocial justice

ISLAMABAD, Jan.22: The InternationalOlympic Committee (IOC) and the Inter-national Labour Organisation (ILO) haveformally agred to join efforts “in promot-ing social justice and human dignity” andin encouraging activities “which contrib-ute to the elimination of poverty and childlabour” around the world, said an ILOpress release.

According to the press release, a “co-operation agreement” between the two or-ganisations was signed on January 19, 1998in Lausanne by President of the IOC JuanAntonio Samaranch and Director Generalof the International Labour Office, MichelHansenne.

Under the terms of the agreement, a jointIOC/ILO working group will shortly beestablished to develop a programme ofmutual cooperation in both developed anddeveloping countries.

(UK) 5 February 1998

Industry counts drug abuse costs

Alcohol and drug abuse at work coststhe world’s industrialised economiesbillions of dollars a year in lost output,with young low-skilled male workers themost affected, according to a report forthe International Labour Organisation.

The report, by the Toronto-based Ca-nadian Centre on Substance Abuse, alsonotes that 70-80 per cent of all accidentsand other alcohol-related problems occuramong moderate drinkers, rather thanheavy drinkers, who have learned to copewith their habit...

(India) 3 February 1998

Moderate liquor drinkers cause much more problems at workplaceand are more prone to drink-related accidents than their heavierdrinking colleagues, according to a study conducted by the In-ternational Labour Office.As much as 70 to 80 per cent of the alcohol-related incidents likeaccidents, quarrels, absenteeism and crime take place among thosewho drink less. An important reason for this is that moderatedrinkers are far more numerous than heavy drinkers...

ILO meet to peg discussions on drinking

(Germany) 23 February 1998

ILO: Krise macht Millionen arbeitslosLONDON - 22. Februar (Reuters). Mehr

als fünf Millionen Menschen in Asienwerden nach Schätzungen der Inter-nationalen Arbeitsorganisation (ILO)wegen der Finanzkrise ihre Arbeitsplätzeverlieren. Der ILO-Direktor für Analyse,Eddy Lee, sagte während des G7-Treffensin London, allein in Indonesien würdenbis Ende des Jahres rund 3 millionenMenschen arbeitslos. Dies gelte unterder noch relativ optimistischen Annahmeeines Nullwachstums. Mit 91 MillionenBeschäftigten ist Indonesien das bei weitemgrösste der drei Krisenländer. Nach ILO-Angaben dürfte sich die Krise aber auchin Thailand mit seinen 34 MillionenBeschäftigten sehr schmerzhaft bemerkbarmachen. Dort hätten als Folge derFinanzkrise bereits 700000 Menschenihren Arbeitsplatz verloren. Im Verlaufdieses Jahres werde die Zahl auf etwa1,8 Millionen steigen. In Südkorea werdedie Zahl der Arbeitslosen um etwa 400000steigen.

...More than half the 38 companies infive countries that took part in a five-year experimental prevention programmesponsored by the ILO and two other UNagencies reported a drop in alcohol anddrug-related problems, mainly in reducedabsenteeism, lateness and disciplinedifficulties.

Cooperation agreementbetween the IOC and the ILOPress release No. ILO/98/1

Fighting drug and alcoholabuse in the workplacePress Release No. ILO/98/3

ILO calls for more democracyand social justice in AsiaPress Release No. ILO/98/8

✔

✔

✔


(Uganda) 6 February 1998

Child labourexpectedto grow

The growing army of child labourers inAfrica is expected to swell by at leastone million per year if current economicand social trends persist, the Interna-tional Labour Organisation (ILO) warnedtoday.

A report presented by ILO at a con-ference here, titled “Child labour in Africa– Targeting the Intolerable” says that thepoverty and education indicators give apotentially bleak future of child labourin Africa.

Ugandan Prime Minister, Mr. Kintu-Musoke, who opened the meeting, calledon the delegates to advise on the mostplausible solution to the problem thathas come to be globally recognised. Thethree-day meeting, according to theDirector-General of ILO, Mr. MichelHansenne, comes against a backdrop ofdeclining economic performance inAfrica...

la totalité du revenu familial

Les congés de maternité sont rémunérésdans pus de 120 pays à l’exception notabledes Etats-Unis, de l’Australie et de laNouvelle-Zélande, constate le BureauInternational du Travail (BIT) dans unrapport publié aujourd’hui. Mondialement,le taux d’activité des femmes est passédepuis un demi-siècle de 54% à 64% etil pourrait atteindre 70% en 2010.

Le nombre de femmes travaillant «à l’âgede la maternité» a considérablementaugmenté alors que chaque année 200millions de grossesses sont menées à terme,constate le rapport du BIT intitulé «laprotection de la maternité au travail».

(France) 25 février 1998

Le BIT annonce des millions desuppressions d’emplois en Asie

LES TRAVAILLEURS salariés sontles premiers à payer les conséquencesde la crise en Asie (Le Monde du 20janvier). Rien qu’en Thaïlande et enIndonésie, plus de deux millions d’entreeux ont déjà été mis au chômage avecla restructuration ou la fermeture desentreprises endettées. Au total, ce sontau moins cinq millions d’emplois quivont être supprimés dans ces deux paysen 1998. Tels sont les chiffres qui viennentd’être présentés par Michel Hansenne,Directeur général du Bureau Internationaldu Travail (BIT), à l’occasion du sommetsur l’emploi du G8 à Londres.

(Switzerland) 16 février 1998

TRAVAIL. Selon une enquête duBIT, six femmes actives sur dixcontribuent aussi en Europe à lamoitié du revenu du ménage.

Une femme sur quatre assure

Child labour risks growing inAfricaPress Release No. ILO/98/4

More than 120 nations providepaid maternity leavePress Release No. ILO/98/7

✔

✔


(USA) 16 February 1998

UN surveys paid leave formothersU.S. Among NationsWithout a Policy...While rights are written into law in manycountries, all is not rosy for womenworldwide, said one of the study’s authors,Ann Herbert. “There is a huge gap betweenlaw and practice,” she said, adding thatwidespread discriminatin was found toexist on the job against women who becomepregnant.The study found that only 29 countries,most of them in Africa and Asia, ab-solutely bar dismissal of a worker duringher maternity leave. There is even lessprotection against dismissal after themother’s return to work. About two dozencountries have some protection, but itranges from 30 days in Belgium and SouthKorea to 15 months in Mali and Senegal.

“Working women who become preg-nant are faced with the threat of job loss,suspended earnings and increased healthrisks due to inadequate safeguards for

18 February 1998

No Break for MomMaternity Benefits for U.S. MothersAre Called Least Generous in World

WASHINGTON - The maternity andnursing benefits given to working moth-ers in the United States are the leastgenerous in the industrialized world,according to a report released by theInternational Labor Organization, a UnitedNations agency.

The report, which reviewed maternityleave and health benefits mandated bylaw in 152 countries, found that about80 percent of the countries offered paidmaternity leave to workers. About a thirdof the countries permitted the leaves tolast for more than 14 weeks.

(Sweden) 16 February 1998

their employment,” said F.J. Dy-Hammar,the study’s chief author.

(Spain) 16 February 1998La OIT critica la discriminaciónlaboral durante el embarazo

EFE MadridEn muchos lugares del mundo aún sediscrimina a las trabajadoras embarazadas,que estan expuestas a perder su puestode trabajo y sus ingresos, según la OficinaInternacional del Trabajo (OIT).

En un informe sobre la protección dela maternidad en el trabajo que se daráa conocer hoy lunes, la OIT lamenta lasdiferencias de trato en el empleo entrehombres y mujeres y dice que estas, cuandoestan embarazadas, corren mayores riesgosdebido a la falta de garantias suficientesen materia de empleo.

Para la OIT, un elemento esencial dela protección de la maternidad es la garantíalegal de que las mujeres embarazadasy las madres jóvenes no perderán su empleopor causa de embarazo, ausencia del trabajoen licencia de maternidad o parto...

(India) 17 February 1998

Indian laws leave unorganised sectorin lurch; US barely meets norms

Asia, Africa lead inguarding mom-to-be

...Though a large number of countrieshave laws to protect the employment ofa woman during pregnancy, none havefor periods after a woman joins backwork. This means that soon as a womanreturns to work, her services could beterminated.

ILO is now calling out for such protec-tion in order to make employment pro-tection of working women meaningful.ILO says that the terms and conditionsthat apply to pregnant women should beequated with conditions that apply totemporary disabilities. The report saysthat only 29 countries, mostly in Asiaand Africa, have laws that make it illegalfor dismissing a worker during maternityleave for any reason whatsoever.

The ILO further said: Without cash andhealth benefits, many women could notafford to take maternity leave, or mightbe forced to return to work before theirhealth allowed.


Media shelfIn print

■■■■■ HIV/AIDS and em-ployment. L. N’daba and J.Hodges-Aeberhard. ISBN 92-2-110334-X. Swiss francs 15.

Over the past ten years, theAIDS pandemic has inten-sified and expanded to affectall countries throughout theworld. This book uses aninternational comparative sur-vey carried out by the ILOon 12 developing and indus-trialized countries alreadyidentified by WHO data ashaving an AIDS problem. Itdeals with the legislative andregulatory framework, enter-prise practices, the impact ofmeasures taken, and recom-mendations for practical strat-egies. It also proposes anumber of criteria for devel-oping a tripartite strategy tocombat AIDS at the work-place, and provides a modelpolicy guide on measures toprevent and combat discrimi-nation in employment on thegrounds of HIV-positivestatus or infection with AIDS.It has been written for policy-makers and those faced withthe daily challenge of elimi-nating direct or indirect dis-crimination against persons

with HIV/AIDS: enterprisemanagers, employers’ organi-zations, workers, infected per-sons and voluntary activistsin NGOS.

■■■■■ International labourstandards. A workers’ edu-cation manual. Fourth (re-vised) edition. ISBN 92-2-110330-7. Swiss francs 20.

This book provides a briefbut thorough introduction tothe formulation, adoption andapplication of internationallyagreed standards of goodpractice in labour matters –international labour Conven-tions and Recommendations– and has been updated tocover developments up to mid-1997. By 1997, the ILO hadadopted 181 internationallabour Conventions and 188Recommendations on allaspects of the world of work.How are these standardselaborated and how is theirapplication ensured?

The topics covered in thismanual include:– the ILO and standard set-ting– how standards originate– the purpose and contentsof international labour Con-ventions and Recommenda-tions– the application and super-vision of standards– complaints procedures– protecting trade union rights– the influence of interna-tional labour standards– a classified guide to thestandards

– a bibliography.Most chapters provide

points for discussion, sug-gested issues for research,and further reading.

The manual is intended fortrade unionists, students andthe general reader interestedin labour matters, social is-sues and human rights. It isdesigned for use in workers’education courses as well asfor individual study.

■■■■■ Vocational rehabili-tation and employment ofdisabled persons. ISBN 92-2-110652-7. Swiss francs17.50.

In its General Survey ofthe ILO’s Convention and

Recommendation on voca-tional rehabilitation and em-ployment of people withdisabilities, the Committeeof Experts looks at nationalpolicies in an equal oppor-tunities perspective. Equal-ity represents a universalhumanist principle whichrejects the simple institution-alization of persons with dis-

abilities in favour of a sys-tem in which they can ex-ercise their own income-generating activities; they maythus cease to be a mere chargeon social protection funds andservices and become insteadreal participants in the col-lective enterprise. Achievingthis requires concerted ac-tion in association withdisabled persons’ groups aswell as employers’ andworkers’groups, and a seriesof calculated affirmativemeasures. The GeneralSurveygives examples of stepstaken by ILO member States,including many which havenot yet ratified this promo-tional Convention.

■■■■■ Gender equality: aguide to collective bargain-

ing. ISBN 92-2-110555-5.Can be obtained from theBureau for Workers’ Activi-ties, ILO, Geneva.

A collection of six book-lets: (1) Gender equality bar-gaining: an overview, (2)Working conditions, (3) Ma-ternity and family responsi-bilities, (4) Defending rightsof non-permanent and vul-nerable workers, (5) Dignityat the workplace, (6) Givingwomen a voice.

■■■■■ ILO Thesaurus: La-bour, employment andtraining terminology. 5thedition, in preparation. ISBN92-2-007355-2. MultilingualE/F/S/G. Swiss francs 145.

The new publications cataloguecan be ordered from the ILOPublications Bureau. See p.32 for contact information.


ILO publications on sale can be obtained through major booksellers or ILO local offices in many countries, or directly from ILO Publications, International Labour Office, CH-1211Geneva 22, Switzerland. Tel: +4122/799-7301; fax: +4122/799-6938; http://www.ilo.org. Catalogues or lists of new publications are available free of charge from the above address.The ILO Publications Center in the US can be contacted at tel: +301/638-3152; fax: +301/843-0159; E-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.un.org/depts/ilowbo.

Contains the English,French, Spanish and Germanterminology used by the ILOto index and retrieve infor-mation recorded in the CentralLibrary’s LABORDOC database, specialized informationservices of other ILO depart-ments, and labour librarieselsewhere.

■■■■■ An outline of recentdevelopments concerningequality issues in employ-ment for labour court judgesand assessors. Jane Hodges-Aeberhard. ILO, Geneva. ISBN92-2-111004-4

During its activities, theEquality and Human RightsCoordination Branch saw aneed for greater understand-ing by labour court and in-dustrial tribunal judges andassessors, as well as by otherofficials at the national level,of equality issues such as equalremuneration for work ofequal value, sexual harass-ment at the workplace andunjustified dismissals of

workers affected by the humanimmunodeficiency virus(HIV) or the acquired im-mune deficiency syndrome(AIDS). It was thus decidedto prepare this brochure astraining material to sensitizejudges, assessors and thesocial partners, where theyplay a role in the labour courtjurisdiction, to new devel-opments and to provide somecomparative insights as tohow international and nationalinstances are dealing withthese issues.

That there is a vacuum isnot surprising, given thatpublic awareness of thesesubjects has really onlyemerged in the last decade.Moreover, the major increasein ILO technical assistanceto member States in refor-mulating their labour legis-lation often includes provid-ing information only to thesocial partners on the newtexts and training relatedthereto. It has become evi-dent, however, that there isalso a need to extend suchinformation to the newlycreated or revamped judicialauthorities who are to imple-ment the laws. Following theNovember 1995 decision ofthe ILO Governing Body toreach out to a broader sectorof society, it was decided todraw attention to certain re-cent developments in thisfield.

■■■■■ Structural and regu-latory changes and globali-zation in postal and telecom-

munications services: Thehuman resources dimensionISBN 92-2-110966-6. Swissfrancs 17.50. This reportwas preparedby the Inter-national La-bour Officeas the basisfor discus-sions at theT r i p a r t i t eMeeting onthe HumanR e s o u r c e sDimension ofS t r u c t u r a land Regula-tory Changesand Globalization in Postaland TelecommunicationsServices.

Its five chapters review theregulatory and structuralchanges which have occurred

in the 1990s; in particular,the processes often linked toliberalization and privatiza-

tion, and theireffects on thestructure andlevel of em-p l o y m e n t ,training andretraining ofemployees, aswell as on la-bour relationsand the partici-pation ofworkers in theprocess ofchange.

E a c hchapter con-

tains a brief introduction anda short conclusion. The re-port concludes with a list ofsuggested points for discus-sion.


(cont’d from p. 25)

Despite the fact that there wereno “major” wars in 1997, murder,intimidation and censorship contin-ued to take a heavy toll on journal-ists and media workers, accordingto the International Federation ofJournalists (IFJ). In a new report,the IFJ said 47 journalists and mediaworkers were killed while carryingout their work in 1997, the samenumber as in 1996. Added the IFJ:“People continue to believe thatjournalists are mainly killed in warzones, but the figures tell a differentstory.”

“Over the last two years, the annualnumbers have levelled out at 40, alarge number of which are eitherinvestigative journalists or journal-ists killed for political or religiousreasons,” the IFJ said in its annualreport on the subject, adding thatan additional seven deaths amongmedia workers or staff brought the1997 total to 47. The highest figurereported in the past decade by theIFJ was 120 journalists and mediaworkers killed in 1994, many of themduring the genocide in Rwanda. (SeeChart)

In its 1997 report, the IFJ said“it was a year in which killings inLatin America trebled, and Russiabecame the single country where themost journalists and media workerswere killed in the exercise of jour-nalism.”

The IFJ lists all journalists killed

while working or because of theirwork and makes no distinctionbetween a correspondent caught inthe crossfire while covering a warand the violent death of other jour-nalists killed on assignment. In somecases, especially in Latin Americaand the countries of the former SovietUnion, the IFJ said, it is difficulteven to find the specific motive forthe killing.

“There is no doubt that more mustbe done to protect journalists, whichis why the IFJ has launched a draftinternational code of practice formedia professionals to ensure thatlife insurance, medical assistance,risk-awareness training and socialprotection are provided for jour-nalists,” the report said.

“It looks like the death toll willcontinue until the killing of jour-nalists is regarded as unacceptableby those in a position to make itstop,” says Cailin Mackenzie, IFJHuman Rights Officer. “Pious state-ments of regret are not enough. Weneed practical actions to isolate thekillers and to defend democracy.”

Source: IFJ Directline newsletter January/February 1998

Further information or a copy of the reportis available from: International Federation ofJournalists, 266 rue Royale, 1210 BrusselsBelgiumPhone: +322/223.2265Fax: +322/219.2976http://www.ifj.org

IFJ Report: New code needed

* Journalists and media staff listed separately only since 1994 (Source: IFJ)

75

18

75

115

5

15

120

61

6 4

67

38

9 11

47

0

20

40

60

80

100

1201993*

1994

19951996

N.A.

Total killedUnder investiga-tion or missing

Media-staffkilled

Journalistskilled

War on the Media:Journalists Killed,Missing or FateUnknown...

1997

40

715

47

Murder, intimidation continue to take brutal tollon media workers in 1997David A. Morse of the ILO

Named Labor Hall of FameHonoree for 1997

Morse honoured in Washington, Geneva

David A. Morse, the ILO Director-General between 1948 and 1970 hasbeen honoured with a place in the U.S.Labour Hall of Fame and has had astreet named for him in Geneva. Theinduction to the Hall of Fame took placein Washington, D.C. on 29 January 1998.More recently, the City of Genevadesignated a street south of the ILObuilding “Allée David-MORSE”. Amongthe dignitaries participating in theceremony were Mrs. David Morse, whocame from the United States for theceremony, Geneva city officials, ILODirector-General Michel Hansenne,former ILO Director-General FrancisBlanchard and former U.N. Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar.

WorkingWorld


Creating more, higher quality and better paid jobs is anuphill struggle in today’s environment of growing competitionand unpredictable markets. And finding jobs is today the mainstruggle in the lives of hundreds of millions of people whoare out of work, under-employed or stuck in demeaning jobsto just meet their basic needs. One of the few options availableto many such people is setting up their own small businesses.This option is at the core of the new ILO International SmallEnterprise Programme. ISEP consolidates and expands pre-vious ILO efforts in favour of micro and small-enterprisedevelopment as a response to this growing global problem.

ISEP: A major ILO effort to win thestruggle for more and better jobs

In a majority of countries today, most new jobs are createdby small enterprises (which, under ISEP, also comprise micro-enterprises). Such enterprises are the true engines of economicgrowth and employment. Unlocking their job creation potentialis ISEP’s goal. It will achieve it by addressing the numerousconstraints which prevent small enterprises from achievingtheir full potential in a systematic and integrated manner.

The ILO: The right host for ISEP

ISEP’s dual objective of creating more as well as quality jobs– in line with international labour standards – is at the coreof the ILO’s mandate.

● ISEP builds on ILO’s long experience and extensiveresearch in labour matters, employment, skills and businesstraining and small-enterprise promotion, as well as a largetechnical cooperation programme.

● ISEP will benefit from the ILO’s extensive field struc-ture, particularly its 15 Multidisciplinary Teams, and the in-ternational training centre in Turin, ensuring that interventionsare demand-driven and relevant to the needs and wishes oflocal partners.

● The ILO’s unique tripartite structure will facilitate buildingthe necessary consensus on ways to achieve ISEP’s goals.

● ISEP will also help implement the forthcoming ILORecommendation on “General conditions to stimulate job creationin small and medium enterprises”.

How will ISEP achieveits objectives?

ISEP is a flexible and demand-driven programme responsiveto the evolving needs of its local partners.

● ISEP will capitalize on ILO experience in employmentand small enterprise promotion acquired over the last 20 years.This enabled the Organization to develop not only in-houseexpertise, but also a global network of partner institutions,agencies and individual experts involved in small enterprisepromotion.

● ISEP willconsolidate theseprevious efforts asa centre of excel-lence for smallenterprise promo-tion and develop-ment. It will alsointegrate the largenumber of ongoingILO small enter-prise-related pro-grammes; incorpo-rate ILO expertisein employmentpolicy, businessservices develop-ment, micro-finance, occupational safety and health and socialprotection; and use the extensive ILO field structure to achievemaximum outreach and impact.

● ISEP plans to develop additional innovative, high-impact and cost-effective approaches based on sound action-oriented research and best practice. These will be disseminatedfor replication by others to maximize outreach.

● ISEP will strive to assure that job quality be an integralpart of this programme, in line with international labour standards.

● ISEP will work with donors in order to mobilize theresources required to meet these ambitious goals. These resourceswill complement the ILO’s own important contributions tothis programme.

International Small Enterprise Programme (ISEP)

Unlocking the job-creationpotential of small enterprises

ISEP is a comprehensive, integrated, high-impactand cost-effective programme specifically designed tohelp small enterprises to unlock their potential forcreating jobs. It is available to all countries which wishto avail themselves of the ILO’s long experience inthis area. It fosters an entrepreneurial spirit and helpssmall enterprises create more jobs and improve theirquality and sustainability in an increasingly compet-itive environment.

Ultimate beneficiariesUltimately, ISEP benefits those trying to escape the

cycle of unemployment and poverty. The ultimatebeneficiaries of the programme are the millions ofexisting and potential small enterprises which are barelysurviving. Among these, ISEP will pay special attention

to small enterprises headed by women in view of thegender-specific constraints they face. Given the rightbusiness environment and support, ISEP’s benefici-aries could grow into competitive and profitable en-terprises able to meet the challenges of globalization.

ISEP partnersISEP operates through cooperation with local part-

ners involved in small-enterprise development. This isa cost-effective approach to maximize the outreach ofISEP’s services. Governments, Employers’ and Work-ers’ Organizations, chambers of commerce and asso-ciations of small enterprises are some of ISEP’s part-ners. Full involvement of these partners in the devel-opment of ISEP is an important goal pursued by theprogramme.

ISEP: AN OVERVIEW


ISEP priorities for action

ISEP has drawn up five priority areas for action to ease themost pressing constraints faced by small enterprises.

1. Improving impactISEP is developing and field-testing ways to improve theimpact of direct assistance to small enterprises so that it mayreach more enterprises, be cost-effective and improve jobquality. This effort focuses on the design, management, deliveryand use of direct assistance, and prepares impact assessmentmethods and benchmarks. It also explores the growth dynamicsof enterprises and ways of disseminating best practice in orderto improve the overall efficiency of small-enterprise devel-opment efforts.

2. Promoting a supportive business environmentA supportive framework of policies and regulations is a key

requirement for mi-cro and small-enter-prise development.ISEP develops toolsand guidelines toassist policy andregulatory analysisand to encourage con-sultations among thesocial partners to re-duce such con-straints. ISEP actionin this area will besupplemented bydemand-driven re-search on key issues.3. Facilitating ac-

cess to financial servicesDifficulties in finding adequate financial resources for invest-ment and working capital are a major hurdles faced by smallenterprises. ISEP will develop guidelines and training ma-terials to facilitate integration into the financial market bysmall enterprises, and to facilitate their direct access to finances.

4. Improving access to business servicesISEP will design effective approaches to improve access ofsmall enterprises to quality and relevant business services,profitable markets, information and training. This will helpthem address problems such as low productivity, low workers’skills, weak management, poor innovation and poor accessto information. Special attempts will be made to ensure thatservice providers are capable of achieving financial sustainabilityand play a significant role in small-enterprise promotion atthe local level. Similarly, ISEP will strengthen linkages withinthe private sector in order to widen the range of businessservices to small enterprises.

5. Promoting quality jobsPromoting quality jobs in small enterprises is an integral componentof the programme. ISEP will emphasize measures to ensurethat jobs created by small enterprises are also of high quality.It will use guidelines, training and awareness campaigns toimprove working conditions, safety and health, and the overallsocial protection of workers. ISEP intends to collaborate closelywith the ILO’s other major programme on the eliminationof child labour (IPEC).

ISEP outputs

ISEP’s activities will yield a number of specific outputs:

– Advisory services

To assist ISEP’s local partners to design effective policiesand programmes for small enterprise creation and growth.– Publications– Guidelines, training manuals and technical reports relatedto ISEP’s priorities for action– Conferences and meetings

To exchange information and successful experiences, debatemajor issues and plan joint activities and events with ISEP’slocal partners and international small-enterprise developmentagencies.– Technical assistance

Technical and financial support for small-enterprise devel-opment programmes and projects initiated by ISEP’s localpartners.

ISEP: Forward looking, flexibleand innovative

ISEP aims at remaining forward looking, flexible and in-novative. Although ISEP’s fundamental task is to promotesmall enterprises at the local level, it has global resourcesand provides integrated solutions based on best practice andexperience worldwide. It is intended to actively shape theglobal debate on the role of small enterprises in job creation,and develop innovative efforts which take into account bothqualitative and quantitative concerns.

Small enterprises face a rapidly changing and increasinglycompetitive environment. This calls for new approaches tounlock their potential for quality job creation. ISEP will conductcontinuous action-oriented research to anticipate tomorrow’sneeds and develop forward-looking and effective solutions formicro and small-enterprise development.

ISEP intends to be an innovative, unique, dynamic andevolving response to the global employment crisis. Backedby the combined resources of the ILO, ISEP will extend provenILO methods worldwide. In the struggle for more and betterjobs, it can provide the winning edge.

Jacq

ue

s M

aill

ard

Small enterprise in Hungary.


No.

24,

Apr

il 19

98

International Small Enterprise Programme (ISEP)

Unlockingthe job-creation potential

of small enterprises

programme consolidates and expandsprevious ILO efforts in favour ofmicro and small-enterprise develop-ment as a response to this growingglobal problem.

I SEP is a comprehensive pro-gramme specifically designed to helpsmall enterprises unlock their job-creation potential. It is available toall countries which wish to availthemselves of the ILO’s long experi-ence in this area. It fosters an entre-preneurial spirit and helps smallenterprises create more jobs andimprove their quality andsustainability in an increasingly com-petitive environment.

For more information, contact:

International Small Enterprise Programme(ISEP)Enterprise and Cooperative DevelopmentDepartmentInternational Labour OfficeCH1211, Geneva 22, SwitzerlandTel: +4122/799-6420Fax: +4122/799-7978e-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ilo.org/entreprise

Finding agood and sustain-able job today canbe a struggle forsurvival. In much of

the world, workersbattle with precariousjobs, low wages, poor

working conditions andinadequate social protection.

Sustainable development whichdeliberately puts human developmentat centre stage is the only long-termsolution. This means creating more,higher-quality and better-paid jobsallowing people to be truly productiveand to use the skills and resourcesavailable to them. But creating suchjobs is an uphill struggle in today’senvironment of growing competitionand less predictable markets.

One of the few options availableto millions of people is setting up asmall business. This is at the heartof the new ILO International SmallEnterprise Programme. The ISEP

an ilo special reportan ilo special report maternity ... · child labour dates back over a quarter...

Documents