an exploratory study on the reintegration route of ex-drug convicts
TRANSCRIPT
Graduation Project Number: HSa15_76
NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES
An exploratory study on the reintegration route of ex-drug convicts – Obstacles leading to re-entry
and proposed policies to prevention of re-entry.
A Final Year Project submitted to the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nanyang
Technological University in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Sociology
Year of Publication: 2016
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ABSTRACT: Ex-drug convicts are a marginalized group of individuals in Singapore’s society that
have often been neglected of society’s support. Upon release, these individuals find themselves posed
with a myriad of obstacles as they attempt to start a new life. This paper will be exploring the various
types of personal obstacles and obstacles caused by social forces based on two sociological theories –
stigma and life course journey. Findings suggest that when the obstacles become too overwhelming
for the individuals to handle, ex-drug convicts return to drugs as an alternative solution, which result
in their eventual re-entry into either prison or DRC. This paper also includes a comparative study
between personal and social obstacles, to analyze which is more detrimental in causing the individual
to be unable to break free from drugs. Lastly, this paper includes recommended solutions that aim to
help ex- drug convicts reintegrate successfully with society.
KEY WORDS: ex-drug convicts; obstacles faced during reintegration; Singapore; stigma; life course
journey; recommended solutions to prevention of re-entry
Total Word Count: 9986
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Contextual Background ...................................................................................................................... 4
Stigma ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Life Course Journey ............................................................................................................................ 5
Solutions to ease reintegration with society ........................................................................................ 6
3. Research Question .............................................................................................................................. 8
4. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Search and criteria for potential interviewees ..................................................................................... 9
Interviews ............................................................................................................................................ 9
5. Demographics of Respondents.......................................................................................................... 10
6. Various types of obstacles ................................................................................................................ 11
Personal obstacles ............................................................................................................................. 11
Obstacles caused by social forces ..................................................................................................... 15
Comparison between personal obstacles or social forces ................................................................. 20
7. Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. 22
Religion ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Family ............................................................................................................................................... 22
State .................................................................................................................................................. 23
8. Limitations and future research possibilities .................................................................................... 24
9. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 25
References ............................................................................................................................................. 26
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1. Introduction
In Singapore, the limelight shines on “prevention of drug abuse” (Central Narcotics Bureau 2014) via
a two prong method – traditional media coverage that is regulated by the government and the
government’s iron fist laws towards drug abuse including penalties such as up to ten years
imprisonment or SGD $20,000 fine or both if anyone is found to have possessed or consumed
cannabis (Central Narcotics Bureau 2014). The focus on drug prevention draws attention away from
ex-drug convicts and obstacles that they face when attempting to start a new life after release. Despite
being a constantly growing social group, as reported in 2015 by Central Narcotics Bureau (CNB) that
it arrested 1684 drug abusers in the first half of 2015, an increase of 8% from the 1560 drug abusers
arrested in the first half of 2014, limited mentions about ex-drug convicts easily create the assumption
that Singapore is free from drugs abuse. On the contrary, the drug-abuse scene in Singapore is not half
dead (Frois 2013).
The focus on anti-drugs abuse creates the social discourse that any member associated with this social
group is unaccepted by society. By bearing a label of affiliation to this social group, members find
themselves posed with various social obstacles after incarceration. Coupled with their skills or lack of,
their identity, now stained with a mark of deviation, charters them into shallow waters with limited
offers that encourages successful reintegration, as society condemns and tends to be unwilling to offer
second chances.
High barriers of entry in starting a new life, coupled with limited support from family and close
friends, more public support and encouragement in giving them a second chance (Prem 2013) are
instrumental towards helping these marginalized individuals to break away from drugs and reintegrate
successfully into society. Analysis of past research studies will prove if the above assumption is valid.
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2. Contextual Background
Limited local-based research on ex-drug convicts will require cross-referencing from other first world
countries such as the United States of America where an abundance of literature is easily accessible.
Although the context of USA and Singapore differs greatly, the general trend of obstacles faced are
universally similar. Nevertheless, because of the sheer difference in population size, the number of ex-
drug addicts released in USA differs greatly from Singapore and this is significant because with fewer
drug-addicts released each year, it means more governmental and public help for individuals after
incarceration. As such, referencing from the USA case study on ex-drug convicts is useful for the
purpose of this study as it helps to provide good background knowledge, however, it must be noted
that not every economic or social obstacles faced by former convicts in USA will be similar to the
obstacles faced by ex-drug addicts in Singapore.
Stigma
Weaving Goffman’s labeling theory into this research project, his work focuses on the stigmatizing
consequences for an individual, where the very label itself has the power to spoil the sufferer’s
identity, both personal and social (Crinson 2007). There are two types of stigma, ‘enacted stigma’
deriving from societal reaction which may produce actual discrimination and ‘felt stigma’ which is
the imagined social reaction which may affect a person’s self-identity (Crinson 2007). For this
research project, the focus is on enacted stigma, to explore how responses from society cause high
barriers of entry for ex-drug convicts to start a new life after incarceration. The ex-convict label
causes far-reaching consequences that influences and structures the former felon’s reintegration into
society. This label draws an invisible line that differentiates them greatly from their community.
Former inmates share that the enduring felon label (Uggen, Manza and Behrens 2004) and the stigma
of having a criminal record can loom over them for a lifetime (McLaughlin 2012).
The study of stigma resonates with Becker’s work that rules of deviance label these individuals or
social group as outsiders (Crinson 2007). For instance, laws in USA sets ex-convicts apart from non
ex-convicts by creating certain limitations to ex-convicts such as exclusion in voting (McLaughlin
2012) and these restrictions creates a discourse that questions whether these ex-felons truly belong to
society. Also, applying the insider versus outsider perspective (Merton 1972), former inmates are
outsiders who are unaware of changes in the community when they were incarcerated. Time stood
still for these former inmates whereas “the community underwent significant economic, technological
and social changes” (Thompson 2004:256) that insiders take for granted. The insiders will be
“familiar with all the norms of conduct, the formal and informal structures that exist in the community,
and the relationships that govern how residents interact and thrive” (Thompson 2004:256). These
social factors create a steep learning curve for former inmates to learn and adapt quickly so as to fit
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into the community. However, with the discourse of “us and them” (Wodak 2011:54) that
discriminates ex-convicts as outcasts of society and with the lack of social support from their
community, many find themselves being unable to achieve the goals they had set for themselves
initially after release when social obstacles posed at them are too overwhelming for them to handle.
As a result, more than often, they are left on their own to navigate their release and required to
reintegrate successfully into the community which offers minimal support for them.
Stigma produces prejudices and prejudices causes discriminatory action towards particular social
groups. Discrimination practices affect ex-convicts after their release when seeking employment such
as increasing reluctance among employers to hire ex-offenders (Hickox, Roehling 2010). Employers’
reluctance in hiring someone with an ex-convict label, even when he appears to be qualified (Hickox,
Roehling 2010) is reflected through the increasing practice of potential employee background checks.
65% of all employers in 5 major USA cities surveyed stated that they would not knowingly hire an
ex-offender, regardless of the offense (Petersilia 2003). As such, the ex-convict label reflects them as
less desirable employment applicants. Moreover, even when ex-convicts manage to gain employment,
they may be forced to accept lower wages (Schmitt and Warner 2010) as their label limits any form of
law protection against such discriminatory practices and they have to accept a low paying job instead
of being unemployed. As employees’ background check and salary are largely determined by the
employer, these factors are beyond the ability of ex-drug convicts to influence and more than often,
such practices leave them with very limited legal job options, pushing them towards looking for
alternative solutions such as selling drugs for survival. Constant engagement with drugs only
increases chances of re-entry1 into prison or DRC.
Life Course Journey
Facing a mired of economic challenges such as accumulating debts during incarceration, among other
obstacles hinder progression towards starting afresh. Many of these economic challenges stem from
the individual’s skills developed throughout his life course journey. The general trend reflects that it is
due to a lack of education on top of having in possession a prison record, limits employment prospects
to only low skilled, low paying jobs. However there are also cases of highly educated individuals who
face job discriminations as well.
Occupational restrictions (Uggen, Manza and Bhrens 2004) is a common obstacle posed to ex-
convicts. Applying Bourdieu’s theory on habitués, ex-convicts develop certain negative lifestyle
habits from young due to the lack of positive guidance and instead, due to negative social
surroundings, they develop negative habits such as smoking and drinking, resulting in a lack of
1 Re-entry refers to entering into prison or DRC after the first or previous release.
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interest in studying and eventually dropping out of school prematurely. Thus, they lack the necessary
identification papers (Thompson and Mukamal 2006) to apply for jobs that offer good employment
prospects. Seeking employment becomes immensely challenging for them as many remain
uneducated and unskilled (Petersilia 2003) after their release. Furthermore, qualitative research shows
that contact with the criminal justice system negatively affects both employment and income
(Freeman 1991) as distrust and fear inevitably tags along (Petersilia 2003) to a prison record. Most ex-
drug convicts upon release, do not succeed, and failures occur rather quickly (Petersilia 2003), with
2/3 of those being on parole being arrested within three years (Beck and Shipley 1987). With a lack of
qualifications accumulated throughout the ex-convicts’ life course, it disqualifies them from many
possible job opportunities after their release.
Furthermore, limited by the occupational restrictions mentioned above, it results in a “reduction in
men’s wages, slows down the rate of wage growth, increases unemployment and even shorten job
tenure” (Western 2006:139). Such economic effects of incarceration will decrease the likelihood of
marriage among men who have been to prison (Western 2006), and this economic obstacle that men
has to overcome doubles up as a social obstacle for him to overcome as well. Economic obstacles
contribute to a vicious cycle that forces individuals to face a wide range of obstacles making it
virtually impossible for them to pursue legitimate means of survival (Thompson 2004). Furthermore,
after being incarcerated for long, former inmates will have even fewer legal contacts as compared to
pre-incarceration. Despite keenness in turning over a new leaf, the basic need for survival drives many
who are unable to overcome the challenges posed along the legal path, to return to their old ways, as
the alternative path offers more money making opportunities.
Solutions to ease reintegration with society
Many ex-felons mentioned the importance of ground up effort to provide assistance for successful
reintegration. Key social institutions such as family, religion and the state play pivotal roles in
offering ex-felons second chances.
Symbolic internationalism theory refers to the process of interaction in the formation meanings for
individuals (Blumer 1969). It is understood that individuals’ identity develop through interaction with
society as they seek stable and coherent identities. New identities motivates, impels behavior and are
eventually stabilized by role commitments (Schwartz and Stryker 1970:263). With a commitment to
new roles, it reduces the likelihood of criminal behavior (Uggen, Manza and Bhrens 2004). The most
basic social institution, family, is one of the key motivational factors for ex-felons in their
reintegration with society. Emphasized by many authors, family is pivotal for ex-felons to recover,
adapt and reintegrate into the community. Through the process of “reflected appraisal” which is
grounded in Cooley’s concept of the “looking glass” (1902) and in Mead’s idea of “role-taking”
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(Mecca, Smelser, Vasconcellos 1989:39), meanings are informed by interpretations of the reactions of
others. Thus, the approval and support by family members to ex-felons is much needed by them.
Religious institutions or self-help volunteer religious groups which are privately operated, mostly by
those who once walked the path, are also key in assisting ex-convicts reintegration with society. By
providing services to cater to the various needs of the ex-convicts such as offering accommodation to
individuals fresh out of prison, counseling and even training skills, that will better equip these ex-
convicts in their attempt to reintegrate with society, are important to keep them from returning to their
old ways (Mokhtar 2013).
Lastly, the state is important as the “symbolic meaning of citizenship is a status bestowed on those
who are full members” (Uggen, Manza and Bhrens 2004). A felony conviction strips the offender of
the most basic rights of citizenship including the rights to vote. It is important for the state to identify
areas where they can better facilitate prisoner return to their communities (Thompson and Mukamal
2006). Suggestions include using laws to alleviate barriers to entry in the workforce, or offering tax
credits to employers who hire hard-to-place individuals. By doing so, the discourse it reflects that the
law supports this group of individuals and the community will eventually be more receptive towards
them as well.
In conclusion, from the United States case study, we can refer to the various policies or even ground
up recommendations that Singapore can adopt so as to better facilitate ex-convicts’ reintegration into
society. However, factors such as the culture, the political context of USA and Singapore varies, and
not all are suitable to apply in Singapore’s context, but the mentioned case studies are good for
references. Undoubtedly, the road for ex-drug convicts after release will be a lengthy and difficult
process, that requires full support from both the society and the law.
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3. Research Question
Past and present researches have acknowledged the various obstacles faced by ex-convicts in their
reintegration route. In Singapore, it is likewise very challenging for the ex-drug convicts here and
many succumb to drugs again when obstacles prove too overwhelming for them to cope. They
eventually find themselves re-entering prison or Drug Rehabilitation Centre (DRC)2. As such, the
focus for this research project is only on ex-drug convicts, and criteria in choosing suitable
respondents will be covered in section 4. Indeed, it is sociologically intriguing to question what are
the obstacles leading to their continuous re-entry and being unable to break free from the bondage of
drugs. The theoretical framework for this research paper is grounded on two sociological concepts –
social stigma and individual life course journey.
The main assumption in this paper:
1. The inability to break free from drugs will increase chances of re-entry
Significance of this paper includes identifying the various types of obstacles experienced by ex-drug
convicts, so as to contribute to the current limited local research which mostly focuses only on
obstacles caused by social forces. As such, in addition to the obstacles caused by social’s
stigmatization, this paper aims to explore and identify the personal obstacles that ex-drug convicts
face due to his life course journey. To increase the depth of this analysis, comparisons will be made
between the personal and social to analyse which is more detrimental in causing the individual to be
unable to break away from drugs. The focus is on ex-drug convicts instead of all ex-convicts to
narrow on the crime committed - drug abuse. Inclusion of all ex-convicts will increase the layers of
complexity, which requires more time and manpower to conduct the research. Also as compared to
other crimes committed, many (ex-drug convicts) find it difficult to break free from the bondage of
drugs… after their release from prison” (Catholic News, 2006).
2 The difference between the DRC and prison is that, should one get caught for consuming drugs, he
will be sentenced to the DRC. However, should one get caught for bringing harm to others due to
the effects of drug usage, he will be charged in court and will face a jail term.
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4. Methodology
Search and criteria for potential interviewees
Three methods were adopted to search for suitable respondents. The first method was to research via
online platforms such as Google to approach halfway houses. Approaching halfway houses were a
reliable option as they are private DRCs that provide in-house programmes to help drug convicts
reintegrate back to society. They house many former drug convicts-turned-counsellors who have a
wealth of experiences to share. Out of 15 houses approached, only 2 acceded to my request. Reasons
for their rejection include the need to protect their members’ privacy. Internet research was further
used to widen the pool of respondents and although five potential respondents were found, however
only one was willing to be interviewed. Applying the snowballing technique, which was the second
method used, it led to one respondent recommending another suitable respondent. Through the last
method - word of mouth, 3 more respondents were found. These 3 different methods increase the
validity of this study as respondents come from various backgrounds. With a pool of 15 respondents,
allowing for a wide scope of analysis, it increases the reliability of this project. Fortunately all 15
respondents fulfilled the following 2 requirements:
1. Have entered either prison or DRC more than once for drugs related offenses
2. Have successfully stopped drug consumption at the point of interview session
Interviews
Across 4 months, semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted to study in depth through the
lens of ex-drug convicts on the obstacles they faced after incarceration. For this sensitive topic, the
benefit of using semi-structured interviews allowed the interviewer to build up rapport with the
respondents quickly so that through open-ended questions, it was possible to tease out the nuances of
obstacles faced by each respondent. Additionally, other important components for the interviews to be
successful include pilot testing interview questions to ensure that questions can be understood by
individuals not trained with the sociological framework. Necessary changes were made to the
interview questionnaire after the pilot test. Also, being proficient in both English and Mandarin was
necessary to conduct the interviews in both languages. Pilot tests were also conducted in both
languages to ensure high accuracy. Furthermore, as this project deals with highly sensitive individuals,
the privacy of respondents are protected by assigning each respondent a unique alias code. No photos
or videos were recorded during the interviews. Lastly, an ideal venue to conduct the interview was
critical in protecting the respondents’ reputation. To ensure personal protection as well, interviews
were conducted in quiet public places such as in a corner of a less populated café. Each interview
lasted between thirty minutes to an hour.
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5. Demographics of Respondents
The following table reflects the demographic data of all 15 respondents interviewed for this research
project.
Image 1.1
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6. Various types of obstacles
- “Drugs are like a monkey hooked onto your back” (Respondent D)
Based on the sociological framework of this paper, this section will be organized into three segments
– personal obstacles, obstacles caused by social forces and lastly a comparison between personal
obstacles and social forces. The last segment of this section will discuss if agency or social forces play
a more crucial role in preventing ex-drug convicts’ break away from drugs.
Personal obstacles
The life course journey plays a significant role in understanding the obstacles posed at the individual
in his later part of life. A chronological study of the individual, starting from causation factors that
shape the individual’s choice of social groups and choice of lifestyle habits that he ascribes will
enable an in-depth understanding of the factors causing the continuous usage of drugs. During the
interviews, Respondent G confidently declared “no matter how much ‘external’3 help is provided is
insufficient, because the ‘internal’4 never go out”. The ‘bad internal’ has to go away so that the
‘external’, such as family and community support, can complement and be useful to help the ex-drug
convict reintegrate successfully back into society. In essence, the individual plays a crucial role in
determining his own path and many respondents agreed to this ethos.
6.1 Lack of education
Education is an essential part of an individual’s life course journey. Many respondents shared that
they started consuming drugs at the age of about 13 - 15 years old and dropped out of school few
years after they started, without completing their secondary school education. Reasons for their
delinquent behaviour at such a young age are due mainly to poor family upbringing, bad company’s
influences or simply uninterested in studying. Many respondents shared that they either come from
single-parent family or their parents are too busy working. Without proper family guidance on the
importance of studies, they lost interest in studying. They joined friends who similarly dropped out of
school prematurely and join big brother groups.
We joined these big brother groups because we had true friends, protection and even job
opportunities such as such going house to house to collect functional but unwanted items
and the older ones will assist in running gambling dens. And we get paid good money,
my big brother used to give me $10 a day, while my own mother gave me only $2. Of
course I am attracted to work for him which is why I left school. (Respondent K)
3 ‘external’ refers to support or aid from the individual’s family or social community 4 Internal’ refers to the individual’s habit of drug consumption
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As the Chinese saying goes 近朱者赤，近墨者黑 which in English means one is heavily influenced
by the nature of environment he is in. Prestigious as it may seem to the adolescents then, the offered
job opportunities are in fact jobs that do not require much educational knowledge. As a result of
spending long hours of time in such big brother gangs which is usually associated with bad company,
the respondents picked up smoking and drinking habits as it would seem cowardly not to do what the
others are doing. Adopting the same mentality, it eventually led to their eventual succumb to
consuming pills when ‘older brothers’ consumed pills. Spending long hours with such bad company
did not equip these adolescents with the necessary skills and values for one’s future. As such, after
their incarceration, many ex-drug addicts find themselves being unable to find a job. Their lack of
education places them at a huge disadvantage, furthermore, society has transformed so quickly during
their years of incarceration that English and technology has become the main tools needed when
seeking employment.
I am not good in computer and technology; I am very slow with it even till now. (Did this
affect you when you were looking for a job after release?) Yes, everything requires
English and the computer nowadays. Without these two skills it’s very hard to survive in
this world. Last time never finish school that’s why now like that. (Respondent N)
This predicament reflects one of the general obstacles that many respondents face. Due to their life
course sequence starting with poor family upbringing that resulted in them dropping out of school
prematurely and because of the lack of education, they are unprepared for the rapid changes in society.
With a lack of education certificates, on top of a prison record, these factors made finding jobs in
Singapore even more challenging.
In Singapore you cannot no job. Everything in Singapore need money. You know
everything so expensive nowadays. With no money, people become desperate. Some end
up going back to drugs because they sell drugs in order to earn some money to survive.
When they have so many drugs on them, they will start “itchy5” and then you know what
will happen lah, start taking drugs again lor. (Respondent P)
As reflected, the life course journey plays a critical role in affecting individuals in their lives. Some
succumb to pills in the process as stress builds up when they are unable to find a job, others for other
reasons relating to a lack of good education background. However the lack of education and the
5 “Backside-itchy” is an informal way of suggesting that the individual has fallen to the temptation of taking drugs again.
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consequential bleak prospects are a result of personal choices and hence is a personal obstacle the
individual has to overcome.
6.2 Toxic habits
Formation of habitués is all part of an individual’s life course journey. The respondents were at their
prime age of adolescents where views and mentality start being developed. However, as part of the
big brother gangs, where smoking and drinking is part of the social group’s norm, such deviant
activities became a habitual activity. It also became habitual to hang out with friends till wee hours of
the morning. Such habits became internalized within the individual that such toxic habits developed as
part of their personal comfort zone.
(So when you were inside, did you feel remorseful or did you miss your friends?) When
in DRC I will think about and also miss the old night spots where I used to hang out
together with my friends to drink or what not. (Friends as in bad company…?) Yes them.
(Respondent B)
As such, upon release, it is very natural for the respondents to return and to seek solace in their
comfort zone. However, according to Respondent F, ‘excessive alcohol consumption is a precursor
for a relapse in consuming drugs’ as the ex-drug convicts will give in easily to the temptations of
drugs when they are not fully conscious. Once the consumption of drugs starts again, it will be
challenging for any ex-drug addict to stop.
Additionally, part of most respondents’ growing years was tuned to pushing away advice by family
members. As such, this deeply ingrained habit contributes to their constant return to drugs and the
eventual return to prison or DRC.
(How did your family try to help you?) They advised me to stop working at night clubs,
and they even suggest other jobs to me. But I think that they don’t know what I like and
what I need. Job cannot anyhow one because I need a job that will keep me very busy,
because once free then will start thinking of other things. But this they don’t know lah.
(So what happened?) I just ignore lor, and continue working at pubs. That’s why I still
maintain in contact with some of my ‘old friends’ and that’s why went back to drugs and
got caught. (Respondent H)
Receiving family’s advice as ‘naggings’ instead, respondents shared that they resolve such negative
run-in with family members by staying out late or simply leaving home. By staying out in the night
constantly cause them to be susceptible to bad company and old lifestyle habits such as smoking,
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consuming alcohol and drugs. As these decisions are personal choices made by respondents, they are
to shoulder responsibility for their continued re-entry into prison or DRC. Notably, reasons leading to
making such life style choices was because of the bad habits that have been ingrained in them
throughout their life course journey.
6.3 Personal Escape
In the study of life course journey of ex-drug convicts who relapsed, there are in fact many personal
causation factors. stemming from family, employment and even health issues. Respondents mentioned
succumbing to drugs after being unable to resolve their personal problems, despite knowing of the
consequences of consuming drugs again.
(What was so special about drugs?) Drugs allowed me to escape and forget all of my
problems. They gave me confidence like I used to be quite shy but after taking drugs, I
can talk very well to girls… that is the power of drugs. (Respondent F)
I was doing well at work but I had so much stress coming from my family. My mother
was suffering from senile-dementia however none of my siblings were willing to take
care of her and I had to take care of her alone and it became very taxing on me… Did
you watch Inception? It’s similar to Inception where the actors build things in their heads.
When under the influence of drugs, you get to create a virtual world in any way you
like… Simply, drugs make you happy. (Respondent M)
Indeed, drugs were a provider of virtual happiness, which many enjoyed over their harsh reality.
Drugs provided new identities or new worlds of their preference which made them happy. However,
dependence on drugs only grows deeper and they get addicted back to drugs once again unknowingly.
Each individual faces personal problems in their life course journey. However, methods to resolve the
various personal problems may not include drugs, unless the individual himself is habitualized in
using drugs as stress reliever. Thus by studying negative habits and personal problems together, it will
allow us to analyze that the individual is to be blamed for being unable to break away from drugs
because their attention is only focused on the positive effects of drugs.
In conclusion, the life course journey is a corner stone of the individual that inhibits him from
breaking away from the bondage of drugs, and thus resulting in high rates of re-entry. The decision to
resume consuming drugs is made voluntarily by the respondents and in fact, many choose to take it
because drugs became a “temporary solution” to their life problems. Additionally, coupled with their
toxic life style habits, eventually they will find themselves enmeshed once again in the drug scene and
their re-entry was just a matter of time. The above mentioned factors do not encompass all the
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obstacles faced by ex-drug convicts because some of the obstacles are created by social institutions,
which will be discussed in the next segment.
Obstacles caused by social forces
Focusing on the various social factors preventing respondents from being able to break away from the
bondage of drugs, this segment explores the different types of obstacles posed by different social
institutions and groups, starting from the most fundamental social structure, the family, to the
community level and the state. It must be noted that during the interviews, despite their adherence to
faulting themselves for their multiple re-entry, respondents unknowingly shared about their life being
greatly shaped by social forces around them that motivated them to continuously be engaged in the
drug scene.
6.4 Rejection by social institutions
Family as the bedrock of all social institutions shapes an individual’s identity. Many respondents
shared that upon release, the various forms of rejections by family members disillusioned their
thoughts of changing for the better. In fact, they perceive family members’ rejection as a form of
stigmatization against them as ‘ex-drug convicts’. As ‘ex-drug convicts’, they were less welcomed in
the family and this include changed door locks to prevent them from returning home. Others shared
experiences such as:
(Did you face rejection by family members?) Yes… can feel one. When I at home, they
seem to be very uncomfortable. Like they will keep all their valuables away… cos scared
I steal. So make me feel like unwanted at home, so I hardly go home lor, always stay
outside with friends. (Respondent E)
If anything in the house goes missing, they will look at me first, although they ever
meant to pin-point me for the missing items. Simply the trust is gone and it takes a very
long time to build up. I try very hard but without them to give me full support, very
difficult lah. So end up I also shifted out of the house. (Respondent G)
These examples exemplify how individuals, despite needing strong family support, however, due to
family’s stigmatizing against them as ‘ex-drug convicts’, it leads to the family members’ rejection. As
such, it reduces their motivation to stay away from drugs. Their discontinuous identity as a member
of the family confuses them at the stage where they required the support and trust of family members
most. Given that many could not have the needed support and trust from family members, they return
to their community of friends who do not stigmatize and reject them. However, this community of
friends are usually bad company that do not provide positive support to assist the newly released drug
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convict reintegrate successfully back into society. Thus, for respondents who have been pushed away
by family members, this key social institution is indeed responsible for incentivizing them towards
returning to drugs.
Other than the family, the state as a social institution also does not provide the much needed support
required by newly released drug convicts. Although the state has been increasingly showing support
for the after-care services for ex-felons which include ex-drug convicts in programmes such as the
Yellow Ribbon Programme, nevertheless, discourse towards ex-felons in general is still not positive.
In fact, in Singapore, ex drug convicts are branded with a mark that signifies that they have once been
charged to court for drug related offenses and jailed. The mark stays with them for their entire life
time. This mark, although by itself has not stigmatizing effect, however, it is the connotations labeled
to the mark. In fact, connotations form as a result of the state’s discourse that causes individuals with
this mark to be stigmatized against. The various ways that individuals are stigmatized against will be
covered in detail in the next two sections.
In countries such as Canada, the mark is gone after 5 years. However, in Singapore, the
mark stays and affects you for the rest of your life. (Respondent C)
Essentially, it is the implications of the ex-drug convict label, including negative connotations such as
‘unreliability’, ‘dishonesty’, ‘rebel’. As an Asian conservative society, the government takes an iron
fist approach towards clamming down on drug abuse. As such, the message sent across the various
social institutions is that consuming drugs is bad and society should not accept anyone who is known
to have taken drugs. As the state is responsible for creating the label that cause the mentality of ‘us’
and ‘them’ that has far reaching implications on the affected individuals, many ex-drug convicts being
unable to withstand the obstacles posed at them will end up falling through the cracks and failing in
their attempt to reintegrate with society.
(Why did you mention that you almost gave up your life after your 6th release?) I used to
think I was hopeless. Like no more hope. Want to find job also no one want to give me
second chance. Take very long to find job lor, so when finding that time, when free then
will anyhow think, so end up going back to drugs. (Respondent H)
6.5 Societal discrimination
As the underlying message driven across state institutions is negative towards former drug convicts,
communities in Singapore unconsciously adopt that mentality and become unwelcoming of
individuals branded with the former convict label.
17
Let’s be honest, Singapore is a judgmental society and the ex-drug convict label
represents a mark of lack of character and that it simply signifies that you are a bad
person. Singaporeans are trained to accept only excellence. Look at the schools, from
primary level, the government is trying to instill moral values in the students. From
young, we are taught that any mistake is seen as a deviation. Singapore is a society that
leaves no room for error. (Respondent M)
This general ethos by respondents was summed up neatly by Respondent M, that despite their efforts
to reintegrate successfully with society, societal discriminatory attitude towards them makes it an
uphill struggle for most of them. Despite efforts by the government to push out programmes such as
Yellow Ribbon Project, many Singaporeans are still not ready to accept ‘ex-drug convicts’ in their
society. Respondents shared that the effect of being stigmatized against by society was real, and
extremely hurtful especially when they reveal the truth when applying for jobs. Coupled with
rejection from family members, many end up with having no rooms above their heads and they
relapsed simply because they have given up on life with society’s refusal to give them a second
chance.
This discriminatory attitude extends to the workforce where many companies, even in the private
sector in Singapore are reserved in their hiring of former drug convicts. On the other hand, for those
who do hire, they practice discrimination towards ex-drug convicts. The latter are scrutinized and are
in fact paid lesser than what they deserve. For individuals who do not own up their drug offence
earlier at the start of the job interview will be retrenched the moment their background has been
revealed, despite of their previous work progress and efforts. Furthermore, despite having high levels
of education, the stigma branded on individuals obstructs them from moving on from the past.
Despite sending in 70 applicants within 1 year and being very suitable for various job
positions due to previous high education qualifications, whenever I share with potential
employees that I was a former drug convict, many employers’ face changed the moment
I revealed the truth. Their typical and almost immediate response to me was that ‘I will
discuss this with my boss, and we will get back to you’… however, this statement
usually tags along with a rejection letter eventually. (Respondent M)
As such, this shows that despite having high levels of education, many employers are unwilling to
offer a second chance to former drug convicts. Also, it is interesting to note that society stigmatizes
such individuals by focusing on their negative ‘ex-felon label’ instead of their positive ‘highly
educated individual’. Although each individual holds various identities, such as the possibility of
being a professor, and yet at the same time, having an identity as a former drug convict, the identity
18
that society focuses on is not the identity as a professor, but as a former drug convict instead. This
stigmatization that society chooses to focus on, instead of identifying the individual’s various merits,
makes reintegration with society very challenging. Furthermore, for those less educated, their options
of legitimate work become even more limited, coupled with their lack of skills such as having a strong
command in English, which is the working language in Singapore, and basic technological skills.
With outright discrimination towards former drug convicts, many respondents shared that this
discrimination was one of the main reasons that pushed them back to return to drugs, to sell drugs as
an alternate means of survival because salary from their legitimate job is insufficient for survival.
However, as selling drugs becomes a means of survival, their constant engagement with drugs
increases their chances of relapse in consuming drugs and hence their eventual path towards re-entry.
6.6 Unintended consequences of social institutions
Moreover, there are unintended consequences of institutions such as prison or DRC. These institutions
are in fact breeding grounds for more potential ex-drug convicts’ re-entry. Situated in the same area of
confinement for a long period of time, socialization among inmates will result in the growth of
friendships. Especially in the case of the drug rehabilitation center, where all inmates are confined in
there specifically due to drug-related offenses, respondents shared that they made even more bad
company while in there. Because of the friendships forged while serving time, the friendship lasted
even after the individuals’ release, resulting in the constant supply of drugs available to those newly
released.
(Can you share about the ‘friends’ you made when in DRC?) We were so bored when in
DRC because there was just nothing to do and you are kept in there with about 8 or even
more of them in a small space… so what else can you do other than talk. So we share tips,
learn from each other and exchanged contact. That’s how I managed to have a constant
supply although when I just come out. (Respondent H)
Thus with such social institutions unintentionally being breeding grounds for socialization to take
place between inmates, they are constantly involved in the myriad of drugs and hence increasing their
chances of re-entry.
On the other hand, although the DRC is a rehabilitation centre and not a prison, many times, the
system in the DRC is akin to the prison’s system, which more than often creates the feeling of
stigmatization. The harsh and destructive system in the DRC includes stripping all DRC inmates all
rights to possessions as a citizen. Behavioral regimes include squatting down in queues, having access
to water only at specific times, eating and sleeping at regulated hour or even being subjected to
surprise ransacking conducted by DRC officers. As a consequence of stigmatizing against the drug
19
convicts, it creates the mentality that there is a distinction between ‘us and them’, thus making it
seems acceptable to treat the DRC inmates in such a manner.
We are no longer treated like humans, often being shouted at and even being referred to
as a series of number that is used to represent our identity. This is meant to send a clear
message to all DRC inmates that we are not being trusted as we have done something
wrong… there can be up to eight inmates in the 40 square meters co-shared cell and this
may result in psychological damage on individuals. The longer we are in there, the more
damaged we are simply based on the way we are being treated and the way our life
seems so constrained and meaningless with having nothing to do a good majority of our
time in the DRC. (Respondent M)
Furthermore, upon release from DRC, former drug inmates have to return occasionally within the first
two years for urine tests. Despite having left the DRC, they are still being treated like an inmate once
again when they return for their urine tests. In addition, the DRC, despite being coined as a
rehabilitation centre for drug convicts, they do not offer much rehabilitation assistance to the inmates.
As shared by a respondent, the DRC differs from prison mainly because the inmates are all caught for
drug related offenses and in the DRC, a drug counselor will be assigned. However, group therapy
sessions do not work simply because the inmates fear that by revealing too much information may
result in an extended sentence for themselves. Thus, despite the former drug convicts’ attempts to
reintegrate with society, institutions like such are often unwilling to show their support and more than
often stigmatize, degrade and crush the individuals’ efforts attempts to reintegrate successfully with
society.
6.7 Toxic social networks
‘True friends’ do not stigmatize and this was a reason why many respondents were drawn to return to
their toxic social networks after their release. In fact, this social group of bad company warmly
welcomed them, without causing him to feel any sense of self embarrassment or to think negatively
about himself. In this social group of friends, respondents were given the respect and glory they
personally think they deserve. In fact, this social group unconsciously plant the roots of re-entry from
the first day the respondents were released from prison, showering them with love and respect from
the moment they stepped out of the prison/DRC gates.
(How did you bad friends show their support for you?) Oh, like when I was released, my
family did not come to pick me up, but my ‘true friends’ did. They waited for me outside
the DRC and brought me to our old hang outs lor. Last time I don’t know, so I just
thought wah so nice to me, unlike my family lor. (Respondent B)
20
Unlike other social communities where the newly released ex-drug convict faces condemnation from,
members of this social group in fact respect him for having been through prison or DRC. Using old
happy memories and symbolic interaction to show their acceptance of the newly released drug convict,
the latter will be easily influenced by this social group again and unconsciously he will return to his
old life-style habits which will eventually cause his re-entry into prison.
In conclusion, rejection and discrimination by social forces create a narrow path for ex-drug convicts
to thread on towards a successful reintegration with society. Many eventually fall off the narrow path
as the challenges ahead deem to overwhelming for them to handle. Some choose the easy way which
is to join their toxic community of friends which is within their comfort zone.
Comparison between personal obstacles or social forces
Undoubtedly, the interviews have affirmed that obstacles as a result of both the individual’s life
course journey and stigma stemming from society’s discrimination have contributed to ex-drug
convicts’ constant engagement with drugs. The question herein lies in analyzing which plays a more
critical role in causing their inability to break away from drugs.
Although personal obstacles significantly affect the former drug convicts’ attempt to reintegrate
successfully into society, however many times, their personal obstacles are an unintended
consequence of social forces. For example, as identified under personal obstacles that toxic habits is a
key factor in causing the former drug convicts to be unable to break away from drugs, however, there
are various social forces that pushed them towards resuming their toxic habits. Firstly, rejection by
family members cause them to feel unloved and unwanted, thus forcing them to seek attention and
respect from friends instead. However, as mentioned that their social group of friends is mostly bad
company, such toxic friendships are unable to give sound advice to newly released former drug
convicts on the negative impact on resuming their toxic habits. Instead, bad company encourages
them to resume all their bad habits. Secondly, as social institutions such as prison or DRC become
unintended breeding grounds of friendships among inmates, it results in the growth of more toxic
friendships that negatively influences the individual. Thus it can be seen that although it seems to be a
personal obstacle that the individual is unable to break away from drugs, however, it is necessary to
understand the underlying reasons behind the continuous existence of such toxic lifestyle which in the
first place is caused by the constant engagement with bad company which is pushed by social forces.
The push reasons, which are social forces, are pivotal in determining former drug convicts’ inability
to break away from drugs.
21
Furthermore, as the state’s discourse towards ex-convicts is negative with the ex-felon branding that
lasts on them for their entire lifetime, this factor is in fact more pivotal in pushing the newly released
ex-drug convicts towards resuming drugs as compared with a lack of education. As mentioned under
social forces that negative state discourse towards former drug convicts results in the discrimination
that the latter face at the workforce, a negative stereotype to trust former drug convicts less is the main
reason for the discrimination faced. The individual’s education level in fact becomes secondary, and
despite having attained high levels of education prior to the offense, the mark branded on the ex-drug
convict still draws the invisible boundary between ex-convicts and non ex-convicts. Despite high
levels of education, “many employers are still hesitant to hire any individual with the ex-drug convict
branding” (Interviewee M, 2016) or the ex-drug convict may be hired but receive lower wages than
supposed. As such, this impedes any efforts made by ex-drug convicts who have the intention to
change and to find a legitimate job. Between the more educated and less educated ex-drug convcits,
the latter suffer the most and are the most susceptible to resume drugs consumption as their means of
survival was dependent on selling drugs. Thus social forces are indeed pivotal in determining ex-drug
convicts’ inability to break away from drugs.
Lastly, as social forces play an intrinsic role in shaping one’s life, the stress level faced by a former
drug convict is different from the rest of society who do not have the label as an ex-convict. This is
the phenomenon of unconscious discrimination (Williams, 2012) where Dr. Williams, a Harvard
University professor, argued that when people hold a negative stereotype about a group and meet
someone from the group, they often treat that person differently and do not even realize it. Although
this theory is mostly used in research on racism studies, however, it is highly applicable in this study
as well where the former drug convicts is the group that gets discriminated unconsciously against by
the public. Stress as a result of discrimination has been proved by many researchers. Indeed, it shows
that the high stress levels caused by social forces onto the former drug addict is one of the reasons
why they have less confidence towards themselves, which result in them going back to drugs and
relying on drugs to increase their personal self-esteem. As such, although many respondents feel that
they rely on drugs to give themselves a new identity, however, there are many societal causes that
unconsciously pushed them towards trying to achieve new identity.
22
7. Recommendations
In resolving this tricky issue of eliminating or reducing ex-drug convicts’ re-entry, it is crucial to note
that different individuals face different problems in life, thus there is not one encompassing solution
that will be effective for all. As identified above on the various obstacles that ex-drug convicts face,
various methods are also necessary to target the problems faced by the individuals. This segment
includes recommendations that could be useful to assist former drug convicts reintegration with
society. It is important to understand the root problem of each individual first before attempt to
resolve the obstacles. As such, councilors play a crucial role in the first step in understanding the
problems faced by the individuals to provide assistance for problems they face. After identifying the
obstacles that are preventing the individual from breaking away from drugs, the councilor can provide
the listed recommendations that will help the latter to reintegrate successfully back into society. It
must be noted that other than councilors, other various social players within the community have an
important role to play in helping these ex-drug convicts successfully reintegrate back with society.
Religion
Revelations through past research and respondents’ personal sharing pointed out that religion played a
pivotal role in changing them. For them, religion was a key factor that enabled them to “let go of
one’s pride” (Respondent H) as it filled up a ‘space’ within them that was once empty. Religion gave
them peace, confidence and the necessary social support needed in their attempt to reintegrate with
society. Religious social groups usually divided into small cell groups became a platform for
individuals to seek advice from former drug convicts who have now become prison councilors.
Hearing from these councilors and knowing that they have once walked the same path, it gave them
the motivation and strength to overcome the obstacles in their path. Also, in smaller cell groups, it
allowed more concentration on each individual who require different help. The councilors will be able
to guide, look out and identify any potential relapse. As such, religion will be an effective tool to help
eliminate or reduce ex-drug convicts’ re-entry.
Family
It is necessary for the family to work alongside with councilors to fully understand how to provide
assistance for the recovering ex-drug convict. In many instances, respondents shared that they family
members were unaware of how to help them and many wrong methods were used, which led to miss-
communication between the ex-drug convict and his family members. Undoubtedly, the family is
crucial in showing support and love towards the newly released individual so as to protect and prevent
them from returning back to drugs. As such, the family has to learn how to help the individual. It is
recommended that both the ex-drug convict and family should go for the consultation services
together as this will not only increase family bonding sessions, it will also be a true reflection of
23
family’s support for the recovering drug addict. Family members should also be on the constant watch
out for any peculiar behavior so to alert the councilor at the first moment.
State
A recommendation on how the state can play its role to assist smooth reintegration back into society is
to “legalize drug addiction as a disease” (Respondent M) that requires state’s attention and assistance.
This recommendation is backed by scientific research that “drug addiction is a disease that impacts
the brain … because the abuse of drugs leads to changes in the structure and function of the brain”
(Goldberg 2014). Over a prolong period of time, the changes in the brain caused by repeated drug
abuse can affect an individual’s self control and ability to make sound decisions, and at the same time
create an intense impulse to consume drugs. It is because of these changes in the brain that becomes
so challenging for a person addicted to stop abusing drugs (Goldberg 2014). And as research has
shown, combining addiction treatment medications with behavioral therapy is an ideal way to ensure
success for most patients.
If the state legalizes drug addiction as disease, there will be more services where drug
abusers are able to seek assistance from, as compared to the current situation in
Singapore where there is only one clinic in the Institute of Mental Health. By treating
drug addiction with medication and psychiatric counseling, this will help to reduce the
number of re-entry, which will also help in preventing wastage of national resources.
(Respondent M)
Lastly, it is necessary for the state to have a change in mentality to start being more transparent in
identifying the exact causes that result in the ex-drug convicts’ relapses. Identification of these issues
should result in action taken to assist the former in their reintegration with society. With changing
state discourse, society will respond positively towards former drug convicts as well. Stronger social
support will definitely be a boost in the former’s route towards a successful reintegration. As such, by
tailoring treatment to each patient’s drug abuse patterns and any concurrent medical, psychiatric
problems can lead to sustained recovery and a life without drugs. This must also be complemented
with an increasing welcoming society that is willing to grant a second chance.
24
8. Limitations and future research possibilities
Undoubtedly, similar to any other research projects, each project has their own strengths and
limitations. Given that the duration for this research project is only a year long, time plays a crucial
factor in determining the scale of the overall project. With a tight schedule to produce this paper, there
was less extensive coverage and only 15 interviews were being conducted. 15 respondents may not be
a good representation of all former drug convicts as compared to the high number of drug abusers
caught over the years, such as “3,338 drug abusers last year (2015) and 3,158 in 2014” (Channel
NewsAsia, 2016). Also, as half of the respondents have religious backgrounds, respondents’ answers
may be skewed and biased towards certain perspectives. Furthermore, as all respondents are male,
their answers may cause this research study to be biased as well. Despite the mentioned limitations,
this research study will undoubtedly contribute to the current literature with the identification and
detailed analysis of obstacles faced by the former drug convicts and recommendations to help them
break away from drugs. For future research studies that include governmental support, there can be a
wider access to former drug convicts so as to have a better understanding of all. Furthermore,
extended research can be conducted based on comparing between ethnicity of respondents or even
comparing between gender of the respondents.
Also, as part of the initial proposed plan was to include conducting interviews in small groups of three
or four respondents. This was another potential interview method that ideally would work better for
the respondents as they who have similar life experiences. By conducting group interviews, certain
ideas that one respondent mention may spark off memories from other respondents, which will
contribute to a more thought-provoking interview session. However, this proposed idea was not
successful as many individuals were uncomfortable with this idea. On the contrary from the initial
expectations, the respondents shared that they may be more conservative in a group setting instead
because they may be more embarrassed to share in front of the other respondents as opposed to
sharing only with the interviewer.
25
9. Conclusion
The main objective of this paper has been to identify obstacles faced by ex-drug convicts that cause
their inability to break away from drugs. Results of the analysis suggest that with the various obstacles
posed towards the individual in different forms, it indeed takes courage and strong will power to
overcome the obstacles. For many, social forces unknowingly play a major role in interfering and
causing great impact on their personal lives. Although many interviewed respondents saw that the
fault lies in the individual, however, the conclusion after much comparison and analysis is that social
forces are indeed the game changer that has unprecedented effects, both good and bad, on the former
drug addicts.
This paper is done with the hopes that after identifying the obstacles faced by ex-drug convicts after
their release, it will raise awareness within the society that such individuals require strong societal
support, and the least that society can do for them is to offer them a second chance in life. With the
few proposed suggestions listed in section 7, the state ultimately plays the key role in assisting these
recovering ex-drug convicts’ reintegration with society. It takes time to change the mentality of a
society, however, should the state’s discourse towards ex-drug convicts changes to one that
encourages social acceptance of them, the ex-drug convicts will eventually be less discriminated
against and with greater community support, it may significantly reduce the number of ex-drug
convicts’ re-entry into prison or DRC.
26
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