AN EXPLORATION OF CONTINGENCY THEORY OF ACCOMMODATION: COMMUNICATING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY MEASURES IN

NORWAY

__________________________________

A Thesis

presented to

the Faculty of the Graduate School

at the University of Missouri

________________________________________________

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

__________________________________

by

SARAH A. STRASBURG

Dr. Fritz Cropp, Thesis Supervisor

JULY 2016

The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the

thesis entitled

AN EXPLORATION OF CONTINGENCY THEORY OF

ACCOMMODATION: COMMUNICATING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

MEASURES IN NORWAY

presented by Sarah A. Strasburg,

a candidate for the degree of master of arts,

and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance.

Professor Fritz Cropp

Professor Glenn Cameron

Professor Amanda Hinnant

Professor Antonie Stam

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost, I’d like to acknowledge the people I interviewed for this research who

gave me insight into their professional lives, and to those who touched my life with

positivity throughout my travels in Norway.

Deep thanks to each member of my committee for being a part of my “team” and

offering guidance at different stages of this research.

I also wish to acknowledge Dorothy Carner, head librarian at the Donald W.

Reynolds Journalism Library and Martha Pickens, graduate advisor at the Missouri

School of Journalism.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ............................................................................................. vi ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... vii Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................4 2.1 Contingency Theory of Accommodation’s in Public Relations ........................4 2.2 Contingency Theory’s Central Concepts ...........................................................5 2.3 Contingency Theory in Action ...........................................................................8 2.4 Leadership & Culture .......................................................................................11 2.5 The Norwegian Landscape: Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility ........................................................................................................14

3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................18 3.1 Participants .......................................................................................................19 3.2 Sampling ..........................................................................................................22 3.3 Semi-structured Interviewing ...........................................................................23 3.4 Minimizing Cultural Differences, Maximizing Theory Building ....................25

4. ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................29 4.1 Category-by-Category Factor Manifestations ..................................................30

4.1.1 External Variables: Threats ...............................................................30 4.1.2 External Variables: Industry Environment .......................................33 4.1.3 External Variables: General Political/Social Environment/External Culture ........................................................................................................35 4.1.4. External Variables: The External Public ..........................................35 4.1.5 External Variables: Issue under Question .........................................37 4.1.6 Internal Variables: Organization’s Characteristics ...........................37 4.1.7 Internal Variables: Public Relations Department Characteristics .....39 4.1.8 Internal Variables: Characteristics of Dominant Coalition (Top Management) .............................................................................................41 4.1.9 Internal Variables: Internal Threats ..................................................42 4.1.10 Internal Variables: Individual Characteristics (Public Relations Practitioner, Dominant Coalition and Line Managers) ..............................42 4.1.11 Internal Variables: Relationship Characteristics .............................45

4.2 Best Practices Arising from Interviews ...........................................................46 4.2.1 Publish a Sustainability Report .........................................................46 4.2.2 Integrate Sustainability into Daily Thinking of People across the Organization ...............................................................................................47

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4.2.3 Release Research Reports to the Press ..............................................48 4.2.4 Sponsor a Music Festival ..................................................................49 4.2.5 Silence ...............................................................................................49 4.2.6 Be an Immediate Part of the Conversation .......................................50 4.2.7 Garner Employee Support through a Bike Program .........................50 4.2.8 Hold a Seminar or Participate in a Conference .................................51 4.2.9 Leverage Established Communication Channels Outside the Organization ...............................................................................................54 4.2.10 Be Transparent ................................................................................54 4.2.11 Get and Maintain the “Social License to Operate” .........................55 4.2.12 Tie Company Practices to Science/Technology/Innovation ...........55 4.2.13 Tie Company Practices to Norwegian/International Standards ......56

5. DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................57

5.1 Influences of Political-Social Support .............................................................57 5.2 Fact-Based Orientation ....................................................................................60 5.3 Lack of Individualism ......................................................................................63 5.4 Best Practices along the Continuum ................................................................64

5.4.1 Publish a Sustainability Report .........................................................68 5.4.2 Integrate Sustainability into Daily Thinking of People across the Organization ...............................................................................................69 5.4.3 Release Research Reports to the Press ..............................................70 5.4.4 Sponsor a Music Festival ..................................................................70 5.4.5 Silence ...............................................................................................71 5.4.6 Be an Immediate Part of the Conversation .......................................71 5.4.7 Garner Employee Support through a Bike Program .........................71 5.4.8 Hold a Seminar or Participate in a Conference .................................71 5.4.9 Leverage Established Communication Channels Outside the Organization ...............................................................................................72 5.4.10 Be Transparent ................................................................................72 5.4.11 Get and Maintain the “Social License to Operate” .........................73 5.4.12 Tie Company Practices to Science/Technology/Innovation ...........73 5.4.13 Tie Company Practices to Norwegian/International Standards ......74

5.5 Strengths and Limitations ................................................................................74

6. IMPLICATIONS & FUTURE RESEARCH .........................................................77 6.1 Structural Stability of Contingency Theory across Cultural Contexts .............78 6.2 Contingency Decision Matrix: A Quantitative Tool ........................................79

7. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................82

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................84 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................88 Appendix A: Preliminary Interview Instrument ....................................................88 Appendix B: Revised Interview Instrument ..........................................................89

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Appendix C: Contingency Theory Factors ............................................................91

vi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page

1. The advocacy-accommodation continuum .................................................................6

2. Jin, Pang and Cameron’s (2006) Strategies for building an analytic framework for crisis communication ...........................................................................................65

3. Best practices along the continuum ..........................................................................67

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ABSTRACT

Public relations literature suggests that there is a gap between existing public

relations theory in a global context and what’s needed, and this research aims to help fill

that gap by testing existing manifestations of the Contingency Theory of Accommodation

in Europe for the first time, specifically in Norway. The research is similar in nature to

contingency theory tests in China (Li, Cropp, & Jin, 2010; Zhang, Qui & Cameron,

2004), South Korea (Bae and Park, 2011; Choi & Cameron, 2005; Shin, Heath, & Lee,

2011) and Singapore (Jin, Pang, & Cameron, 2006). The study finds that factors in all 11

categories of contingency theory manifest, suggesting that the principles of contingency

theory are relevant to the practice of conflict management for communication

practitioners in Norway. While no entirely new factors manifest, a clear fact-based

orientation emerges for the existing factor “how individuals receive, process and use

information and influence” emerges. Additionally, this analysis suggests that internal

variables related to characteristics of individual people not be as relevant to the practice

of conflict management in Norway on the issue of corporate environmental responsibility

concerns.

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Introduction

Thepurposeofthisstudyistotestandextendexistingapplicationsofthe

ContingencyTheoryofAccommodation.Contingencytheoryemergednearlytwo

decadesagointheUnitedStatesasanelaborationandrevisionofexcellencetheory,

themostcommonlycitedpublicrelationstheoryofthetime(Cameron,Cropp,&

Reber,2000,p.242-243).Sincethenitsprincipleshavebeentestedandfurther

developedinlimitedinternationalsettingssuchasChina(Li,Cropp,&Jin,2010;

Zhang,Qui&Cameron,2004),SouthKorea(BaeandPark,2011;Choi&Cameron,

2005;Shin,Heath,&Lee,2011)andSingapore(Jin,Pang,&Cameron,2006).This

studyproposestotestitforthefirsttimeinEurope,specificallyNorway.

Theissueunderexaminationisaparticularlyglobalissue:climatechange.

Everycountryandindeedmanycompaniesmustchoosenotwhethertheyengagein

issueofenvironmentalsustainability,butwithwhom,towhatextentandhow.

Withinandacrossnationalborders,governments,people,activistorganizationsand

companiesallputpressureononeanotherinwhatisagreatersocialdialogueon

theissue.Tocomplicatematters,manyentitieswithhighenvironmentalimpactare

thesameentitiesthatprovidemanypeoplewithnecessitiessuchasheatandfood.

Theglobalpopulationtodayis7billionandcounting.Topulltheplugonanyandall

activitiespotentiallydamagingtotheenvironmentishardlyanoption.Thismeans

government,companiesandpeoplemustgrapplewiththeissue,andNorway,given

itsrelativelystableeducation,welfareandsocialsystemshasbeenagloballeaderin

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thisarea.InMarch2015,Norwaybecamethe3rdnationtosubmit2030climate

changegoalstotheUnitedNations.InMarch2015theNorwegianParliamentalso

decidedtomoveforwardwithcreatingaclimatechangelawwithlegallybinding

benchmarks(Lonstreth,2015;“Norwegianparliamentvotes”,2015;Solholm,2015).

Publicrelationsscholarsshouldfindthisresearchofinterestbecauseithas

thepotentialtoaddrobustnesstoamajortheoryinthefield.Asoursocialworlds

andthebusinessworldbecomeincreasinglyglobalized,researchonhowpublics

relatetooneanothermustalsogrowandaccountforthechangingnatureof

communication.

Publicrelationspractitionersshouldfindthisresearchofinterestbecause

governments,businessesandpeopledecidehowtospendtheirdollars,regulate

othersandcompeteinthemarketplacebasedonenvironmentalconcerns.Asone

example,Norway’s$850billionsovereignwealthfund,thelargestintheworld,is

divestingitselfofcoalinvestments,andothersareexpectedtofollowsuit

(Carrington,2015).

Whatfollows,perUniversityofMissouri’sthesisguidelinesareinorderthe

researchquestionsguidingthisproposedinquiry,thetheoreticalframework,

literaturereview,methodsdiscussion,analysisincludingreflectiononstrengthsand

limitations,andconcludingremarksandareasforfurtherstudy.

ResearchquestionsRQ1:WhatfactorsfromthecontingencytheoryofaccommodationmanifestwhenNorwegiancommunicationsmanagersdiscusshowtheydealwithkeypublicsoncorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcerns?

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RQ2:ArethereadditionalconsiderationsthatNorwegiancommunicationsmanagerstendtoemphasizewhendiscussinghowtheydealwithkeypublicsoncorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcerns?

Answeringthesequestionswilladdtotherobustnessandinternational

applicationofcontingencytheoryofaccommodation.

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Literaturereview

TheoreticalFramework:ContingencyTheoryofAccommodationinPublicRelations

ContingencyTheoryofAccommodationinPublicRelationsisanapproachto

publicrelationsdecisionmakingthatembracesdynamismandcomplexityandseeks

tocomprehensivelydescribethefactorsthatgointopublicrelationsdecisionswhen

dealingwiththedesiresordemandsofpublics(Cancel,etal.,1997;Cancel,Mitrook,

&Cameron,1999;Reber,Cropp,&Cameron,2003).Many“contingency”theories

exist,e.g.,contingencytheoryofbusinessstrategy,contingencytheoryof

socialization,andit’snotablethatasabroaderclass,contingencytheoriesreferto

organizationalorbehavioralprocessesthatcannotbereducedtoasinglebest

practice(Shenkar&vonGlinow,1994).Tothepoint,thewayinwhichan

organizationinteractswithitspublicsiscontingentuponordependsuponavariety

ofinternalandexternalvariables.Furthermore,theinteractionofthesevariablesis

dynamic,andorganizationalstancechangesasthesituationdemands.

TherootsofContingencyTheoryofAccommodationinPublicRelations

(referredtoascontingencytheoryfromhereon)lieinGrunigandGrunig’s(1992)

ExcellenceTheoryinPublicRelations(excellencetheoryfromhereon),which

conveysatwo-waysymmetricalmodelofconflictresolution.Conflictscanarise

fromactionsoutsidepartiessuchasactivistgroupsorfromwithinanorganization

(suchasfraudulentactivity).Excellencetheorystatesthatthemostethicalpractice

ofpublicrelationsandnormativetheoryofpublicrelationsinvolvestwo-way,

symmetricalcommunicationbetweenanorganizationanditspublic.Contingency

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theoryattemptstoovercomethecriticizedshortcomingsofexcellencetheorywhen

appliedtothepracticeofpublicrelations.Itisbothanextensionofandareactionto

oneofthecoreprinciplesofexcellencetheory(Cameron,Cropp&Reber,2001p.

242-243).

ContingencyTheory’sCentralConcepts Contingencytheorypositsthatsometimesitwillbemostethicalandbestfor

anorganizationtoaccommodateapublic,andsometimesitwillbemostethicaland

bestforanorganizationtofirmlystanditsgroundandwhollyadvocateforthe

organization.Whilethetwo-waysymmetricalmodelofexcellencetheorydictates

theremustalwaysbegiveandtakeonbehalfoftheorganization,contingency

theoryrecognizesthattherearescenariosinwhichthiswouldnotbethebest

practiceornormativeaction.Forexample,whendealingwithamorallyrepugnant

public,itwouldbeunethicaltotakeanaccommodativestance.Byopeningthe

questionofrightandwrongtodialogue,collaborationandcompromise,the

contingencymodelisinherentlyethical(Zhang,Qui&Cameron2004,p.392).

Contingencytheoryproposesacontinuumofaccommodationandamatrixof

factorsthatinfluencewhereonthiscontinuumanorganization’sstanceonagiven

issuewithagivenpublicfalls.Thecontinuumisorganizedalongascaleofpure

accommodationtopureadvocacyasfollows:

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Figure1.Theadvocacy-accommodationcontinuum

Figure1.Theadvocacy-accommodationcontinuumoftheContingencyTheoryofPublicRelationspositedbyCancel,etal,1997,p.37.

Pureadvocacyonthiscontinuummeanschoosingthestanceofpleadingon

another’sbehalforinsupportofsomething.Publicrelationspractitionershave

comparedadvocacytobeinglikeanattorneyrepresentingonesideofanissue

towardtheendofcreatingpublicacceptanceforagivenideaorcommodity.Some

practitionerstakeissuewithdefiningadvocacyinthisway,andperhapseven,that

advocacyispartoftheconversationbecauseitraisesunsavoryaccusationsof

manipulationorspin.Here,advocacymeansethicallyandeffectivelypleadingthe

organization’scasetogivenpublics(Canceletal.,1997,p.35-36).

Pureaccommodationonthiscontinuummeanscapitulatingtothedemands

ofthepublicorpublicsinquestion,nomatterwhetheroddswithwhatthe

organizationwoulddootherwise.Theaccommodativerolecanbeseenashavinga

missionoftrustbuilding,andestablishingandmaintainingmutuallydependent

relationshipsbetweentheorganizationanditspublics(Canceletal.,1997,p.36).

Betweenthetwopolesoftheadvocacy-accommodationcontinuumlieawide

rangeofoperationalstancesandthereforeanumberofstrategiesthatoffersome

combinationofaccommodationandadvocacy.Canceletal.(1997)arguesthat

whetherconsciousornot,publicrelationspractitionerschooseastancesomewhere

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betweenpureaccommodationandpureadvocacy.Thecontinuumoffersapractical

viewthatdeviatesfromthenormativetheorythatallactorsinthecrisisseekto

resolvetheconflictinamostefficientandamicablemanner.

Further,researchersargue,“communicationactsreflectingbothextremes

[pureaccommodationandpureadvocacy]canactuallyoccursimultaneouslyin

dealingwithonepublic.”(p.37).

Contingencytheoryattemptstoidentifyacomprehensivelistoffactorsthat

influencethedecision-makingprocessthatpractitionersusetodeterminean

organization’sstance(Cameron,Cropp,&Reber,2001;Cancel,Cameron,Sallot,&

Mitrook,1997;Cancel,Mitrook,&Cameron,1999).Aprocessofexploringacademic

literatureinpublicrelationsandin-depthinterviewswasusedtouncoverroughly

87variablesthataffectthestanceanorganizationtakestowardapublicorpublics

onanissue.Thesevariableswerethenconfirmedandvettedthroughadditionaland

follow-upinterviews.Forpracticalpurposes,these87variablesaredividedinto11

categoriesontwodimensionsofexternalandinternalvariables(Cancel,Mitrook&

Cameron,1999).Theycanbedescribedasfallingontoorganizational,individualand

sociallevels(Shin,Heath&Lee,2011).

Fromahighlevel,externalfactorsarethoseoverwhichtheorganization

can’tdirectlyexertcontrol:threatssuchasgovernmentregulationorlitigation,the

industryenvironment,generalpoliticalandsocialenvironment,characteristicsof

theexternalpublicandmore.Internalfactorsincludehowmuchisatstakeforthe

organizationinthesituation,characteristicsoftheorganization,thepublicrelations

department,thedominantcoalitionandindividualsinvolved.Morespecifically

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theserangefromeconomicstabilityoftheorganizationtoanopenorclosedculture,

publicrelationsrepresentationinthedominantcoalition,staffeducationlevelsand

more.(Canceletal.,1997).

Cancel,Mitrook&Cameron(1999)alsologicallydividedthe87factors

differentlyintopredisposingvariablesandsituationalvariables.Predisposing

variablesinfluencehowanorganizationislikelytoapproachordealwithissuesas

theyarise.Situationalvariablesarespecificand“oftenchangingdynamicsatwork

duringparticularsituationsinvolvinganorganizationandtheparticularpublic”(p.

177).Themostsupportedpredisposingvariablesincludecorporationsize,

corporateculture,corporatebusinessexposure,publicrelationsaccesstothe

dominantcoalition,enlightenmentofthedominantcoalition,linemanagers,

enlightenmentoflinemanagersandindividualcharacteristics.

The“Contingent”or“ItDepends”ideologypresentsasystematicmannerin

whichfactorsinacrisiscanbeevaluatedatdifferentpointsindynamicallychanging

situations.Becauseofitsrobustness,itlaysanexcellentfoundationtoevaluate

conflictmanagementwithintherealmofpublicrelations(Canceletal.,1997).

ContingencyTheoryinActionLet’snoteseveralrevealingpoints:

• “Organizationswilltendtoviewadvocacyofitspositionasnotonly

bestforitselfbutbestfortheworldinthelongrun,”(Canceletal.,

1997p.39).

• Organizationsareunlikelytopracticepublicrelationssymmetrically

untilapublicgainsroughlyequalpower.Throughthelogicofgame

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theoryitfollowsthatorganizationscangetthegreatestbenefitby

practicingasymmetricformsofcommunicationsinsituationsin

whichtheorganizationhasgreaterpowerthanitspublics(Cancelet

al.,1997,p.47).

Theprinciplesofcontingencytheoryhavebeentestedandfurtherdeveloped

inlimitedinternationalsettings:China(Li,Cropp,&Jin,2010;Zhang,Qui,&

Cameron,2004),SouthKorea(Bae&Park,2011;Choi&Cameron,2005;Shin,

Heath,&Lee,2011),andSingapore(Jin,Pang,&Cameron,2006).

Culturalvarianceisachallengetoglobalpublicrelations.TheworkofChoi

andCameron(2005)investigatedtheinternationalpublicrelationsdynamicsof

contingencytheoryinKorea,specificallyasanexplorationtobuildasetof

internationalcontingencyvariablesinordertoextendthetheoryandprovidea

moreholisticpictureofpublicrelationspractices.Previousliteraturefindsthat

societalandculturalfactorsstronglyaffectpublicrelationspractices,andthisstudy

focusedonKoreannationalidentity(p.173-174).Throughinterviewing,

researchersuncoveredwhatisessentiallyaConfucianvariablethat,tooversimplify,

addressesthe“we-ness”versus“collectiveness”and“emotionoverlogic”ofthe

KoreanculturethatisincontrasttoWesternculture(p.183).AdditionallyChoiand

CameronfoundthatlocalCEO’sdecisionpowerhasabiginfluenceonstancesof

multinationalcorporationsinSouthKorea.

SignificantfindingsofcontingencytheoryapplicationsinKorea(Baeand

Park,2011)includethatofferingfinancialcompensationasanapologytoonepublic,

namelythenationalgovernment,doesnotsatisfyallpublics,namelymassmediain

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thiscase.BaeandParklookedintothesocio-contextualinfluencesoftheKorean

newsmediawhenhugecorporateplayerSamsungofferedabout$850millionasan

apologytotheKoreangovernmentafterastringoflegalissues.Thisstudywas

conductedbycontentanalysisofthecompany’sofficialstatementaswellasnews

mediacoverageofit,andfoundthatdifferentinterpretationsofthismajordonation

stemfromsocio-contextualfactorsaswellasasuddenswinginSamsung’sstance

fromadvocatingthatlegalaccusationshadnogroundingtoaccommodatingtothe

tuneofnearly$850million.Thetakeawayhereisthesocialcontextinwhich

contingencytheoryoperatescannotbeignored.Thesocio-contextualfactorsof

Koreanculturethatmajorconglomerateshavebeenaccusedofillegalactivitiesfrom

bribinggovernmentofficerstomanipulatingstockpricestoillegalinheritancesand

embellishingcorporateaccounts.Forthisreason,Koreanpublicsdon’tnecessarily

givefullcredittoacompanyofferingalargemonetarydonationtothegovernment

oragoodcause.

FurthercontingencyfindingsinKoreaconcludeaculturalandsituational

contingencyperspectiveofpublicrelationsleadershipcanhelpexplaindifferences

betweenleadershippreferencesforpublicrelationspractitionersintheU.S.and

SouthKorea(Shin,Heath,&Lee,2011).Researchershavepredictedthatintothe

future,leadershipinpublicrelationswillmeantheabilitytointegrateatseveral

levelsofbusinessandsocietyforamoreintegratedmanagementprocessandfor

helpingorganizationsmakesocietymorefunctionalthroughcontingent,strategic,

skilledandreflectiveleadership.Basedonasurveyof1,000practitioners:

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Shinetal.(2006)foundthatindividuallevelfactorshaveprimaryinfluence

onresponsetosituations.Someofindividualleveloffactorsincludes

individualcommunicationcompetency,personalethicalvalues,abilityto

handlecomplexproblems,andfamiliaritywithexternalpublicsorits

representatives.Thiscontingencyframeworkguidesdeploymentofthe

individualqualificationsnecessaryforeffectiveconflictmanagement(pp.

171).

Leadership&CultureNationalcultureislikelyanimportantelementinthecontingencynatureof

effectivepublicrelationsbecauseculturepowerfullyshapesthewaypeopleinteract

witheachother,socialenvironmentsandorganizations.Sin,Heath,&Lee(2011)

arguethatit’sthe“sharedsense-makingofeachculturethatdefinesleadershipin

general,aswellasthequalitiesofrelationshipsbetweenorganizationsandtheirkey

publics,”(p.173).Socialpsychologyresearchbycross-culturalpsychologistGeert

Hofstedesuggeststhatleaderswhogrowupwithcertainenvironmentalrestraints

fromnationalandregionalforcescannothelpbutreflecttheirmilieu.

Hofstededevelopedamodelthatisgenerallyacceptedbybusinessculture

scholarsasthemostcomprehensiveframeworkofthenationalvaluesofcultures.

Whilethismodelisnotwithoutcritics,itservestopointoutmeasurabledifferences

betweenU.S.andNorwegianbusinessculturethatcouldmeandifferencesin

applicationofcontingencyfromthethreeinternationalsettingsinwhichit’sbeen

developedandtested.Whatfollowsisabriefcomparisonofmajorconstructsinthe

U.S.andNorwayviaHofstede’swebsiteasofMarch30,2015.

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Thewebsiteattemptstoofferanoverviewof“thedeepdrivingfactorsof

Americanculturerelativetootherculturesinourworld.”Again,whilethisis

certainlynotacomprehensivecomparativeanalysis,itoffersajumpingoffpointfor

readers,astheUnitedStates’positionintheglobalbusinessworldisquite

prominent;itmakesforatouchstonecomparison.

• Powerdistance.U.S.:40.Norway:31.

Definition:Theattitudeoftheculturetowardpowerinequalitiesamongstits

people.Also,strengthofsocialhierarchy.

• Individualism.U.S.:91.Norway:69.

Definition:Thedegreeofinterdependenceasocietymaintainsamongits

members.

• Masculinity.U.S.:62.Norway8.

Definition:Conceptualizedhereasbasemotivation.Hofstedecallsa

masculinesocietyonethatismotivatedbywantingtobethebest,anda

femininesocietyaslikingwhatyoudo.Asasociety,ahighmasculinityscore

meansthesocietyisdrivenbycompetition,achievementandsuccess,with

successdefinedas“winning”orbeing“best-in-the-field.”Alowmasculinity

scoremeansdominantvaluesareincaringforothersandthefocusismore

onqualityoflife.Qualityoflifeisthesignofsuccessandstandingoutfrom

thecrowdisnotadmirable.Also,taskorientationversusperson-orientation.

• Uncertaintyavoidance.U.S.:46.Norway:50.

Definition:Thewayasocietydealswiththefactthatthefuturecanneverbe

known.

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• Long-termorientation.U.S.:26.Norway:35.

Definition:Howasocietymaintainslinkswithitspastwhiledealingwith

presentandfuturechallenges.

• Indulgence.U.S.:68.Norway:55.

Definition:Theextenttowhichpeopletrytocontroldesiresandimpulses.

(http://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html).

Somescholarsarguethatpublicrelationsresearchreliestooheavilyon

particularworldviews,suchasthatoftheUnitedStates:

Theformerinternationalmodelsofpublicrelationsaregroundedin

positivism(Dozier&Lauzen,1998;Grunig,1992;Holtzhausen,2000)and

largelypredicatedonneoliberaleconomics,whichproposesthatthegreatest

social,political,andeconomicgoodresultsfromthefreeflowofcapitalanda

free-marketsystem.Thesemodelsaregroundedinassumptionsof

democracy,capitalism,economicandpressfreedom,andcivilliberties,

amongotherconsiderations(Holtzhausen,2000;Kruckeberg,1995;Pearson,

1990;Sharpe,1992;Vercicetal.,2001;Wilson,1990).Becausesignificant

partsoftheworlddonotfitthesedefiningcriteriaandoperateunder

dramaticallydifferentpoliticalandeconomicsystems,atrendofretrofitting

theWesternneoliberalmodeltoothercultureshasevolvedinthe

scholarship,withproblematicimplications:“Manyoftheassumptionsthat

guideWesterntheoriesandpracticesarenotapplicableinotherregionsof

theworld”(Taylor&Kent,1999,p.131).(Gaither&Curtin,2008,p.117).

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Sometheoristsarguethataddingcultureasavariablewhenapplyingpublic

relationsmodelstointernationalscenarioscouldhelp,andsomehaveadded

generalizedculturalindicessuchasHofstede’sdiscussedabove.Gaither&Curtin

(2008)writethattheWest’sisonlyonereferencepointforwhatitmeanstostudy

andpracticepublicrelations.Notably,theyproposeaculturalmodeltobe

incorporatedwithpublicrelations.Thiscircuitofculturemodelencompassesthe

interrelationsandinteractionsofregulation,identity,production,consumptionand

representation(Gaither&Curtin,2008,p.118).

Contingencytheoryisrelevanttoapplytocommunicatingenvironmental

sustainability.Communicatingenvironmentalsustainabilitycanbeseenas

managingtheconflictbetweenpublicswithclimatechangeconcerns,suchas

governmententities,activistpublicsandthegeneralpublic’sconsciousness,and

organizationsunderconsiderationthatareinapositionofneedingtocommunicate

onthistopic.Somecompanies,byvirtueoftheirmainfunctionormeansof

operationhaveahighimpactontheenvironmentbydefinition.Companies

conductingpetroleumexplorationandproduction,forexamplehaveahighimpact

intheenvironment.Agriculturecompaniesfromthosethatusefertilizer(a

petroleumproduct)tothoseengagedintheharvestingoftreescomeunderfire

fromclimatechangegroups.

TheNorwegianLandscape:CorporateSocialandEnvironmentalResponsibility

Norwayisamodernandhighlydevelopedcountrywithasmallbutrobust

economy.Grossdomesticproductpercapitaisamongthehighestintheworld

(2014InvestmentClimateSurvey–Norway,June2014,p.1),anditssovereign

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wealthfundisthelargestintheworldat$830billionin2013(p.10).Thereare

approximately5,500foreign-ownedcompaniesinNorway,andforeigndirect

investmenthasmorethandoubledinthepastdecadeto$183billionattheendof

2012(p.5).WhenthesecompaniesareoperatingonNorwegiansoil,theymust

abidebyNorwegianlaw,andtotheextentthatNorwegianpublicswieldpowerinits

democraticsystem,theymuststayinthegoodgracesofvotingpublics.

Corporatesocialresponsibilityis“verymuchapartofNorwegiancorporate

andpoliticalconsciousness,”(2014InvestmentClimateSurvey–Norway,June

2014,p.10).ThegovernmentisamajorownerintheNorwegianeconomy,(p.1)

andclimatepolicy,procurementpolicyanddevelopmentpolicyareallpartofthe

governmentguidelinesfor“ethicalandresponsibleconductingovernment-owned

enterprises,”(p.10).

Pastresearchhassoughttodescribehowafirmarrivesatitslevelof

commitmenttowardcorporateenvironmentalandsocialresponsibility.Afour-part

conceptualmodeldiscussedbyLynesandAndrachuk(2008)showstheinfluences,

motivationsandcatalystsonafirm’slevelofcommitmenttotheseissues.PartIof

themodeliscomposedoffourkeyinfluencesystems—markets,socialsystem,

politicalsystemandsciencesystem—andtheirinterplaythatmakeupinfluences

onthegivenfirm.Motivationstowardcorporateenvironmentalandsocial

responsibility,suchasfinancialbenefits,competitiveadvantageandimage

enhancementmakeupPartIIofthemodel.InPartIIIarecatalystssuchasculture,

internalleadershipandfinancialpoliciesandfinally,theoutputofthemodel,and

PartIVisthefirm’slevelofcommitmenttocorporatesocialandenvironmental

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responsibilityasdemonstratedbypledgestotakeaction,responsibilitytakenforits

action,levelofinvolvementinsocialandenvironmentalissuesanddedicationto

improvingthegivenfirm’sperformance.(p.379).Whilethesepartsaresimplified

hereforthesakeofbrevity,theimportanttake-awayfromthemodelisthekey

market,socialsystem,politicalsystemandscienceinfluencesatplay.These

influencesaredynamicallygroupedintothosethatareinternal,externalandsector-

specific(Lynes&Andrachuk,2008),someofwhicharenotablyparallelto

contingencytheoryfactordivisions.

AcasestudyofScandinavianAirlines’adoptionofcorporatesocialand

environmentalpracticesinvolvesdifferentmarketinfluencesbutkeyoverlapwith

thepresentlyproposedstudyinpoliticalsystem,socialsystem,andscience

influences.Politically,airtravel’scloseassociationwithglobalizationheightensthe

needforittoexaminesocialandenvironmentalsustainability(Lynes&Andrachuk,

2008).Lynes&AndrachukwritethatinScandinaviatherearehighlevelsofsocial

security,highaveragewages,apowerfullabormovementwiththehighestunion

membershipratesintheworld,stronglaborrightsforwomen,thehighest

proportionofwomeninparliamentforEuropeanUnioncountries,44percentin

Sweden,andahighlevelofcooperationbetweenorganizationsandthestate.“The

stabilityoftheScandinaviancountriesalongwiththeirsolideducationsystemand

stronghealthcareandsocialsecuritysystemsmeansthatpeoplecanconcentrateon

otherissues,suchastheenvironmentalresponsibilityoffirms.“(Lynes&

Andrachuk,2008,p382).Further,astudyacross22countriesfoundthatfor

managersandprofessionals,collectivismanduniversalismarepositivelyrelatedto

17

corporatesocialandenvironmentalresponsibility,whileindividualismisnegatively

related.(Egrietal.,2004)

Lynes&Ancrachukarguethatmodelsthatdonottakeinfluenceson

corporatecommitmenttowardsocialandenvironmentalresponsibilityriskfailure.

18

Methodology

Inafirstpushintoexaminecontingencytheory’smanifestationsin

Norwegianpublicrelations,qualitativeresearchmethodologysurfacesasthebest

option.Itiscommonforexploratoryresearchtobequalitativeinnatureandtolater

followwithquantitativeandthereforemoregeneralizableanalysis(Silverman,

2010a).Finedetailsthatmakeastudystrongcomethroughbestinaninterview

formatthatoffersaplatformforelaborationandexpandedinquirywherenecessary

(Spangler&Pompper,2011,p.9).

Semistructuredinterviewswereconductedwith10communications

professionalswhocommunicateenvironmentalresponsibilityaspartoftheirjob.

Thisfallswithintheproposedrangeof10-20interviews,whichisbasedon

previouslypublishedstudies(Cameron,Cropp,&Reber,2000;Curtin1999;Marra

1998;Rollins,Nickell,&Ennis,2014),butultimatelyinterviewscontinueduntilno

newpatternsemerged,andideasaturationwasreached.

Afullpapertrailincludingfieldnotesfrominterviews,audiorecordingsof

interviewsandnotesonprocessaccompanytheresearchprocessasrecommended

byscholars.Anonymousquotesfromparticipantsareinthewriteupwhererelevant

(Silverman,2010b).Tofurtherprotecttheanonymityofparticipants,namesof

companyproductsandotheridentifiableinformationhasbeenremoved.

Interviewswererecordedonaudiodevice,andfilessavedwithafilename

codingsystemthatremovedallidentifiableinformationfortheindividuals

19

interviewed.Oncecollected,audiodatawasthentranscribedandcodedusing

focusedcoding.Integrativememoswerewritten,thenthemesselectedand

connectiontotheorysought(Emerson,1995).Alldatawasthenanalyzedfor

patternsuntilideasaturationwasreached.Fileswerethentranscribedandsavedin

textdocumentsusingthesamenomenclatureandsavedonapassword-protected

laptop.Oneaudiofiledidnotrecordproperly,butimmediatelyupondiscoveringthe

issue,theresearcherwrotenotesontheconversation.Whilethedataissufficientas

notesfordataanalysisviatheconstantcomparativemethodwiththeother

transcripts,thisoneoutofteninterviewsdoesconstituteaweaknessinthe

methodology,albeitminor.

Thisresearchwasdesignedtomaximizeunderstandingoffactorsatplaydue

tothepreliminarynatureofthiscross-culturalresearch.Thebestmaterialcame

fromthestoriesabouttheconflicts,andinresponsetoquestionsaboutwhycertain

actionswerechosen,whethertheaction(s)hadthedesiredoutcome,whatelsewas

considered,etc.,andrelevantquotesareincludedthroughout.

ParticipantsInterviewswerewithrepresentativesofcompaniesorwithagenciesthat

handlestrategiccommunicationofenvironmentalissues.Alloftheindividuals

interviewedweretheprimaryindividualhandlingenvironmentalcommunication

fortheorganizationathand.Interviewswerewiththecommunicationsdirectoror

topindividualwhocommunicatesenvironmentalissues.Jobtitlesincludedvice

presidentofcommunicationsandcorporateaffairs,directorofexternalrelations

andcommunication,communicationmanager,managingpartnerandmore.While

20

therearecertainlyotherpeopleanddepartmentswithinanorganizationthatcould

beinterviewedoncommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability(CEO,

environmentalspecialists,etc.),professionalcommunicatorsweretheprimary

interestbecausenomatterwhattheyaretaskedwithexecutingmessaging.

Individualsweregenerallypartoforganizations’executiveteam.Individualshad

experiencerangingfrom35yearsofgovernmentworktobusinessdevelopment

turnedgovernmentregulatorturnedcommunicationandexternalaffairsdirector

(RS10).Mostwerecareercommunicators,butparticipantsnonethelesshadvaried

backgroundsandeducationsoutsidecommunication.Somewereschooledin

economicsinNorwayandabroad(GHI02,RS10,MNO24)andsomehadexperience

onthepoliticalscene(ABC04,MNO24).Anothertrainedasapoliticalscientist,

educatedfurtherwithineconomicsandjournalismwithtwentyyearsofexperience

inenvironmentalcommunication(MNO24).Yetanothertrainedasamarine

biologistwithfouryearsasaprojectmanagertaskedwithcommunication

(BEBH0611).

Participatingcompaniesincludeglobalindustryleadersoperatingin

Norway’sprimarysectorincludingthepetroleum,agricultureandaquaculture

industries.CompaniesarebasedinNorway,NorwegianStockExchange(ABC04),

oneindustryassociation(JKL05),multinationalcorporationsheadquarteredinthe

U.S.,Norwayandothers(RS10).Companiesrangedinsizefromfewerthan10to

80,000globallywith800to900inNorway(RS10).Onecompanydoes

environmentaltestingonbehalfofindustryandonecompanyisacommunication

21

agencythatdoescontractworkfortheagricultureandaquacultureindustries

amongothers.

Experiencerangedfromupto35yearsinpolitics.Notablycommunication

directorpositionsinthesecompaniesismergedwithotherfunctionsevenatlarge

companies,forexample,acommunicationdirectorwhoisalsoresponsiblefor

portionsoffinance(CDNS),corporateaffairsdirectoranddirectorof

communicationsfor7years(GHI02)dealingwithsustainabilityissuesforthose7

yearsaswellas12yearsprioratoneoftheworld’slargestfoodcompanies.Dealing

withavastrangeofissuesrelatedtobothenvironmentalandsocialsustainability

issues:childlabor,obesity,sourcingqualities,marketing,andbeforethat

governmentservicefortheministryofagricultureandbeforethattheNorwegian

ForeignServiceinBrusselsanddealingwithtradenegotiationswiththeWorld

TradeOrganizationdealingwithagreementsfortradeandtariffs(GHI02).

Companieshadmadevariouslevelsofcommitmentstoenvironmental

responsibility,includinghavingsignedtheUNGlobalCompact,arememberofthe

GlobalCompactNordicNetwork(CDNN),whereparticipantsfromDenmark,

Finland,NorwayandSwedendiscusscommonchallengesandtheimplementationof

thetenprinciplesintheUNGlobalCompact(ABC04AnnualReport).

Companiesrepresentedincludethosethebusinessworlddeemsprimary

sectorbusinesses,i.e.,companiesthathavetheircorebusinessfunctiontiedtothe

environmentornaturalresources.Suchindustriesincludepetroleumexploration&

production,agricultureandaquaculture.It’sworthnotingthatthispeculiar

situation—onewherethecompanyinherentlyhasahighimpactonthe

22

environment,yetthecompanyistaskedwithcommunicatingmeasuresof

environmentalsustainability—accentuatestheinadequacyofthetwo-way

symmetricalexcellencemodelproposedbyGrunig&Grunig,1992.Inthismodel,

onewouldbeexpectedtoadvocateonbehalfoftheorganization,andthereisno

roomforaccommodatingapublic.Approximatelyhalfofintervieweeswereinthe

petroleumindustry,andthiswasdueinparttothelargesizeofandprominentrole

thepetroleumsectorplaysintheNorwegianeconomy.

Sampling Twosamplingtechniques,purposiveandsnowballingwereusedto

complementeachotherduetothedifficultyoffindingqualifiedintervieweeswith

bothtimeandwillingnesstoparticipate.Theresearcherbeganwithdiscussions

withthefounderofoneofNorway’slargestpublicrelationsfirms,whohasa

UniversityofMissouriconnection,toserveasastartingpointforsnowballing.

Thesemembersarechosenfortheirhighestlikelihoodofhavingthetaskof

communicatingenvironmentalfriendliness.

Additionallytheresearcherreachedoutonanindividualbasistopublic

relationspractitionersfromleadingorganizationsintheseindustries.Anothernote

onthepetroleumindustry:Nearlyhalfofthisstudy’sparticipantscamefromthe

petroleumindustryforseveralreasons.Thepetroleumindustryisprominentin

Norway,andtheresearcherwasabletomakeearlyandfruitfulconnectionswith

membersofthisindustry.Becauseitisalargeandactiveindustry,onemembership-

basedindustryorganizationwasabletomakeanumberofsuggestedconnections

23

forinterviewees.Interviewinganumberoforganizationsfromoneindustrycould

biastheresultsiftherewasapatternwithinthatindustry.

SemistructuredInterviewingSemistructuredinterviewsofferampleopportunityforintervieweestooffer

informationtheyseeasmostpertinentandmeaningfultotheexperienceathand

whileallowingtheinterviewertheabilitytoprovideguidancetotheinterviewand

makesurehighpointsarehit.Hearingandprobing,whichgetatthequestionof

how,andexploringmotivations,whichgetattheheartofwhy,arecitedbyscholars

asjustafewfortesofinterviewing.Contextisalsoimportanttothesequestions

(Berger,2014,p112),whichthroughobservationssuchasareaeconomicand

censusdata,mightbeabletomorefullyexplainphenomena.

Spangler&Pompper(2011,p.9)notethatinterviewsarecommonly

conductedwhenaresearcheridentifiesgivenexpertswhoseknowledgeofaspecific

fieldcanilluminatetheparticularareaofresearchinterest.Thepremiseofthe

presentstudyistodrawonpersonalexperiencesandanecdotesofpractitioners.

Qualitativemethodologyprovidesnuanceddescriptionscanalsobecapturedby

qualitativemethods(Silverman,2010a).Interviewingallowsforexploring

motivationsandattitudesofthepastandpresentandhearingandprobing(Berger,

2014,p.113).

Atopicguideinstrumentofapproximately10-15probeswaspilotedwitha

layperson,aNorwegiancitizen,tominimizeanyunclearmeaningsarisingfromthe

wordingbytheAmericaninterviewerandNorwegianinterviewees.Asclarifications

24

wereanabsoluteminimum,theresearcherwasabletoproceedwithadded

confidencethatthelanguagebarrierwouldindeedbemarginalasanticipated.

Anaddedbenefitofthepilotinterviewwasitprimedtheinterviewerfor

someoftheresponsesthatmightcomeupandconfirmsomeofthebig

environmentalplayersthatmightanddidcomeupinactualinterviews.

Theinstrumentguidewasmadeavailabletorespondentsinadvanceif

requested,butnonedid.Informedconsentformsweresuppliedpriortothe

interviewinaccordancewiththeresearchers’universityInstitutionalReviewBoard

requirements.Respondentswereaskedavarietyofquestionsabouttheirpublic

relationsexperienceasitpertainstotheenvironmentandimageandforexamples

tosupportstatements.Probeswereopen-endedtoensureconversationsweren’t

restrictiveandtoencourageintervieweestoself-reportinasmuchdetailasthey

werecomfortable.Intervieweeswereaskedtodefinekeytermsinaccordancewith

Berger’s(2014,p.115)suggestion.Floatingpromptswerebeusedwhere

appropriatetoelicitelaboration.Keyquestionsforelaborationinclude“Andthen

whathappened…Whowasinvolved…Whendidthishappen…Whydidithappen…

Wheredidithappen…Whatwastheresult?”(p.115).

Tohelpremedyhesitationsforrevealingless-than-flatteringpracticesin

communicatingenvironmentalfriendliness,suchasthehypocriticalpracticeof

greenwashing,thequestionofhowtheyperceiveothercompaniesinNorway

strategizeandexecuteonthetopicwasasked.Thevalueofthisparticularquestion’s

responselayinhelpingtheresearcherbetterrecognizeanyhintsatsuch

25

communicationpracticesinsubsequentinterviews,sofloatingpromptscouldbe

employedmoreeffectively.

MinimizingCulturalDifferences,MaximizingTheoryBuildingBuildingrapportwasparticularlyimportantwiththisgroup,asthe

researcherwasanAmericanwithaboutfiveyearsofprofessionalexperience,and

intervieweeswereNorwegiancitizenswithmoreextensiveexperienceinpublic

relations.Onetechniqueforthis,easilyappliedtosemi-structuredinterviews,is

whenaquestionofunderstandingarisestoinquire,“Whenwouldyoudothat?,”or

“Whatwouldyouusethatfor?,”ratherthan“Whatdoyoumeanbythat?,”which

mightmorereadilyhighlightdifferencesbetweenhowthetwouselanguageand

causetheintervieweetoseetheinterviewerasdifferentthantheyare(Leech,2002,

p.666).

Thisresearchwas100percentself-fundedbytheprimaryresearcher,which

isworthnotingbecausemultipleintervieweesandovercamehesitancyto

participateuponlearningthis.

Ingeneral,demonstratinggenuineinterestandconsiderableinvestment

intimeandresourcestoexplorecontingencytheory’sapplicationsto

communicatingenvironmentalresponsibilityinNorwayhelpedmaximizethe

likelihoodofpotentialintervieweesbeingwillingtoparticipate.Inparticular,

travelingfromtheU.S.toconductface-to-faceinterviewsinNorwayhelp

demonstratethisinterest.

Additionally,Norway’sesteemforhighereducationmighthavemademore

participantswillingtosharetheirtimeandexperienceswithapersontheydidn’t

26

personallyknowandhadn’tmetbefore.AdditionallyNorway’sopenculturemight

havehelpedaswell.

Thesignaturelineofallemailcommunicationsincludedtheresearcher’s

professionalportfoliowebsitedescribingthecurrentresearchathand,related

researchpresentedbytheresearcherattheInternationalPublicRelationsResearch

Conference,andpastprofessionalworkinthepetroleumandagricultureindustries.

Themajorityofinterviews—allbutone—wereheldatthepractitioners’

placesofworkforthesakeofconvenienceforthepractitioner.Interviewswere

approximatelyonehour,andthesetupofinterviewquestionsreflectedthis.This

constraintwasimposedbywhatisconsideredatypicallengthforabusiness

meeting,sothatitwouldconvenientlyfitintotheinterviewee’sday.

Theinterviewsfocusedonkeypublicsthecompanyconsiderswhen

communicatingenvironmentalsafety,sustainabilityand/orcorporatesocial

responsibility.Interviewsfocusedontheinternalandexternalfactorsacompany

takesintoconsiderationwhencommunicatingtothesepublics.Refertotheresearch

questionsguidingthestudyabove.

Interviewsofferintrospectiononthetopicbytherespondentwhilestill

beingcontrolledbytheresearcher.Byusingtheinterviewtechniquetheresearcher

gainsaccesstothespiritofcommunicationsintheNorwegianlanguagethatwould

otherwiserequireatranslator’sservice.Nuancecanbetterbeconveyedthan

throughasurveyandclarificationsought,whichwillbeimportantgiventhecultural

differencesbetweentheresearcherandtherespondents.Advantagesof

interviewingincludeachievingmaximummutualunderstandingofthephenomena

27

beinginvestigated.Richdescriptivequalitativeinterviewdatacollectionmayserve

asafirststepindevelopingahypothesisthatcouldlaterbetestedusing

quantitativetechniques,whichwouldallowforgeneralizationtoalargerpopulation

atthattime.

Intermsofminingforcontent,itwouldhavebeenveryeasyforthese

interviewstolastlonger.It’sworthnotingthattheinterviewerwasmetwithsome

resistanceintalkingindetailaboutparticularcrisesorriskstances,particularlyfor

ongoingissues.

Inthefirstfewinterviews,thefirsttheresearcherdidnotsuggestfactorsfor

consideration,butinCameron,Cropp&Reber(2000),in“GettingPastPlatitudes”,

thiswasacceptable.Theauthorswritethatthesociallydesirableresponsein

discussingcommunicationstrategyisto“makenice”andnottobetooawfully

strategicorgoaloriented,whichmeansneedingtogivepermissiontofolkstoopen

up.Afterexhaustingvoluntaryconsiderationsbytheinterviewees,theresearcher

thenaskedintervieweestosharetheirmostmemorableconflictandhowitwent

down,essentiallyprobingtotriggerrecognitionandelaborationfromthe

respondent’spart.

Theinitialconcernwastodotoomuchpressingandprobing,andbeultra-

carefulnottoleadpeopletoanyofthefactors.Moreexplicitlyaskingaboutthe

actions,whythataction,outcomeandotherconsiderationsshouldnotultimatelybe

misleadingtoaprofessional.Time-wiseanotherdifficultywasinthetime

constraints.Acommonpatternwasforcompaniestofocuson,explainanddefend

theenvironmentalmeasuresbeforediscussinganycommunicationstrategy.While

28

notaproblem,everyminutecountsina1-hourinterview.Sowhilethepreliminary

interviewinstrumentdidcontainalineofquestionsaboutrecentorotherwise

memorableconflicts.

Inaccordancewithmethodologyforsemi-structuredinterviews,the

instrumentcanbeadjustedbasedonwhattheresearcherislearningfrom

interviewsalreadyconducted.Itisdesignedtoallowtheresearchertoimprovethe

qualityofinformationwitheachsubsequentinterview.

29

Analysis

Thisstudywassuccessfulinansweringitstwodrivingresearchquestions,

whichagainare:

RQ1:WhatfactorsfromthecontingencytheoryofaccommodationmanifestwhenNorwegiancommunicationsmanagersdiscusshowtheydealwithkeypublicsoncorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcerns?

RQ2:ArethereadditionalconsiderationsthatNorwegiancommunicationsmanagerstendtoemphasizewhendiscussinghowtheydealwithkeypublicsoncorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcerns?

Whatfollowsisabriefoverviewofanswerstotheseresearchquestionsbeforea

roadmaptotheanalysissectionanddiscussiononthemeaningthatcanbedrawn

fromthedatainthediscussionsection.

InansweringRQ1,factorsinall11categoriesofcontingencytheorymanifest.

Inparticularthisstudyfoundtheubiquityofthreatsrelatedtofactorsinfluencing

politicalandsocialsupportforthesecompaniesmanifestthroughoutinterviewing.

InansweringRQ2,atendencytoemphasizeonfact-basedcommunicationemerged

asaloudandclearpreferenceemergedfortheexistingfactor“howindividuals

receive,processanduseinformationandinfluence”,whichisinthecategoryof

internalvariables,individualcharacteristics(ofpublicrelationspractitioner,

dominantcoalitionandlinemanagers).Finally,althoughthisstudydidnotseekto

discovercontingencytheoryfactorsthatdidnotmanifest,internalvariablesrelated

tocharacteristicsofindividualpeople—PRpractitionersandtopmanagement—

aroselessfrequentlythanotherinternalorexternalfactors.

30

Foreaseofmanaging86factorsacrosstendifferentinterviews,discussion

willsurroundthe11categoriesofinternalandexternalvariablesincontingency

theory,whicharefullylistedinAppendixC.Categoriesofexternalvariablesinclude:

1)threats,2)industryenvironment,3)generalpolitical/social

environment/externalculture,4)externalpublicand5)issueunderquestion.

Categoriesofinternalvariablesinclude:1)organizationcharacteristics,2)public

relationsdepartmentcharacteristics,3)characteristicsofdominantcoalition,4)

internalthreats5)individualcharacteristicsand6)relationshipcharacteristics.This

structureisinaccordancewithPyrczak&Bruce(2005a,p.104),whichsays

qualitativeresearchresultsshouldbeorganizedinasstraightforwardmanneras

possibleandthatorganizationbemadecleartothereader.Forexample,Pyrczak&

Brucerecommendreportingonmajortrendsandthemesthatemergefrom

subjectiveandobjectiveanalysesofdatasuchastranscribedinterviews.

Subheadingsbelowwillguidethereaderthroughthisstudy’sresults.

Noteachandeveryfactorwasspecificallyaddressedineveryinterviewfora

“yes”or“no”astowhetherthefactormanifestsasaconsiderationthoughthe

researchconcludesthatthemajoritydidmanifestevenwithoutcomprehensive

probing,buthighlightsareincludedineachcategoryincludingrelevantquotes

throughout.

Category-by-CategoryFactorManifestations

Externalvariables:Threats. Ofallthefactorsthatmanifestedthroughinterviewing,threatswerethe

mostfrequent.Communicationmanagersclearlyhadathoroughunderstandingof

31

repercussionsifconflictgotoutofhand.Thisconclusionisreachednotonlyfrom

thenumberoftimesthefactorsof“governmentregulation”,“potentiallydamaging

publicity”and“scarringoforganization’sreputationincommunity”arose,butalso

becauseofthenonverbalcuesassociatedthatsuggestedfamiliarity,clarityand

confidence.

Oneparticipantfromthepetroleumindustrycompany,forexample,explains

theimplicationsofbeingviewedasnotenvironmentallysustainablenotnecessarily

asanimmediateordirecteconomicimpact,butonethateventuallyendsin

governmentregulation:

“Thegovernmentisbiannuallygivelicensestotheoilcompanies,andhowmuchnewareastheyareopeningupforoilexplorationisdependingonhowisthe,howmuchwillparliamentandopinionofthepeople,society,accepttoopen.Andofcoursethemorepeoplethataremoreagainstexplorationandagainsttheoilindustry,lessnewareastobeopenedforthisindustry.Soinnextphase,wearesufferingofcourseasanindustry,”(PQ31).

Sointhecaseofthepetroleumindustry,thesociallicensetooperateisalso

literallyagovernment-issuedlicensetooperate,becausethereareliterallyfewer

licensesavailableonthewholethatalimitednumberofcompaniescangetinon.

(PQ31).

Many,manydiscussionsofthreatsultimatelycamebacktoanaversionto

additionaloronerousgovernmentregulationsasarepercussionofnothandling

conflictwell,andthatcanleadtoexpenses,losttimeandmore.Infactdiscussionof

mostimportantpublicsfrequentlyledbacktothesethreatsandultimatelythe

threatofgovernmentregulation.Mostimportantpublicstypicallyincludedthe

government/ministries/regulators,localandregionalcommunities,andmediaand

32

thegeneralpublic.Somecitedpoliticiansareimportantpublicsbecausetheyarethe

ones“puttinguptheramifications”atthelocal,regionalandnationallevel(ABC04).

Multipleintervieweesexpressedthatlosingthesupportofpoliticianscouldleadto

newregulations,andifthegeneralpopulationwasn’thappywithpoliticians’

regulations,therewouldbenohesitationtoreplacethosepoliticianswithoneswho

wouldregulatecorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityastheysawfit.

Anotherintervieweealsoplacesreputationasintegraltounderstanding

threats:

“Incompetenceisourmostdifficultenemy,andit’sthebiggestthreat.Itcandestroythereputation…TodaythereareinNorwaymaybe20-25environmentalorganizations,andtherearesomebig.Andsomeofthebigareverysmart.Theyhaveveryskilledpeoplethatunderstandwhatwe’redoing;wearecooperatingwiththem...[Others]don’tseethewhole,every,thebigpicture,they’rejustpickingoutpartofthepictureandmakingastoryaboutit…That’swhatwearecopingwith,Ithink,whenitcomestothiskindofpublicrelationswhenyoucanteardownyourreputationinasecondbyincompetentpeople(ABC04).

Reputationcameupmanytimes,asintervieweesexplained,becauseapoor

reputationcanleadtomanynegativepolitical,socialandthereforefinancial

consequences.

“Legitimizingactivists’claims”didnotcomeupdirectlyinanyofthe

interviews;however,havingtoavoidpublicconversationsonquestionabletopics

did.Inoneinterviewee’swords:

Incompetenceaboutthisbusiness,aboutwhat’seffectingenvironment,fromthiskindoforganization,wearelikehelplessagainstit…Andthat’swhywearenotontheFacebook.Becauseyougetalotofpeoplecommentingthewrongthings.It’slikekids,likesmallkidsgettingharassedonFacebookandonotherkindsofchannels.Wecan’tallowit.That’swhywecan’tbethere.(ABC04).

33

Sothiswasn’tspokenofdirectlyaslegitimizingaclaimbyaddressingit,butrather,

thathavingsocialmediaplatformswhereactivistscouldmakeanyclaimsunderthe

sunwasdetrimentalforthiscompanyasitcoulddamagethecompanyordrain

resourcesinaddressingthem.

Externalvariables:Industryenvironment. Mostexternalindustryenvironmentvariablesmanifestinconversationas

well.Somanyinterviewscamebacktohavingagoodreputationinordertonot

leaveoneselfvulnerabletolosingthatsociallicensetooperateortoexposeoneself

tothepossibilityforneedingadditionalindustryregulation.Inthisway,thefactthat

themostintervieweespointedoutadditionalregulationscouldeasilyhappenand

theydidnotwantthemtohappen,theindustryenvironment’sabilitytochange(be

dynamicandnotstatic)definitelykeptcommunicatorsontheirtoes,andit’s

“changing(dynamic)orstatic”naturefactoredintocommunication.The“numberof

competitors/levelofcompetition”matteredaswell.

Multiplecommunicatorsintheaquacultureindustryexplainedgovernment

regulationsonthesizeofearlyfishingoperationsthroughoutNorwayuntilthe

1990shasshapedtheindustrysothattherearemostlysmalllocalcompanieswith

nowtwoorthreecompaniesthathavebecomelargesinceindustrylicensing

regulationschangedinthe1990stoallowmorethanonepermitpercompany.One

personexplainshavingsomanysmall,localoperations:

Thatimpactsverymuchhowalsohowindustryisseenandhowtheindustryassociationcanwork…Alittlecompanyinalocalcommunity[is]normallyhighlyrespectedinthatlocalcommunitybecauseitemployspeople.Itspeopletheyknow.Theytrustthatcompany,andwhyshouldasmallcompanywithafewlicensesthatishighlyrecognizedintheirlocalcommunity,whyshouldtheyputalotofresourcesintomakingabig

34

sustainabilityreport?Whowouldbeinterestedinthat?Noone.Thestakeholderslocally,theytrustthecompany,ahsowhywouldtheyhavetomakeabigreport?(GHI02).

Bycontrast,severalintervieweesmentionedthepetroleumindustryhadno

sizeregulationsfromthestart,solargecompanieswereabletoenterthemarket

fromthestart,competewiththehelpoftheNorwegiangovernment,oraggressively

growinsizewithnoregulatorylimitations.Thatsaid,oneintervieweenotedthe

highnumberofsmallcompetitorsintheuniqueaquacultureindustrydoesnot

necessarilyleadittohandleitsenvironmentalconflictswiththeaccommodative

stance(GHI02).Thisvariablelikelywouldnothavesurfacedifnotforthecontrasts

beingdrawnbetweenthepetroleumandaquacultureindustries.

Interviewssuggestthatwhencompilingasustainabilityreportismandated,

thefavorabilityofacompany’ssustainabilityfiguresandtrendoffailingor

improvingcanbeviewedaseitheradvocacy(ifthenumbers/trendsaregood)or

viewedasaccommodation(ifthenumbersareneutralpoor).

Relativepoweralsomatters,asoneintervieweecommented:“AndIthink[anewregulationonoilcompanieshavingtosupplyoffshoreinstallationswithonshorepower]reflectstheincreasedpowerfromtheseNGOs,whichhaveamajorimpactonmajorpoliticalpartiesintheparliamentactuallyIthink.Ithinkalsohavingalotofimpactonthedebategoingoninthemedia(PQ31).Companiesmustbeconsciousofwhatthatdebateinthemedialookslike,

whichintervieweesexpressedfactorsintothewaytheirorganizationschooseto

accommodateoradvocate.

35

Externalvariable:Generalpolitical/socialenvironment/externalculture. Thisentirecategorymanifestedfrequentlywithitsfactors,“degreeof

politicalsupportofbusiness”and“degreeofsupportofbusiness”.Thismaybe

becauselossofsupportintheseareasleadstotherepercussionsthatcompaniesare

mosttryingtoavoid.Multipleintervieweesusedthesameterm,“sociallicenseto

operate”,todescribesupport,andreportedthatiftheircompanieslostthethatlocal

governmentofficialswouldstepupandbeginregulatoryaction,possiblyleadingto

furthergovernmentalregulation,whichwasviewedasabadthingbythese

companies.

Externalvariable:Theexternalpublic.Morethanhalfoftheexternalpublicvariablesmanifested.Forexample,

“size/numberofmembers”mattersbecauseintervieweesexpressedconcernthat

onceacommunity—thegeneralvotingpublic—turnsagainstacompanyanditloses

its“sociallicensetooperate”thatthecompanyisindangerofnewregulationsor

gettingshutdownaltogetherinanarea.Oneintervieweesaid:

Youcansplitsocietyinthreegroups.YouhavethosewhohaveamajortrusttotheNGOsandbelievethattheoilcompanies[are]onlybad.Theyarepollutinganddestroyerofenvironment.Andyouhaveonegroupthathavetrusttotheindustryandtothedifferentcompanies,andthisokay.It’sabsolutelypossibletohavethisbusinessgoingon,toproduceoilandusetheoilanddoitmoreenvironmentaltomakethatquitesustainable.Thenyouhaveagroupthathavebeenquitebiginthesocietythatjustdoesn’tcare…Butinthepastfewyears,Ithinkthatgrouphasdeclined…themajorpart[ofthepreviouslyundecidedgroup]IthinkaresympathizingwiththeNGOs.” Thisintervieweewentontoexplainthatperhaps60percenthadpreviously

beenundecided,with20percentoneitherside,butnowthesplitisshiftingto,

“maybe30percentontheNGOside,maybe15-20percentonourside,thecompany

36

side.Thenthelargegroupinthemiddle.”(PQ31).Shiftinpublicsupportmight

meanhavingtoadjuststrategy.

Thefactorof“whetherrepresentativesofthepublicknoworlike

representativesoftheorganization”alsomanifest.Oneintervieweerelayeda

conversationfromearlyinhercareerthathasstuckwithher.Intheearlystagesof

theinterviewee’scareer,sheattendedoneofNorway’slargestenvironmental

conferenceswheresherecognizedandwantedtointroduceherselftoaleading

environmentalcriticwhoshehadbeencommunicatingwithonTwitter.She

introducedherself,and:

He[got]10centimetersclosetomynoseandhejustaskedme,“Howisittomakealivingfromlies?Really?Howisit?”Um,andthenhejuststarted,justlikeaccusingmeofbeingabadperson,howcouldIsleepatnight,you’reruiningtheworld…andhescaredtheshitoutofme.BecauseIhadnevermetsomeonebeingso,actingsochildishandalsothreatening,likeonaprofessionalarena.Sothatkindofdidsomethingtome…Ithinkithastoughenedme,butIthinkithasalsomadememorecriticaltomyownmessages.Thattheyneedtostick,theyneedtobetrue,theyneedtobeverygoodexplainedsothattheycanbeaschildishastheywant,butatleastI’mprofessionalandwhatI’msayingisactually,it’sreal.(JKL05).

Thisdoesnotnecessarilytranslatetoanadvocativeoraccommodativestance,butit

demonstratesthatlikeabilitycanhaveanimpactoncommunications.

Anotherfactorinthiscategorythatsurfacedwas“degreeofsource

credibility/powerfulmembersorconnections”beingcredibleversus“small”or

“ignorant”publics.Otherfactorsthatmanifesthereinclude“community’s

perceptionofpublic:reasonableorradical”,“levelofmediacoveragethepublichas

receivedinthepast”and“whetherrepresentativesofthepublicknoworlike

representativesoftheorganization”,andviceversa.

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Externalvariables:Issueunderquestion. Allfactorsinthiscategorymanifest,including“size”,“stakes”and

“complexity”.Whileapublicmighttrytoblowasizeissueoutofproportion,for

example,anactivistgroupwithoutmuchcredibility,thecompanymightstillchoose

toadvocateforitselfbasedonthesize,nottheperceptionofthesizeoftheissue

despiteavocalactivistgroup’sperceptionofthesizeoftheissue.Forexample,one

intervieweedescribedanoilspillofapproximately20liters,whichisrelatively

minorinthegrandschemeofoilspills:

Suddenlyitwaslike[whoosh],tenorganizationsoutsideevenasmallspillover,small,verysmall…itlooksenormousbecauseitgetsonthetopofthewater.Soitlookslike,itlooksenormous.Soifyouspilljustthis[holdsupcoffeecup],itwillbeforabigarea,butitlooksreallybad.Soifyouhadoutboardmotorengine,andyoufillwithgas,petroltoit,andyouseeit’sfull,justafewdrops,and20litersjustlooksreallybig.Anditwasnothing.Sothegovernmentagencysaidthatthisisnothing.Whataretheymakingnoiseof?...Wetookitupimmediately,buttheymadeabigfussofit.(ABC04).

Hadthegovernmentchosentoimplementheavyfinesjeopardizing

operationsoftheorganization,thecompanymighthavebeenmoreinclinedto

accommodate,butinthiscaseastanceofadvocacywasadequate.

Internalvariables:Organization’scharacteristics. Intervieweesdescribed“economicstabilityoftheorganization”,

“organization’spastexperienceswiththepublic”,bothplayingapartinchoosingto

accommodateoradvocateoncertainconflictscenarios,butmanyofthefactorsin

thiscategoryweremoreambiguousastodirectconsequencesforaccommodation

oradvocacy.Otherfactorsarosebuthadamoreambiguousimpacton

accommodationoradvocacyinagivenscenario.Intervieweesexpressed

satisfaction—especiallywith“openorclosedculture”and“stratification/hierarchy

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ofpositions”withtheircompany’s—andmorebroadlyNorway’s—opencultureand

flathierarchy.Acrosstheboard,intervieweessuggestedthesecharacteristicsare

bothpositives,thoughtthemselvesmoresuccessfulandeffectiveincommunication

becauseofit.Inoneinterviewee’swords:

Ithinkwehavequiteopenculture.AndIthinkactuallythat’scommonwithNorwegiancompanies.Thehierarchyisnotthatsignificanthereasitisinalotofothercountries.Soyouhavethiscultureisalotmoreopen,justgodirectlytotheCEOandtellyouropinionofthecase,youcandiscusswithcolleaguesveryopen.Allissittinginthesameopenofficelocationoropenofficeenvironment.SoIthinkit’squiteeasytocommunicateacrossdifferentdepartments,acrossdifferentlevelsintheorganization.”(PQ31).

Severalfactorsthataroselessfrequentlyinclude,“dispersedwidely

geographicallyorcentralized”,“homogeneityorheterogeneityofemployees”,

distributionofdecision-makingpower”and“formalization:numberofrulesor

codesdefiningandlimitingthejobdescriptions”.

Interestingly,technologyseemstoberelatedstancesofaccommodationin

someinstancesandadvocacyinothers.The“leveloftechnologytheorganization

usestoproduceitsproductorservice”canbearguedasafactorleadingtogreater

advocacy—asintheorganizationcanpointtoallofthetechnologybeingused

towardtheendsofenvironmentalresponsibility—orgreateraccommodation—asin

technologyisbeingdevelopedtodoso.

Wealsochoosetechnology,whichisreallyimportant,becausethenthatshowsyouthatwe’realwaysthinkingaboutgettingbetteranddoingitsustainable….Werecycle90%ofthewatertoproduce[product],andthat’salsoimportantforustocommunicateout,andthat’salsoduetotechnology.Andit’sthetechnologypartinaquacultureisthemostfast-growing,whatcanIsay,thanoil.It’smuch,itgrowsfasterthatthetechnologydoesinoil.

39

Throughtechnology,thesecompaniesareaccommodatingpublic’sdemand

forincreasedcorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcerns.Inturn,whenthey

arecriticized,theycanadvocateforthemselvesbypointingtothesetechnology-

basedsustainabilitymeasuresanddemonstratingtheirsuccess.

Itisinterestingtospeculateonpossiblereasonswhytechnologyispartof

theconversationoncommunicatingsustainabilitymeasuresbeyondobvious

measurementandreportingreasons.CognitiveDissonanceTheorycouldsuggest

thatastrategybringingtechnologyintothediscussiononcorporateenvironmental

responsibilitycouldlendtechnology’sgeneralsocietalacceptance,goodsentiment

totheorganizationadvocatingitscorporateenvironmentalresponsibility.By

helpingpeopleunderstandthattechnologyishelpingthecompanysolve

environmentalproblems,it’spossiblethefavorableattitudetowardtechnology

couldbelenttothecompany.

Internalvariables:Publicrelationsdepartmentcharacteristics. Althoughthisresearchdidnotseektoidentifyfactorsthatdidnotmanifest,

fewerthanhalfofthiscategory’sfactorsinfactdid.Additionally,manyofthefactors

inthiscategorymanifestedthroughprobinganddidnotcomeupasfront-of-mind

responsestowhatfactoredintohowrecentconflictorcriseswerehandled.The

mostprominentfactorsmanifestinginthiscategoryinclude“typeofpasttrainingof

employees”and“representationinthedominantcoalition”,howeverthewaythat

thisfunctionsisnotnecessarilywhatonemightexpect.

Severalpractitionersmentionedearningtheirseatatthedecisionmaking

tablebyhavingasolidunderstandingofbusiness,economicsandpolitics.Evenin

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training,nearlyallparticipantscitedexperienceoutsideofPRstudyastheir

qualifications,withoneintervieweeevenbeingtrainedasamarinebiologistwithno

formalcommunicationtraining.

Resoundingly,participantssaidtoonlyknowcommunicationisnotenough.

Theconsultantworkingwithprimarysectorbusinessesnoted,

Myclients,theydon’tcometomeonlybecauseIhavetheedgeofcommunication.Theycometomelookingforsomeonewhoknowsbusiness,whoknowstheirindustry…Frommybeliefyouwon’tbeableasacommunicationguytoearnyourchairatthetablewiththemanagementandtheboardwithouthavingthatkindoflocalknowledgewithineconomics,business,research,otherwiseyouwon’tbeinvitedtothetable.Youhavetoknowhowtorunabusiness.Youhavetoknowwhatthedriversarewithinthisbusinessinordertocreatevalue…I’vebeenwiththisindustrysince’93,andit’scompletelydifferentnowthanitwas10yearsago.Becauseyouwon’tbeinvitedtothemanagementtableortotheboardswithoutprovingthatyoureallyhavesomecompetenciesandknowledgeabouttheirbusinessaswell.”(MNO24).

Hewentontosaythatunderstandingchangingtechnologyanditseffectson

channelsofcommunicationareverysmallcomparedthingslikepolitical

understandingthat“takesyouthroughthewholewayandremainslargelythe

same.”(MNO24).

Whiletechnicalcompetencetoadheringtoverystrictregulationsfora

companypublicallylistedontheOsloStockExchangeisalsoneededandeffectshow

companiescommunicatetothemarket,bothinpressreleasesandstatementstothe

stockexchange,thisisminorintermsofstrategy(PQ31).Whiletraininginresearch

andresearchmethodscanberelevanttocompanycommunication,oneinterviewee

choosesto“buythatservicefromPRagencyorconsultant,externalconsultantsfor

example,butforaccompanyofabout525employees,thatwouldbehardtohavein

house.”

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Otherfactorsthatarosethroughprobinginclude“Gender:percentageof

femaleupper-levelstaff/managers”and“physicalplacementofdepartmentin

building(nearCEOandotherdecisionmakersornot).

Internalvariables:Characteristicsofdominantcoalition(topmanagement). Surprisingly,onlyonefactormanifestedfromthiscategory,the“supportand

understandingofPR”expressedbymanagement.Multipleintervieweesexpressed

bothhavingaseatatthedecisionmakingtableaswellasfeelingheard,withthis

affectingcompanystance.Oneintervieweesaid,“Ofcoursewhenwehavesome

decisionsmakeexecutiveteam,andIsaythatokay,youhavetolistentomehere,

wehaveahugeriskonourreputation,whetherit’stothegovernmentortothe

massmarketorindustriesorsomething.Thenmyexperienceisthatthey’re

listeningtome,absolutely,yeah,”(PQ31).Thissameintervieweeelaboratedthat

despiteconstantback-and-forthwiththelegaldepartmentoncommunication

issues,thatheisheardandrespectedbytopmanagement.

Twopossibleexplanationssurfaceforthiscategory’slowmanifestations.

Oneissimplythattheresearchershouldhaveprobedmoreinthisarea,butmost

probingtookplaceeitherwithincategoriesorwithrelatedfactorssuchasinternal

andexternalreputation.Theoryoffersanotherpossibility,whichisthatNorwegian

culturesimplyhaslessemphasisonhierarchyandindividualismthanU.S.culture

wherethistheorywasdeveloped.Asdiscussedintheliteraturereview,Hofstede

describesNorwegiancultureasemphasizingbothpowerdistanceandindividualism

lessthanthatintheU.S.Lowerpowerdistanceandlessdesiretostandoutcould

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removesomeofthecharacteristicsAmericanPRpractitionersmightthinkofwhen

thinkingoftopmanagement.

Internalvariables:Internalthreats. Twoofthethreefactorsinthiscategorymanifest—“economiclossorgain

fromimplementingvariousstances”and“marringofemployee’sorstockholders’

perceptionofthecompany”—whilethethirdisaglaringomissiongiventhe

precedingsection’sdiscussiononalackofemphasisontheindividual.Thisthird

factorthatdidnotmanifestthroughinterviewingwasthe“marringofthepersona

reputationsofthecompanydecisionmakers”.

Intervieweesemphaticallyandrepeatedlydescribedindetailtheir

understandingofpossiblerepercussionsifacorporateenvironmentalresponsibility

concernweremishandled,so“economiclossorgainfromimplementingvarious

stances”manifestquiteobviously.

The“marringofemployee’orstockholders’perceptionofthecompany”also

manifestquiteobviously,withseveralintervieweesusingnearlyidenticallanguage

inexpressingtheconsequencesforemployees—thatemployeeswould“feelbad”

aboutworkingforthecompanyandfortheindustry(GHI02),andthatsuchpoor

sentimentwouldbebadforthecompany’sbottomline.

Internalvariables:Individualcharacteristics(publicrelationspractitioner,dominantcoalitionandlinemanagers). Hereagain,characteristicsofindividualPRpractitioners,topmanagersand

linemangersdidnotmanifestnearlyasfrequentlyasothercategories,especially

externalfactors.Aninterestingdiscussionongenderensuedwiththehelpof

probing.

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Throughout,intervieweestalkabout“personalethics”matteringtopto

bottomintheorganization,onthejobandoutsidethejob.The“extenttowhichtop

managementcangraspothers’worldviews”factorsinbecauseasoneinterviewee

putsit,theycan’texpecttogotoanewcountryandoperateonlybyNorway’srules

ortrytodictatealltherules,asthatwouldbetooboldorbrash.

“Cognitivecomplexity:abilitytohandlecomplexproblems”matters,butin

choosingtoaccommodateoradvocate,itreallycomesdowntotheabilityto

communicatethosethingsinasimplified:excellentengineersinformingsmarttop

managementwillnotnecessarilyleadtoacertainstance.“TraininginPR,

marketing,journalism,engineering,etc.”,matters,butparticularlywiththe

communicationaspect,abilitymattersoverformaltraining.Topmanagement’s

“communicationcompetency”matters.Oneintervieweecommented,

Ithinkourindustryiscommunicatingtoocomplexaroundthistopic.AndthesuccessifyousayamongtheNGOsandlikesomeorganizationslikeBellonaandWWFandsoon,thathassucceededtosimplifythecommunicationthatmakesiteasytopeople,usepictures,movies,simplifycommunication,thenourindustryistrytocommunicatefactsandcommunicatequitecomplexandtellhow/whatprecautionswetake,allthoseregulationspointingbacktothegovernment.It’stoocomplexIthink.(PQ31)

Commentaryongenderasafactordidnotevermanifestnaturallyin

conversation,butwasaresultoftheresearcher’sprobing.Generallyspeaking

intervieweesdidn’tcomedownhardongenderfactoringintoanaccommodationor

advocacystance,butoneintervieweedidexpressthatitmattersalot.Thisperson

saidthatherindustryis,

Fullofmeninsuits,oldmeninsuits.Greyhair,notverycommunicative,oftenabitclosed,andIthinkIhaveseenthatit’sagoodthingwithcommunicationtoactuallyshowoffother[rolemodels]…becauseitmakes

44

usaveryeasytarget.It’sveryeasytosayyoudon’tlisten,youdon’tdoanything,youdon’tcareaboutenvironment…”(JKL05)

Beinganeasytargetmakesitmoredifficultfortheorganizationtoadvocate.What’s

more,itmattersbecauseofmediaplacement:

“It’smucheasierbeingachallengergettingmediaspacethanitisformecallingfroman[industry]tryingtogetsomepositivecoverage…Thejournalistsareimmediatelyabitcritical,whichtheyshouldbe,butthechallengerstheygetthisplacewithnoquestionsasked.Sothat’swhyIthinkit’sveryimportantforpeopleworkinglikeinaconservativeenvironmentandorganizationsthatpollutealottohavespokespersonthatarelikeable,likefriendly,open,nice!BecauseIknowforafactthatintheU.S.,Icanclearlyseethatthecommunicationpeopleareoftheoldschoolanditdoesn’treallyhelptellingtheworldhowgoodyouareworkingwithenvironmentalsolutions.Nobodybelievesyou.(JKL05)

ThismeansgenderofpeopleinthePRdepartmentortopmanagementmight

matterastheyareseenbymediamembersandoutsidepublicsasrepresentative

qualitiesorcharacteristicsoftheorganization’sconservativeortraditionalviews,

likeability,etc.It’snotamatterofhowpeopleunderstandorcommunicateorexpect

tounderstandorcommunicatewithoneanother,butrather,outsideperceptionsof

organizationalcharacteristicsbasedongenderorganizationrepresentatives.

Anotherintervieweedeemphasizedgenderasafactor:

NormallyI’mveryconcernedaboutgender,butthisisaverymaleindustry,thefarmingindustry,andincommunicationit’smostlywomen,andIdon’tthinkthatisimportant.Ithinktheimportantpartiswhenyoudocommunicationit’snotallaboutsustainability.It’salsoabouteconomyanddecidingthebusiness,thefinances,yeah,ofthebusiness.Andit’s,ifyoudon’tconnectwiththesortofthedriversofthebusinessandthesortoftheeconomyofthisbusinessyoucan’tsucceedincommunicatingsustainabilityeither.(GHI02).

45

Evenifotherfactorsmattermorethangenderasthispersonsuggests,

gendercouldstillplayarole,albeitminor,inthestanceanorganizationultimately

takes.

Internalvariables:Relationshipcharacteristics. Thefactorthatmostoftenmanifestininterviewsfromthiscategoryis“level

oftrustbetweenorganizationandexternalpublic”.Aprimeexampleofthisisa

companythatwasenthusiasticaboutitssuccessfulcompanyeffortscommunicating

corporateenvironmentalresponsibility.Thecompanyheldaseminartopresentits

annualsustainabilityreporttothepublic,sharedanadvancecopyofthereportwith

aprominentNGO,theninvitedtheNGOtoparticipate.Eventhoughtheyweren’t

trustingtheNGOtonotcriticizethemattheseminarandinpublic,theywere

trustingthemtobringacertainamountofcredibilityandpredictabilitytotheir

argumentsbasedonanongoingrelationshipdealingwithoneanother.

Additionally,inaddressingthefactorof“ideologicalbarriersbetween

organizationandpublic”,oneintervieweeactuallyexplainedthattherearenonein

theirviewandwentontodescribehowtherearedisagreementsonfactsaswellas

degree,butnotonphilosophy.Forexample,adebategoesonandon“abouthow

muchyoushouldandhowmuchyoushouldpayforfarmingincommonwaters”due

toalackofprivatelandorrentagreementforfishfarmers,whichhasbecomea

largerissuesincelicensinghasopenedupbecausecorporatetaxesarenolonger

necessarilypaidtothelocalcommunitywherethefisharebeingharvested,but

insteadtocompanyheadquartersinBergenorOsloforinstance.

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BestPracticesArisingFromInterviewsWhilethefactor-by-factorandcategory-by-categoryanalysisaboveisboth

usefulandnecessary,itisalsousefultocollectivelyexaminethetacticsand

strategiesthatarosethroughconversationaswellaspractitioners’own

commentaryontheperceivedlevelofsuccessofthosestrategiesandtactics.

Overarchingstrategiesmentionedincludetyingcompanypracticesto

Norwegian/Internationalstandardsandenhancingimage.Tacticsincluded

publishingsustainabilityreports,sendingpressreleases4to7timesperyear,

sponsoringmusicfestivals,beingsilent,garneringemployeesupportthroughabike

program,beinganimmediatepartoftheconversation,holdingaseminaror

participatinginaconference,integratingsustainabilityintodailythinkingofpeople

acrosstheorganizationandtyingcompanypracticesto

science/technology/innovation.Eachisdescribedinthissection,withmore

practicaltakeawaysappearinginthediscussionsection.

Publishasustainabilityreport.Themostcommontacticintervieweesreportedincommunicatingcorporate

environmentalresponsibilitywaspublicallyreportingonsustainabilitymeasures.

Thisactuallycameinmanyforms,fromanannualreportincorporatingcorporate

environmentalresponsibilityandsustainabilitymeasures,toastand-alone

sustainabilityreport.

Publishingareportisreallyabouttransparency,andwhatdataacompanyis

requiredtorevealandwhen,andanyinformationbeyondthatitchoosestoreveal

whetheritbefavorableorunfavorable.Oneintervieweenotes,“Myperceptionis

that[ourcompany]issortoftrustedforbeingtransparent,andalsowhatis

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importantwhenwehaveoursustainabilityreportingisitisbeingreviewedby

auditors,whichwebelieveisimportant.Ifyoutakethereportingseriouslyitshould

bereviewedbyauditorsjustlikethefinancialreporting.”(GHI02).

Againandagainitshinesthroughintheinterviewsthatcompanies

conductingadvancedreportingarequiteproudofdoingso.Oneintervieweesaid

themainissueofcommunicatingsustainabilityisactuallyprovingsustainabilityand

nothavingitbejustwords(GHI02).Anotherdescribedthisashavingnotthe

wrappingonthebox,butthecontentsofthebox.Also,it’svitaltounderstandwhere

theinterestofthestakeholderslie,andwhattheyarereallyconcernedaboutin

ordertofindthepieceofinformationthattheyarelookingforandbeableto

presentthatinanunderstandablewayandalsobeingabletocommunicate

internallytoexecutiveleadershipthatit’sgoodtocommunicatethis,disclosethe

informationandtellthestory.(GHI02).

Integratesustainabilityintodailythinkingofpeopleacrosstheorganization.

Intervieweesresoundinglyrespondedthatcommunicatingenvironmental

responsibilityconcernsisnotastand-alonetask.Oneofthemostilluminatingand

directresponsesisthatenvironmentalissuesshouldbebuiltintoeachleaders’daily

workas“partofhisdailythinking”(ABC04).Thispersonexplainedthatinthe

1970s,environmentalbreakthroughscameincleaningupthemessofthe50years

ofpollutionthatprecededthedecade,thatleadershadtobetrainedtothink

environmentallyineverythingtheydid.“Theyhadtothinksustainabilityintheir

mindallthetime,”(ABC04)andsaidthatinthisparticularcompany,onedoesn’t

findleadersthatdon’tunderstandthemessagethattheenvironmentandcorporate

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socialresponsibilityareveryimportant.Withintheorganization,itisembeddedin

thepoliticsoftheorganization(ABC04).Foroverallcommunicationasone

intervieweeputit,“It’sabasisforeverything.Becauseifyoudon’thavethisasa

base,youwillgeteventuallyaproblembecauseit’sexpectedfromyou.”(ABC04)

Notonlythis,buttheunderstandingpermeatestheorganization:

Youdon’tfindanyleaderinourcompanythatdon’tunderstandthemessagethattheenvironmentthatCSR,youknow,CorporateSocialResponsibility,isveryimportant.Itcancostyoualotofmoneynotunderstandingitandnotfollowingit.Soitshouldbeembeddedinthethinkingofeachperson.Ithinkthat’sveryimportant.Theenvironmentiskindofinsidetheheadofeachleader(ABC04).

Anotherintervieweecomparedthinkingaboutenvironmentalsustainability

tothinkingaboutsafety:“It’snotjustsafetyatwork;it’ssafety24hours.Youshould

bringthesafetystandardbacktoyourhome.Andyoudrivecar.Andyoucanbicycle.

Youshouldthinkthiskindofsafety.”(ABC04).

Severalintervieweeshighlightedcorporateenvironmentalresponsibility

communicationcomesdowntooperations:implementingenvironmentally

sustainableprojectsandoperationsthatareenvironmentallysustainablethatcan

betalkedabout(RS10).Asoneintervieweeputit,it’snotaboutthewrappingonthe

box;it’swhat’sinsidethebox(XY05),socommunicatingenvironmental

sustainability,yesisthejobofcommunicators,butitcan’tbedoneinameaningful

waywithoutotherpartiesonboard.

Releaseresearchreportstothepress.Theorganizationwiththeleastrobustcommunicationstrategyofallused

newsreleasesonitsresearch—whetherpositiveornegativeresearchresults—

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directlytothemedia.Theorganizationwaspleasedwiththisstrategyalbeit

simplisticintheinterviewee’swords.

Sponsoramusicfestival. Multiplemembersofthepetroleumindustrymentionedsponsoringlocal

festivalsandeventswithmixedresults.Somecameunderheavycriticismfrom

activistgroupsandboycotterssayingit’stoessentiallybuycommunitysupport.In

fact,oneofthecompaniesinterviewedandothersanecdotallycameundervery

publiccriticismforsponsoringsuchfestivalsinNorway.Someartistsandmusicians

refusedtoplayinthesponsoredfestivals,andthe,“NGOstogetherwithmusicians

madealotofnoiseinthemedia,”(PQ31).Thepublicdebatestartedwithone

newspaperbutthenwasonDanishradiostations,andalotofpeoplebecamequite

engagedinthetopic.Theintervieweeengagedindebateandmediainterviews,and

ultimatelyalotofpeoplestooduptoargueforthecompany.(PQ31).

Silence.Silencecancomeinseveralforms.Inoneformanintervieweereportedthe

organizationnolongermaintainingasocialmediapresencebecauseithadbecome

tooeasyorganizationswithquestionablecredibilitytoattackthecompanyand

makebigandextendedissuesbasedonfaultyinformation(ABC04).Althoughnot

beingonsocialmediawasnotconsideredideal,theintervieweesaidithadtobe

done.Inanotherformofsilence,adifferentcompanyreportedpurposefullylaying

lowandnotraisingthecorporate“voice”todrawattentiontoitselfaspartofthe

ongoingpublicconversation(GHI02).

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Beanimmediatepartoftheconversation.Oneofthesameintervieweesthatsaidsilencewaseffectivealsosaidthatthe

companyispurposefullyheadedtowardbecomingmoreofanimmediatepartofthe

conversation.Multipleintervieweesnotethelocusofcontrolforwhattoreportand

whenalsomatters.Onesaidreporting,evenwhennumbersareunflattering,is

effectivebecause,“Youavoidalotofsortofnegativesurprisesbecausenobodycan

sortoffindoutaboutyou,becauseyoudisclosedit.Sothatputsyoumuchmorein

thepositionwhereyouhavecontrol,”(GHI02).

Alsorelatedtothelocusofcontrolinrevealinginformation,another

intervieweesaid,“Whenwesucceedinplanningwhatwewanttogooutwith,we

getmuchbetterresults,butquiteoftenwearetakenbysurprisebecausewearenot

well-organizedinternally.Ifmanythingswecouldhaveplannedbetter,andthenwe

wouldbeincontrol,butwe’renotincontrolwhenthingscomefromoutside,”

(GHI02).Thisacknowledgesthatanypublicreportingmighttakeunexpectedturns,

butthispersonatleast,thinksthatispreferabletocompletelycomingfromthe

outside.

Garneremployeesupportthroughabikeprogram.Oneintervieweepointedoutthathavinganemployeebikeprogramisinits

repertoireofcommunicatingandsupportingenvironmentalsustainabilityonan

ongoingbasis.Itincludessupportingemployeestowalk,ridebikeortakethebusby

offeringdays,forexamplewhereeverybodythatcomestoworkonabikecanget

themservicedforfree.ThisallcombinesinreducingC02emissions,reducing

queuingandgettingpeoplemorefit,andisviewedasameasureforbuilding

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employeeawarenessandsocialsupportforenvironmentalresponsibilityinall

aspectsoflife,aswellasitsactualimpact,(RS10).

Holdaseminarorparticipateinaconference. Themostenthusiasticsuccessandsatisfactionwiththeircompany’sefforts

communicatingcorporateenvironmentalresponsibilitycamefromaninterviewee

whodescribedgoingastepbeyondannualreportingtoholdingaseminartoshare

findingswiththemediaaswellastheveryNGOsthatoftenputtremendous

pressureonthecompany,(GHI02).

Goingbacksevenyears,thecompanywasinalotofconflictbetweenthe

industryandNGOsinparticular,bothinsideandoutsideofNorway,sayingthe

industrywasirresponsible,notcaringfortheenvironment,notcaringforfish,etc.

Thecompanydecidedthatwhatthemajorityoftheindustryandthiscompanyin

particulardid,whichwastosay,“Yes,wearedoingfine,weareresponsible…There

isnotreasontocriticizeus,”didnotbringthecompanynortheindustryforwardin

anyway.Byfishfarminginopenwaters,thecompanydependsonthe“sociallicense

tooperate”,whichmeansthecompanydependsonbeing“sortofwantedinthelocal

areas…[because]thisallowsemployeestobeproudofworkingintheindustryand

nothaveanyreasontofeelashamedornotwanttotellwherethey’reworking,”

(GHI02).

Atthetimementionedabove(GHI02),thecompanywasmajorityownedby

theNorwegiangovernment,sothegovernmentdislikedcriticismsofthecompany.

Theintervieweesaidthiscausedthecompanytolookintopreciselywhatitmeans

tobeoperatingsustainably…

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Notjustsayingthatwearesustainable…Wehavetosay,whatdowemeanwithsustainableoperations?Sowelaiddownafewshortprinciplesandalsosaidweneedtodocumenthowwearedoingthoseprinciples.Sowestartedreporting…[This]tookalotofwork,startingwithdefiningtheindicatorswewantedtouse,globalreportinginitiativehasalotofgreatindicators,buttheyareapplicabletoindustriesacrossallsectors,andweneedsomeindicatorsalsothat,isveryspecifictoourindustry…setagoalsystemandwereportedoneyeartoseethatthereportingwouldwork.”(GHI02).

Butthecompanywentastepbeyond:Inadditiontopublishingthereportinweb

andprint,thecompanyalsoheldaseminarinwhich,

Wetrytosetagendaaboutsustainabilityissuesinoursector,andthatwasalsoameanstotakecontrolofthedebatebecausewehaddemonstratedcomingtoourmeeting,andtheywouldvisittheparliamentandnewsstationsandministriesaspartoftheirtourprotestingagainstusinNorwayandalsoprotestingothercompanies.Andsowesetseminartosetagenda,andwereportedourresults,”(GHI02).Theintervieweenotedthattherewasalotofinternaldebateaboutallofthe

issuestobeincluded.Onetopic,beingtooreactiveandsensitive,wastakenoffthe

agendabecausecompanyleadershipthought,“Itwillprobablynotbeworthwhat

theyexpectfromusso,soit’sbettertogetitout.”Andtheseminarworked:The

discussionchangedfrombeing:

Sortofallegationsanddiscussionsaboutthingsthatpeopledon’tknowtobediscussionsabouthowtoimproveandotherareas.Soallthoseareaswherewepublisheddetailedreportonourperformance,wewerenotcriticizedanymorebecauseitwasno,itwasn’tthatbad,itwasquitegoodresults.Sowewerenotcriticized,andallegationthatweweredoingwrongintheseareasjuststopped,butwegotrequestformoreinformation,moredetailedinformation,andothertypesofinformation,etc.andthatwillofcoursecontinueandwewillneverbeabletopublishalltheinformation,allthestakeholderwouldliketosee,butwehavemovedintoastagewherewediscussmoreonthebasisofknowledge,onthebasisoffacts,whichismuchmorefruitful,soIthinkthathasbeenourstrategytosolve[this],”(GHI02).

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Theseminarwasconsideredanabsolutesuccessbythecompany.Infactthe

seminarwasenteringitssixthyearuponinterviewing.

Theintervieweereportedcompanyleadershiphadfeltverybravethefirst

yearpresentingthesustainabilityreport,confidentiallysharingthereportfindings

inadvancetooneofNorway’smostactiveenvironmentalgroupsandtheninviting

themtotheseminartotalkabouthowgooditwas,etc.Sincethatfirstyear,the

companyhasincorporatedmoreandmoreexternalpartiestotheagenda.Thefirst

yearitwasonlythecompany,thesecondyear,thecompanyandoneoutsidegroup,

thenmoreandmoreexternalgroups,whichwasrisky:

[Thisyear]wehadinvitedIthinkthemostprofiledNGOleader,orthemostprofiledNGOleader….Andshe’sverycriticalanddoesn’tthinkthat[operations]shouldbeallowedatall...She’s[veryskilled]andveryreasonablewhenshe’sprofessionalandgoodwhenshe’spresenting.

Theresult?:“AndthenoneoftheTweetsfromtheseminar,wasoneotherNGOwas

thathewouldcredit[thecompany]forinvitingthisNGOtopresent[onthistopic]at

thisseminar.(GHI02).Again,thiswasviewedasahugewinbythecompany.

Inordertoimprove,thissameintervieweenotesyouhavetofirstgetthe

issueontheagenda,andthenafact-baseddiscussioncancommence:

Thewaytogetthereisactuallytoput[yourownsensitiveissue]ontheagenda,andinvitingthemost,themostengagedstakeholdersthatyoucandiscusswithbasedonknowledge,basedonfact,todiscusswiththem,Ithinkthat’sawayforward.It’salsoawaywecanpresenttothemwhatwearedoing.Sothatis,thatisourapproach.(GHI02).Yetanothercompanyparticipatedinaconferenceinordertodiscussandbe

veryopenaboutsomeofthefindings—butnotall—offindingsarisingfromajoint

examinationofcompanyfacilitiesbyamajorNGO(MNO24).Inadditiontobeing

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involvedinordertohelpsetanddirecttheagenda,morebroadlythere’sapractice

ofpositioningoneselftobeanimmediatepartoftheongoingconversation:

Thebiggestchallengeforusissortofbuildingthepositionfor[ourcompany]tobemuchmoreactiveinpublicdebate.Sortofbeforethedebatecloses,beforethedebateisnotanymoreinterestinthepublic,thetopicisnotanymoreinteresting,wearestillabitslowtosaythisisouropinion.Andifyou’renotabletostateyouropinionimmediatelywhenthetopicarisesinpublicdebatethennobody’sinterestedinouropiniontwodayslaterorthreedayslater.(GHI02)

Leverageestablishedcommunicationchannelsoutsidetheorganization.

Asanextbestpractice,lookingatusingestablishedchannelsoutsidethe

organization,suchasEuropeanUnionpartnershipproject,tocommunicateissues.

Otherpublicsincludegovernmental,researchbodies,industryitself.Additionally

thiscompanyusesanEUprojectwherethelocalgovernmentsaretheproject

managersandNorwayiscollaboratingwithfivedifferentcountriestodeveloppilot

projects.ThatcommunicationpersonisusingtheEUcommunicationchannelsto

discussindustrysuccessesandfailure.

Betransparent.Othergeneralrulestoutedincludetransparency:“Bybeingverytransparent

youavoidalotofsurprises.Youavoidalotofsortofnegativesurprisesbecause

nobodycansortoffindoutaboutyou,becauseyoudisclosedit.Sothatputsyou

muchmoreinthepositionwhereyouhavecontrol,”(GHI02).

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Getandmaintainthe“sociallicensetooperate”.Anothergeneralrulethroughoutinterviewswastogetthe“sociallicenseto

operate.”Hereadvocacycouldlooklikearguingthevalueoftheindustrytosociety.

Accommodationcouldlooklikethis:

Alittlecompanyinalocalcommunitynormallyhighlyrespectedinthatlocalcommunity,becauseitemployspeople,it’speopletheyknow,theytrustthatcompany,andwhyshouldasmallcompanywithafewlicensesthatishighlyrecognizedintheirlocalcommunity,whyshouldtheyputalotofresourcesintomakingabigsustainabilityreport?Whowouldbeinterestedinthat?Noone.Thestakeholderslocally,theytrustthecompany,ahsowhywouldtheyhavetomakeabigreport?”(GHI02).

Whilethisexamplealsospeakstoreporting,largecompanieslikelyhavetoworkto

earnthatlocalrespectinsomewayorintervieweessaidtheycouldhavedifficulty

operatingorevenlosepoliticalsupportandliterallicensingneededtoallowthe

companytoremain.Multipleintervieweesreportedperceivingahighlevelofvoter

agency—thatifthecommunitylostitssupportforacompany’soperationsbut

politiciansdidn’treflectthis,thenvoterswouldreplacethepoliticianwithonethat

wouldreflecttheconstituents’desires.

Tiecompanypracticestoscience/technology/innovation. Manyintervieweestalkedaboutenvironmentalsustainabilitymeasuresand

communicatingenvironmentalresponsibilityintermsofthescience—forinstance

innovationtocombataparticularbacteria(TU04)orusingnewtechnologytoboost

efficienciesprovidingutilitiesandservicestoanoffshoresite(XY05).Ratherthan

talkintermsofthewaythatpeoplefeelabouttheenvironment,whichispartofthe

discussion,theemphasisismoreonscience,technology,innovation,researchand

thelikeandisstronglypresentedintermsoffacts.

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TiecompanypracticestoNorwegian/internationalstandards.Anotherbestpracticetheseinterviewsuncoveredinvolvestyingincompany

objectivesandcommunicationstothoseoflargerormorebroadorganizationswith

similarsustainabilitygoals,forexampleintheworldofaquaculture,GlobalSalmon

Initiative,whichinvolveslargesalmoncompaniesworldwide,with14companies

coveringaroundhalfofthesalmonindustrygloballytobandtogetherandaddress

severalissuestheindustryfaces,forinstance,sourcingfeed,andaddressingsealice.

(GHI02).

Thissectioncloseswithasentimentexpressedbyanintervieweethatis

sharedwholeheartedlybytheresearcher.Therewillnotbeanysilverbulletor

perfectlystraightforwardoptionforcommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability,

butrather,it’samatteroffindingsomethingthatworksandthenexpandingonit,

maybegivingitanewtwisteveryyear.Thegoodnewsisthatit’snotalluphillwork

(GHI02).

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Discussion

Thediscussionthatfollowselaboratesonthreekeyobservationsofthis

study,whichincludetheprevalenceoffactorsrelatedtopolitical-socialsupport,a

fact-basedorientationandalackoffactorsrelatedtoindividualpeople.Thenthe

strategiesandtacticsthatarosethroughtheinterviewingprocessaresummarized

andlinkedtotheorybymappingthemontothecontingencytheory’scontinuum.

Lastlyisadiscussionofthisstudy’sstrengthsandlimitations.

InfluencesofPolitical-SocialSupportInterviewsrevealedadominant,extensiveandrecurringthemerevolving

aroundfactorsrelatedtosocialandpoliticalsupportfortheorganization,andthis

findingissupportedbyresearchonsustainabilitystudies(Lynes&Andrachuk,

2008)andresearchtestingcontingencytheory’sapplicationinoutsidetheU.S.(Li,

Cropp&Jin,2010)previouslymentionedinthereviewofliterature.

Itseemsthatrepercussionsaffectingstancesometimesbutnotalwaystied

backtofinancialrepercussionsthatresultedormightresultfromlosingsocialor

politicalsupport.

Otherssaidgovernmentsareimportanttwofoldbecauseofpoliticsaswellas

thegovernmentitselfactuallybeingoneaninvestor.Inthewordsofoneofthose

interviewees:

Theyareputtinguptheirmoney,shareholders,investors,bankers,especiallygovernmentinNorwaywehavebiggovernmentfunds,huge,hugefundstheyareinvestinginbusiness.Andtheyareverypickyshareholders.TheyhaveallthesequestionsrelatingtoCSRallthetime.Theydon’tlooksomuchatthe

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financialperformance.Theyareveryconcernedaboutthatyouarefollowingthecompliance.(ABC04)

AnotherintervieweesaidthatunderstandingtheNorwegianmodelsof

conflictmanagementmeanslookingthoughahistoricallens,andpolitically

speaking,notonlytalkaboutNorway,butlookintothe“Nordickindofmodel

regardingthe,yeah,callitthesocialdemocraticmodelsofwelfaremodel,

democracy,wehaveaNordicmodelwhichisthekindofbasisforthinkinglikewe

doregardingethical,environmentalissues,sustainability,andallthatandyoucan

gobackandlookatGroHarlemBrundtland…Shewasapersonwhoreallyput

sustainabilityandenvironmentalquestionsontheglobalagenda.”(MNO24).

Anotherintervieweenotedthatthewaysustainabilityissuesarehandledand

communicateddidn’tchangewhentheNorwegiangovernmentsolditssharesand

thecompanywaspurchasedbyamultinationalcorporationheadquarteredinAsia.

Theintervieweesaid,

Wehavefoundthewayweaddresssustainabilityfitsverywellwiththelong-termperspectivethat[thenewparentcompany]holds…Theyhavesaidtheywanttopursuethewaythatweworkwithsustainability,sotherewerenotchangesthere.StillIthinkthattheneedtobeverytransparentcomesstrongerwithgovernmentalownership.Becausetheywillbeveryhard,sortofvery,muchcriticizedifthecompaniestheyownedholdinformationback.”(GHI02).

Repercussionsincludedinthelong-termhavingdifficultiesinsellingproductsto

differentmarkets.Oneintervieweereportstheoverallgoalofcommunicating

environmentalsustainabilityisimprovingthecompany’sbottomline:“Theoverall

goalwastryingtoprovethattakingenvironmentalissuesseriouslyyoucanactually

improveyourbusiness,”(MNO24).

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Thatsameintervieweesaidfrankly,notallmanagementholdsthevaluesof

beingenvironmentallyresponsibleorhavingsustainableapproaches.Hesaysbeing

inthecommunicationfieldmeanshelpingmanagementfullyunderstandthe

financialimpactofpoliticalandsocialmatters.Hesaid:

“Thisisallaboutmakingtheowners,theboard,themanagement,reallytoseethatbydoingthisyoucanactuallyimproveyourbusiness.Bydoingthistherightwaystepbystepyoucanactuallyimproveyourbusiness.TechniquesforthisincludedoingyourresearchwelltryingtofindallthecasesandexamplesshowinghowcompanieswhohavenotdonetheirhomeworkregardingCSR,howtheycanreallybehitbyboycotts,byconsumers,byNGOsstartingcampaigns,andsoon…Becauseatthebottomline,ownersandmanagement,itallcomesdowntofiguresandhowtheyreallycanbehitiftheydon’tdothisright.That’stheonlylanguagethatattheendtheyreallyunderstand,"(MNO24).

Thisdynamicofpolitical,socialandfinancialfactorsandconsequencesis

verymuchinlinewiththefour-partconceptualmodeldiscussedbyLynesand

Andrachuk(2008),whichiscomposedoffourkeyinfluencesystems—markets,

socialsystem,politicalsystemandsciencesystem—andtheirinterplaythatmake

upinfluencesonthegivenfirm.Whilethesepartsaresimplifiedhereforthesakeof

brevity,theimportanttake-awayfromthemodelisthekeymarket,socialsystem,

politicalsystemandscienceinfluencesatplay.Theseinfluencesaredynamically

groupedintothosethatareinternal,externalandsector-specific(Lynes&

Andrachuk,2008),someofwhich,again,arenotablyparalleltocontingencytheory

factordivisions.

Thispolitical-socialinfluenceisalsoseeninLi,Cropp&Jin’s(2010)

quantitativeresearchonthatsupportedcontingencytheory’sapplicationwithin

conflictmanagementinChinesepublicrelations.Whilethecurrentstudydoesnot

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offerquantitativeorreliable—i.e.,randomlysampled—supportforthis,thefactthat

theseweretwoofthetopitemssurfacinginmanyinterviewssuggeststhiscouldbe

trueintheNorwegianPRcontextaswell.

Finally,thepoliticsandsocialsupportofanissuesuchasenvironmental

sustainabilityandresponsibilitymayvaryfromcountrytocountryaswellasfrom

sectortosector,whichcanultimatelyboildowntodifferingvalues,differing

economicdemandsforpreservationofsocialsupport,etc.

Fact-BasedOrientationAfact-basedorientationforthecommunicationmanagers’approachto

communicatingwithkeypublicsoncorporateenvironmentalresponsibility

concernscameupagainandagain:

• “Thenwepreparedforhandlingpotentialcriticism,thenexplainedhowmuchC02theyplannedtoemitaccordingtotheupdatedplan.Averyfact-baseddocument…AsIsaidwe’vetriedtohaveveryfact-basedinformation,becausethatiswhattheexternalandtheinternalisaskingfor.Nottryingtoconvincepeople,butmorebefactual.”(RS10)

• Wecommunicateinternally,externallyandwetrytosticktothefacts,andthefactisverybroadly,takethispowercableforinstance.It’snotonlytheenvironmentalaspectofit,wealsoneedtotellwhywehavedoneitbecauseit’saneconomicalfactorwithinvolvedwithit.(RS10)

• “Well,Ithinkthatwehavetocontinuouslytellpeopleaboutfacts,because

someofthisNGOs,theyhavetheirownagenda,theyaretryingtopaintapicturethatisalotworsethantherealityis.”(PQ31).

• “AndIthinkthemediainNorwayisdifferentthanforinstance…theUnited

Kingdom.Theyaremorefact-orientedhereismyimpressionthantheU.K.”(RS10).

• Onethingiswhatyou’resaying,andwhatyou’resayingisbasedonthefactsyou’regivenfromthedifferentdepartments.(VW04)

• “[Activistgroups]makethediscussionshappen,soandItalktoalotofthemallthetime.Someofthemareeasiertodiscusswithbecausetheyarekindof

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fact-founded.Othersareveryblackandwhiteandthediscussionsveryoftenturnpersonal.Sotthatmakesitabitdifficult.”(JKL05).

O’Leary(2004p.196)writesthatexploringwordscanleadtothemesby

theirrepetitionorthoughexplorationoftheircontextandusage.Specifictothe

“fact”-basedcommunication,thisaroseassomethingthatmaybeculturally

significant.O’Learywritesthatspecificculturalconnotationsofparticularwordscan

alsoleadtorelevantthemes,referredtoas‘indigenouscategories’byPatton(2001)

and‘invivo’codingbyStraussandCorbin(1998).

Onlyoneintervieweeacknowledgedtheemotionalaspectofcompany

communicationsasveryimportant:

Sowhenyoutalktomediayouhavetobeawareofbecausetheydon’thavealltheknowledgeorthetechnicalaspectandtechnicallyit’snoissueatalltobeaware,butit’sanissuebecauseoftheperceptionofitandthenyouhavetodealwithitaccordingtothatandnotjustfact-based,thateverythingisfinebasedonthefactofit…Thatemotionalaspectofit,that’saveryimportantone.Thatsameparticipantgaveahighlynuancedunderstandingofthegeneral

public’swillingnesstodigintofacts:

Interviewee:Ifyou’renot,ifyou’renotespeciallyinterestedtodiveintobigsubjectandlearnalot,whatishereimmediatelyisallthescopeyouknowaboutitandyoumakeyourassessmentbasedonthislittlepieceofinformationyouhave,andit’slikeapieceofinformationonmortalityorantibioticsthatissortoftheconceptofsalmonfarming,soit’sourtaskwhencommunicatingtomakethatstory,thewholepicture

Researcher:Thewholepicture,forinstanceofagrowingworldpopulation.Interviewee:Yeah,yeah.Andalmostrespectingthatnobodyknow,willsacrificeourcoastlinesandcostalenvironmenttofeedalltheworld,sotheyhavetofindtherightstorynotdisregardingfacts,becausefactsisimportant,butwhenwefocusonlyonsalmon,thefactsthatareimportantforthosemanagingtheseafarm,it’snotthesamefactsasweshouldcommunicate

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externallyornotcommunicateonlythosefacts…Ithinkwhenwecommunicateweshouldbesortofbettertotellthewholestoryandnotsortoffocusingonthe,sortofwhatthespecificsthateverybodyseesasbig,bigproblems,becausethenyoudon’t,wejustcommunicateproblemsinsteadofcommunicatingsolutions.”(GHI02)Whenthisfact-basedorientationkeptarisingfromtheinterviews,the

researcherbeganaskinghowtochoosewhichsetoffactstocommunicate,andthe

generalresponsewastocommunicateeitherbasedonaudienceorinordertotell

thelargerpictureasmentionedabove.

Thisbringstomindtheparableofthesixblindmendescribinganelephant,

whichdemonstrateshowfactsdon’talwaystellthewholestory.Onemantouches

thetrunkandinsistselephantsarelikesnakes,anotherthesideoftheelephantand

insistselephantsarelikebrickwalls.Onetouchesanear,describingafan,another

thetusk,whodescribeselephantsasaspear.Stillfurtheronemantouchesthe

elephant’slegandsayselephantsareliketreetrunks,andfinallyamanholdingthe

elephant’stailconcludesthatelephantsarelikeropes.Factsarenotsosimple,anda

compilationoffactsdoesnotnecessarilyleadonetothetruth.

MortimerJ.Adler,inhisvastworksynthesizing2,500yearsofcollectively

definedWesternthoughtinto102so-called“GreatIdeas”,dedicatesnotonebutfour

oftheseideastothismatter:knowledge,truth,andwisdomandbyalternative

definition,opinion,whichstandalongsidewide-rangingandfar-reachingideassuch

asmetaphysics,medicine,slavery,immortalityandmore.Theseideasthatdescribe

factsareconsideredbybigthinkersandprolificwriterssuchasAristotle,Augustine,

Aquinas,Hobbes,Descartes,Spinoza,Locke,Hume,Kant,Planckandothers.The

authorpersonallyalignswithHobbes’viewthat“trueandfalseareattributesof

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speech,notofthings.Andwherespeechisnot,thereisneithertruthnorfalsehood,”

(Adler,1992).Fact,opinion,knowledgewisdom,truthhavevastnuancewhichthe

practiceofpublicrelationsdoesnotharnessseparatelyfromsociety.

Thefact-basedorientationdoesnotfitneatlyasanadditionalfactor,asthe

ConfucianvariableuncoveredbyChoiandCameron’s2005studyofcontingency

theory’sapplicationsinKorea.ThatConfucianvariablethat,tooversimplify,

addressesthe“we-ness”versus“collectiveness”and“emotionoverlogic”ofthe

KoreanculturethatisincontrasttoWesternculture(p.183).Previousliterature

findsthatsocietalandculturalfactorsstronglyaffectpublicrelationspractices(p.

173-174),soit’snotshockingthatNorway’ssecularandsciencereveringsociety

mightholduplogicandthefactsthatarepluggedintologicinordertoarriveat

conclusionsforproperconduct.

Thisfact-basedorientationpermeatesorisanapproachforthinkingabout

otheralreadyexistingfactors,butitisnotablenonetheless.

LackofIndividualismAnunexpectedobservationfromthisinterviewdatarevealsaminimal

manifestationoffactorsrelatedtoindividualcharacteristics,particularlythoseof

membersoftopmanagementandpublicrelationsprofessionals.

Twopossibleexplanationssurfaceforthiscategory’slowmanifestations.

Oneissimplythattheresearchershouldhaveprobedmoreinthisarea,butmost

probingtookplaceeitherwithincategoriesorwithrelatedfactorssuchasinternal

andexternalreputation.Theoryoffersanotherpossibility,whichisthatNorwegian

culturesimplyhaslessemphasisonhierarchyandindividualismthanU.S.culture

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wherethistheorywasdeveloped.Asdiscussedintheliteraturereview,Hofstede

describesNorwegiancultureasemphasizingbothpowerdistanceandindividualism

lessthanthatintheU.S.Hofstede’smeasureofindividualism,whichcomparesas91

intheU.S.wherecontingencytheorywasdevelopedversus69inNorway.Whilethis

isameasureofdegreeofinterdependenceamongstasociety’smembers,itcan

contributetowardanunderstandingofleadershipwherethefocusisnotonthe

individual.Indeed,CEOpayinNorwayismuchclosertothepayofworkersas

comparedtointheU.S.wherecontingencytheorywasdeveloped.Lowerpower

distanceandlessdesiretostandoutcouldremovesomeofthecharacteristics

AmericanPRpractitionersmightthinkofwhenthinkingoftopmanagement.

BestPracticesAlongtheContinuumThissectiontakesthestrategiesandtacticsdiscussedininterviewsandmaps

themontocontingencytheory’scontinuumofadvocacytoaccommodation.Muchin

thesamewaythatJin,PangandCameron(2006)mappedCoombs’(1998)crisis

communicationstrategiesontothecontingencyframeworkinordertobuildan

analyticframeworkforcrisissituations,thebeginningsofaframeworkfor

Norwegianconflictmanagementofenvironmentalissuesispresented.Thisisone

steptowardbuildingafullyfleshed-outtheoreticalframeworkthatcouldbeof

practicalpurposeforcommunicationmanagersofNorwegianprimarysector

businessesaddressingcorporateenvironmentalresponsibility.

Asastartingpoint,hereareJin,PangandCameron’sstrategiesalongthe

contingencytheorycontinuumofadvocacy-accommodation:

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Figure2.Jin,PangandCameron’s(2006)Strategiesforbuildingananalyticframeworkforcrisissituations

Figure2.ThisfigureshowsJin,Pang&Cameron’s(2006)strategiesforbuildingananalyticframeworkforcrisissituationsalongcontingencytheory’sadvocacy-accommodationcontinuum.

Whilethesestrategiesarefordealingwithcrisis,andthescenariosdiscussedin

interviewsrangedfromimmediatecrisessuchasoilspills,toongoing,long-term

conflict,theyaresimilarenoughforthismappingtobeusefultheoreticallyandfor

practitioners.AnexampleofdenialonJin,Pang&Cameron’sframeworkistodeny

responsibilityforanaction.Ontheothersideofthecontinuum,accommodatinga

publicmightlooklikecooperatingthroughinformationsharingoroffering

resourcestohelpsolveaproblem.

Mappingparticularstrategiesandtacticsontocontingencytheory’s

continuumcanonlybedoneforaparticularmomentintimewithoneparticular

publicinmind,andtakingintoconsiderationallofthepredisposingandsituational

variablesthatgivescontexttotheorganization’ssituation.

Thefavorabilityorunfavorabilityofacompany’spositionisanimportant

considerationwhenmappingthesestrategiesandtacticsontothecontinuum.For

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instance,acompanywithstellarenvironmentalsustainabilityfiguresmightlookat

itasadvocatingforitselftopublishthosenumbersinanannualsustainability

report,becauseitreflectspositivelyonthecompanyandhelpsbuildagoodimage.

Onthecontrary,acompanywithverypoororfailingsustainabilityfiguresthatis

forcedtopublishanannualsustainabilityreportwouldbepublishingbasedonthe

regulatoryrequirementtodoso.

Whenallofthesestrategiesandtacticsareshowntogetheronthe

continuum,aninterestingobservationisthatthosestrategiesandtacticstowardthe

centerofthecontinuumweretheonesmostoftentalkedaboutwiththemost

enthusiasmforthesuccessofthetacticorstrategy.

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Figure3.Bestpracticesalongthecontinuum

Figure3.Practicesarisingfrominterviewsmappedontotheadvocacy-accommodationcontinuumoftheContingencyTheoryofPublicRelationspositedbyCancel,etal.,1997,p.37.

Thetakeawayhereisthebigpicture;thatthepracticeswiththemostenthusiasm

fortheirsuccessseemtofalltowardthemiddleofthecontinuum.Thismiddle

groundisaplacewherethecompanyisnotpurelyactinginitsowninterestand

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disregardingitspublicsonaparticularissueatagivenpointintime,norisittaking

actiontoaccommodateorappeaseitspublicanddisregardingramificationssuchas

financialonesthatcouldresultinthecompanygoingbankrupt.

Theoverarchingpurposeofthissectionistodiscussstrategiesandtactics

thatcameupininterviews,notnecessarilytoprovideafully-fleshedoutandall-

encompassingrangeofstrategiesandtactics.Thisinformation,however,couldbe

highlyusefulincreatingsuchaframework.Strategiesherecanbethoughtofasthe

endgoal,andtactics,ameansofachievingagreatergoal,oftentowardtheimageof

thecompanyandthewayitwantstobeperceived.Sotacticscanbethoughtofas

thehowandstrategiesasthewhy.Theexactorderofstrategiesandtacticsfalling

ontheadvocacysideofthecontinuumismerelyapproximated.Thegeneralthought

process,howeverforlocationisasfollows.

Publishasustainabilityreport.Acompanywithoutstandingsustainabilitynumbersmightconsider

revealingthosenumbersanactofadvocacybecauseitimprovesitsimageor

reputationbydoingso.Thatmightappeartowardtheendofpureaccommodation

alongthecontinuum.

Revealingnegativeinformation,however,canbeadifficultdecisiontomake,

andpreviousresearchshowsit’snotalwaysthefavoredtactic.AstudybyShin,Park

&Cameron(2006)foundthatwhenaskedwhetheranorganizationshouldalways

releaseallinformation,evenwhenitnegativelyimpactstheorganization,only42

percentofPRpractitionerssurveyedreported“yes”,suggestingasignificant

willingnesstowithholdnegativeinformation.Further,thetendencyproveddeeper,

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aswhenaskedaboutpractitioner’srespectiveorganization,onlyabout38percent

reportedactuallyreleasingnegativeinformation(Shin,Park&Cameron,2006).This

study,however,wasnotlookingatenvironmentalsustainabilitymeasuresof

primarysectorbusinessesandwasnotconductedinNorway,sokeycontextislost.

Thetakeawayhereisthatcompaniesareexpressingadesiretohaveasmuch

controlaspossibleoverrevealingtheirsustainabilityinformation.Whereonthe

continuumpublishingareportfallswillvary,likelyaccordingtothefavorability

figuresandwhetherornotacompanyisrequiredtodisclosethem,ortheyaregoing

aboveandbeyond.

Ontheotherhand,publishingasustainabilityreportrevealingless-than-

desirablefiguresisastrongactofaccommodation,perhapscomingfrom

accommodatingagovernmentmandate.

Integratesustainabilityintodailythinkingofpeopleacrosstheorganization.

Manyintervieweesnotedthegeneralmindsetofenvironmental

responsibilitypermeatingtheirorganizationsbeingnecessarytosuccessful

environmentalactionsandcommunications—andcommunicationsismerelyone

facet.Consciouslyandstrategicallygettingenvironmentalsustainabilityintothe

thoughtprocessesofcompanyleadershipandemployeesatalllevelsisthe

managerialequivalentofgettingtheissueontheagendaintheworldofjournalism

forthepublicsphere.Bydoingthis,ainitialstepismadetorecognize

environmentalissues,andthatisthefirststeptounderstandingpositionand

possibilities.Bygettingenvironmentalissuesintoeachleaders’dailyworkas“part

ofhisdailythinking”(ABC04),morehastohappenformeaningfulaccommodation

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totakeplace,butitsetsthestage.Forthisreason,thepracticeofintegrating

sustainabilityintodailythinkingofpeopleacrosstheorganizationfallstowardthe

middleofthecontinuum,thoughitisarguablymoreonthesideofaccommodation.

Releaseresearchreportstothepress. Sendingpressreleasestypicallyfallsmoreonthesideofpureadvocacy.It’s

worthnotingthattheorganizationinterviewedheresaysitspracticeistoconduct

itsstudiesandreleasethefindingswhethergood,badoramixofthetwo.The

organizationwaspleasedwiththisstrategy,andthewillingnesstopublishstudy

resultsthatbodepoorlyenvironmentaleffortsmeansthere’saccommodationofa

greaterpublicdiscourseatplay.Similarly,foracompanytocompileandsendnews

releases,ortobeentirelysilentonanissue,thisisamatterofinformationbeing

pushedoutbyanorganization,andit’sprobablygoingtobeinasfavorablelightas

possibleforthecompany.Ifacompanyhasapolicytodonewsreleasesonstudies,

forexample,whethertheyaregoodorbadforthecompany,thiswouldlikelyfallon

theaccommodationsideofthecontinuum.Particularlyinthecaseofpublishing

unflatteringinformation,therehastobeareasonforthis,sothatisamatterof

accommodatingthatparticularpublic.

Sponsoramusicfestival. Sponsoringamusicfestivalfallstowardthesideofpureadvocacy,becauseit

isamovethatsupportsalocalcommunity,butdoesn’tofferanoutletofchangefora

company’spolicyorpractices.Whensponsoringamusicfestival,norealdataor

companyinformationisshared.Thecompanyisspendingitsresourceswhenit

mightnototherwise,butsuchanevent’spurposeistoincreasepositiveexposure

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andagoodimageasacommunitypartner.Norealchangeonanenvironmental

issueismeanttobegrappledwithatthefestival.

Silence. Beingsilentisultimatelyastrategyofcontinuingthecurrentpositonofthe

company,soitcanbeseenasanactofstrongadvocacyonbehalfofthe

organization,particularlyifthecompanyisreceivinginquiriesandremainingsilent.

Beanimmediatepartoftheconversation.Beingpartofthatongoingconversationmightmeanaskinghardquestions

andbeingcriticized,butitalsoincreasesopportunitiesforpositivecoverage,

familiarityandunderstandinginadditiontopotentiallyhelpingsettheagendaor

focusdiscussion.

Garneremployeesupportthroughabikeprogram. Alongthecontinuum,thismightfallmoreonthesideofadvocacybecause

thecompanycanwhollycontroltheprogramandanditsmessaging.Garnering

employeesupportthroughbikeprogramscouldalsobeviewedasadvocative

becauseit’ssupport-buildingforthecompany.Thatsaid,ifemployeeswerereally

pushingforsuchaprogramfortheactualenvironmentalimpactinmind,itmight

nearerthemiddleofthecontinuum.

Holdingaseminarorparticipateinaconference. Holdingaseminarorconferencefallsinaboutthemiddleofthecontinuum,

becauseononehand,theorganizationisofferingitsownplatformonwhichto

engagewithkeypublics.Itcannot,howeverbeconsideredpureadvocacy,because

byinvitingopposingviewholdersintothefoldandallowapubicalbeitguided

discussion,isopeningoneselfuptocriticismpushingforaccommodation.

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Severalcaveats,onthissectionaswell:It’simportanttonotethat

contingencytheorywasdevelopedinordertorefineandimprovethemoreone-

size-fits-allstrategyofexcellencetheoryofpublicrelations,sofromitsbeginnings,

contingencytheorydoesnotprescribebestpracticesformanagingconflictpersay.

Additionally,it’svitaltonotethatthisstudywasnotdesignedtoandthereforeit

cannotconcludethatcontingencytheory,asithasbeendescribedin20yearsof

studyandpreviousliterature,definitivelyappliestothepracticeofNorwegian

conflictmanagement.However,theconceptsofadvocatingforanorganization

versusaccommodatingpublicscanberecognized,andthereforeitisaworthwhile

exercisetoexaminetheeffectivenessoftheseapproachesasdescribedby

interviewees.

Leverageestablishedcommunicationchannelsoutsidetheorganization. Thiscouldreallybeviewedasaccommodationoradvocacy,dependingon

thecompany’ssituation.Acompanylookingtoreallypushandgainincreasing

speedinenvironmentalsustainabilitymeasuresmightfallmoreonthe

accommodationsideofthecontinuum,whereasacompanylookingtocontrolits

ownmessagingbutnotnecessarilymakesubstantiveaccommodationsaswellmight

placethismoreonthecontinuum’ssideofadvocacy.

Betransparent.Apolicytobetransparentonenvironmentalresponsibilityissuesnomatter

howbadtheorganizationcouldlookandnomatteritseffectonorganizational

stabilitywouldplacethispracticeontheendofaccommodation.Onthecontinuum

above,itfallsmoretowardthemiddleofthecontinuum,becausethegeneral

73

commentwhentransparencycameupininterviewsisthatinterviewees’companies

trytobeastransparentastheycan—whichisnota100%transparencypolicy.

Getandmaintainthe“sociallicensetooperate”.Thiswassuchanimportantpracticethroughoutallindustriesinterviewed,

andallsizesofcompanies.Anothergeneralrulethroughoutinterviewswastoget

the“sociallicensetooperate.”Hereadvocacycouldlooklikearguingthevalueofthe

industrytosociety.Accommodationcouldlooklikethis:

Alittlecompanyinalocalcommunitynormallyhighlyrespectedinthatlocalcommunity,becauseitemployspeople,it’speopletheyknow,theytrustthatcompany,andwhyshouldasmallcompanywithafewlicensesthatishighlyrecognizedintheirlocalcommunity,whyshouldtheyputalotofresourcesintomakingabigsustainabilityreport?Whowouldbeinterestedinthat?Noone.Thestakeholderslocally,theytrustthecompany,ahsowhywouldtheyhavetomakeabigreport?”(GHI02).

Whilethisexamplealsospeakstoreporting,largecompanieslikelyhavetoworkto

earnthatlocalrespectinsomewayorintervieweessaidtheycouldhavedifficulty

operatingorevenlosepoliticalsupportandliterallicensingneededtoallowthe

companytoremain.Multipleintervieweesreportedperceivingahighlevelofvoter

agency—thatifthecommunitylostitssupportforacompany’soperationsbut

politiciansdidn’treflectthis,thenvoterswouldreplacethepoliticianwithonethat

wouldreflecttheconstituents’desires.

Tiecompanypracticestoscience/technology/innovation.Onepossibleexplanationforseeingtiesbacktoscience/technologyand

innovationisbecausescience,technologyandinnovationholdanesteemedposition

withinsocietyasawhole,tyingcompanypracticesbacktothisborrowsfromthe

goodreputation.Therefore,talkingaboutenvironmentalsustainabilitymeasuresin

74

thesetermsismoretowardadvocacyonthecontinuum.Totiecompanypracticesto

science,technologyandinnovationistoborrowfromthecredibilityandsocial

supportforthem.Thisfocusisalsohighlyconducivetoprimarydiscussionwith

facts,whichisdiscussedearlierasanoticeablepatternemergingfromthese

interviews.

TiecompanypracticestoNorwegian/internationalstandards.Toadheretostateorinternationalstandardsonlywhenrequiredbylawisa

ratherextremeexampleofaccommodation.Ifcompanypolicieswerecuttingedge

andcommunicatorscouldthensay,lookweareaheadofthewave,aheadofthe

curve,thenthiscouldactuallybeconsideredadvocacyfortheorganization.Butat

thispoint,we’renolongertalkingaboutconflictcommunications—thiswouldbe

cooperation.Forthisreason,thispracticeisshownontheaccommodationendof

thecontinuum.

Strengths&Limitations Thisstudyismethodologicallystronginthatinaccordancewithitbeinga

preliminarycross-culturalstudy,itisforemostconcernedwiththevalidityof

responsesandunderstandingfactorsatplaybyallowingforelaborationand

explanationneededformaximumunderstandingandclarification.Stepstakenin

interviewsetuphelpedensurethis.

Althoughthisresearchcontributespreliminaryinsightintothemanifestation

ofcontingencytheoryfactorsatplayinconflictmanagementinNorway,itisnot

withoutlimitations.Thisresearchonlyexaminesaparticularsectorofafully

developedeconomy(theprimarysector)andmanagingconflictononeparticular

75

issue,(communicatingcorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcerns).Inorder

togetarounderorfullerperspectiveonconflictmanagementsurroundingtheissue

ofenvironmentalissuesforinstance,moretypesofplayerswouldneedtobe

interviewed:particularlycommunicatorsfromenvironmentalactivistgroup,

governmentofficialsatthestateandlocalslevelsandindustryassociations

advocatingonthepartofspecificindustries.Thisweaknesswasanticipated;

however,andbyallowingthisweaknesstheresourcesoftimeandmoneywere

maximized,giventhatthisisapreliminarystudyanyway.

Withtenpeoplebeinginterviewedforthisresearch,thisisonthelowendof

theanticipated10to20interviewssuggestedbypreviousstudies.Therewereboth

timeandresourcelimitationsthatlimitedthenumberofinterviews.Theresearcher

couldonlybeincountryfor90dayswithoutextensiveandexpensivepaperwork,

andsummer2015isthetimeframethatfitfortheresearcher.Giventhatmuchof

NorwaytakesfamilytimeinJuly,nointerviewswereconductedinthatmonth.

Whilethenumberofinterviewsconductedwasonthelowsideofwhatwas

proposed,about10interviewsoutoftheproposed10-20,todoadditional

interviewsatthistimewouldintroduceatimevariablethatwouldneedtobe

accountedforintheresponses.Publicopinioncanswayorevolveovertimeon

issues,sofactorstakenintoconsiderationhandlingaconflictscenarioforaprimary

sectorbusinessonenvironmentalsustainabilityissuesmightneedtobeadaptedto

fit.Thewayinwhichanorganizationinteractswithitspublicsiscontingentuponor

dependsuponavarietyofinternalandexternalvariables.Furthermore,the

76

interactionofthesevariablesisdynamic,andorganizationalstancechangesasthe

situationdemands,whichmaychangeovertime.(Reber,Cropp,&Cameron,2003).

Also,asnotedbyLi,Cropp&Jin(2010)intheChinesecontext,conflict

managementisnotsynonymouswithpublicrelations,soexaminingpublicrelations

practitionersfortheirconflictmanagementpracticesdoesnotcomprehensively

acknowledgethechallengesandcomplexitiesineffectiveandethicalconflict

managementinNorway.Resultsofthecurrentstudyandproposedfuturestudy,

however,willfacilitateresearchersandpractitionersinobtainingnewperspectives

forexaminingNorwegianPRpracticeandprovidingpracticalandtheoretical

insightsofhowtostrategicallyidentifyandcombinethemostinfluentialfactors.

PreviousstudieshavefoundwhetherapractitionerworksforthePR

departmentofanorganizationversusworkingforaPRfirmimpactstheinfluenceof

certainfactors.Forinstance,itseemsthatpractitionersworkinginaPRdepartment

aremoreinfluencedbytheorganization’scharacteristicsthanthoseworkinginaPR

firm,duetothedifferentenvironment,natureofclients,workstyle,etc.(Li,Cropp&

Jin,2010,p.254).

Finally,severalintervieweeshesitatedtosharemuchdetailedinformationon

particularcrises,andbecauseofthat,it’sworthnotingthatinasmallway,this

researcherwaslikeapublicthatneededtobedealtwithtoacertaindegree.

77

Implications&FutureResearch Perhapsthemostinterestingandnoveltakeawaysfromthisresearchliesin

itsimplicationsandfutureresearch.Futurequantitativeresearchcouldrevealthe

structuralsoundnessoftheContingencyTheoryofAccommodationinNorway.A

logicalnextstepforthisresearchistoconductaquantitativeonlinesurvey,theover

80individualcontingentvariablesasperceivedbyNorwegianpublicrelations

practitionerscouldbeexaminedforinfluence,potentiallyallowingthemost

influentialvariablesforNorwegianpublicrelationspracticetosurface.Astudyof

publicrelationspractitionersacrossindustrieswithouttopicallimitationscouldgo

furthertosuggestthestructuralstability—orinstability—ofthecontingencymatrix

intheNorwegianbusinessandsocialclimate.

Continuedresearchinthisveincouldsuggestthatcontingencytheoryof

accommodationcanbeeffectivelyappliedtoNorwegianpublicrelationspracticeto

helppractitionersunderstandandimprovetheirinvolvementofstrategic

communicationpractitionerswithamoresophisticatedunderstandingofthe

complexcommunicationenvironment,whichcouldeventuallyequipNorwegian

practitionerswithhighercommunicationcompetencyinhandlingdifferentconflict

situations.Additionally,astheglobaleconomycontinuestodevelop,studiesthat

seektopushbeyondthebordersofonecountry,suchastheU.S.,oronetradition,

suchastheWesternTradition,becomemoreandmorerelevanttounderstanding

78

theglobaleconomywithallitsnuanceandunleashitforbettermentofqualityoflife

aroundtheglobe.

Canceletal(1997)notesthatsituationalvariablesareoftenmore

challengingthanpredisposingvariables,whichsupportstheideaofpursuingapre-

programmedquantitativetool.

StructuralStabilityofContingencyTheoryacrossCulturalContextsThefindingsofthispreliminaryresearchsuggeststructuralstabilityof

contingencytheoryinNorway.Itisoutsidethescopeofthisstudytodetermine

whetherornotcontingencytheory’sfactorsdefinitivelyholdintheNorwegian

conflictmanagementcontext,butthisstudydoesprovideinsightsonhow

Norwegianpractitionersmakestrategicdecisionsfortheirorganizationsand

clients.Findingsofthispreliminarystudydoseemtofitwellalongsideamore

developedfieldofstudiesapplyingContingencyTheoryinChina,Koreaand

SingaporeofthisU.S.-developedtheorythatsuggestcontingencytheoryof

accommodationcouldserveavaluableroleincontinuallyreflectingthecomplex

realityofpublicrelationspracticeindifferentcountriesandregionsaswellas

informingpractitionersontheeffectivestrategicconflictmanagementbasedona

solidunderstandingofinternalandexternalinfluences.

Aspreviouslymentionedintheliteraturereview,contingencytheorystudies

inKoreasuggestaculturalandsituationalcontingencyperspectiveofpublic

relationsleadershipcanhelpexplaindifferencesbetweenleadershippreferences

forpublicrelationspractitionersintheU.S.andSouthKorea(Shin,Heath,&Lee,

2011).Researchershavepredictedthatintothefuture,leadershipinpublic

79

relationswillmeantheabilitytointegrateatseverallevelsofbusinessandsociety

foramoreintegratedmanagementprocessandforhelpingorganizationsmake

societymorefunctionalthroughcontingent,strategic,skilledandreflective

leadership.Basedonasurveyof1,000practitioners:

Shinetal.(2006)foundthatindividuallevelfactorshaveprimaryinfluenceonresponsetosituations.Someofindividualleveloffactorsincludesindividualcommunicationcompetency,personalethicalvalues,abilitytohandlecomplexproblems,andfamiliaritywithexternalpublicsoritsrepresentatives.Thiscontingencyframeworkguidesdeploymentoftheindividualqualificationsnecessaryforeffectiveconflictmanagement(pp.171).

Cameronetal.(2001)noted,“itisonething,however,forpractitionersto

monitortheenvironmentandaddtoweightmanyfactorsinarrivingatastance.Itis

anotherforteachersandtheoriststomanageover80distinctfactorsinanyuseful

way”(p.247).Theauthorpositsthatit’sthiswide-ranging,parsimonyeluding,

difficult-to-managegroupoffactors,thatisexactlywhatallowsforthedynamic

applicationofthetheoryacrosssocialboundariesasit’sbeentestedthusfar.Itis

beyondthelimitsofthisstudytosaythatthetheoryindeedholdstrueinside

Norwegianconflictmanagementpractices,butagainitappearstobeholdingtrue.

ContingencyDecisionMatrix:AQuantitativeToolAspreviouslymentionedintheliteraturereview,leadershipandcultureare

relevanttocontingencytheory.Culturaldifferences,however,donotonlyexist

betweenonecountryandthenext.Manysubculturescanexistwiththeirown

definingcharacteristics,histories,visionsforthefuture,similargoalsandsoforth.

Soitisreasonabletosegmentthebusinessworldintodistinctcultures:the

80

petroleumindustryculture,theagricultureindustryculture,aquacultureindustry

culture;primarysectorcultureversusretailsectorcultureversusfinancialservices

sector;bigbusinesscultureversusentrepreneurialculture;thosepublicallylisted

onastockexchangeversusprivatelyheldversuspartgovernment-owned,andso

forth.

Inthissamevein,previousresearchbySinetal.,hasfounddifferencesinthe

waythatcrisisresponsesofnon-profitandfor-profitorganizationstendtodiffer,

namelyinthatnon-profitorganizationsweremorelikelytobemore

accommodativetowarditspublicsandvice-versa,thannon-profitorganizations

whenanalyzingtheactionsfollowingratherthanscenariosprecedingacrisis(Jin,

Pang&Cameron,2006,p.99).

Apromisingapplicationofthiswouldbetodevelopindustry-specificmodels

fortheContingencyDecisionMatrix(CDM)proposedin2015conference

proceedingsoftheInternationalPublicRelationsResearchConference.Suchmodels

fortheCDMcouldhelpquantifyandultimatelyexpeditedecisionstoaccommodate

oradvocateforagivencorporateenvironmentalresponsibilityconcernatacertain

pointintimewithacertainpublic.Strasburg,Tham&Cameronin2015proposed

thismodel,whichincorporatesprinciplesandmechanicsofdecisionandgame

theorieswithcontingencytheory’sbroadanddynamicspectrumoffactorsinorder

toanalyzemulti-facetedproblemsfacedbypublicrelationsprofessionals.

Theinterestingimplicationsherearebypattern,sosimilarlytherecouldbe

industrydefaultsordefaultsbycountry.Themodelwouldbemostusefulallowing

81

practitionerstosetupitsowndefaultsettings-forspeedyapplicationwhena

conflictorcrisisarises.Thosefactorswouldalreadyhaveapproximatescores.

82

Conclusion AsContingencyTheoryofAccommodationentersitsthirddecadeof

research,itflexesitsstrengthanddynamicapplicationsthroughresearchinthe

formofinterviews,casestudies,contentanalysis,factoranalysis,surveysandmore

tobuild,bolsterandwhereneeded—modify—thetheory’scentralpropositions

(Cameron,1997;Cameron,Cropp&Reber,2001;Cancel,Cameron,Sallot&Mitrook,

1997;Cancel,Mitrook&Cameron,1999;Reber&Cameron,2003;Shin,Cameron&

Cropp,2002;Shin,Cheng,Jin&Cameron,2005;Yarbrough,Cameron,Sallot&

McWilliams,1998).Thetheoryhasbeensuccessfullystretchingoutsidethebounds

oftheU.S.geographicalbordertoproverelevantandofferinsightsintoconflict

managementinChina,KoreaandSingapore(Li,Cropp&Jin,2010;Bae&Park,

2011;Shin,Heath&Lee,2011;Zhang,Qiu&Cameron,2004).

Thisexplorationofcontingencytheory’sapplicationinNorway,thefirstofits

kindinEurope,indicatessupportforthisalreadyrobusttheory.Findingswill

contributetoanacademicdialoguethathasthusfarseenitstestingand

developmentmainlyintheU.S.,China,SouthKoreaandSingapore.Amorerobust,

applicableanddynamictheoryisgoodforpublicrelationspractitionersaswell,

particularlybecausemuchhasbeendonetorootthistheoryinpracticalexperience

(Cameron,Cropp&Reber,2000).

Inparticularthisstudyfoundtheubiquityofthreatsrelatedtofactors

influencingpoliticalandsocialsupportforthesecompaniesmanifestthroughout

83

interviewing.Whilenoentirelynewfactorsmanifested,aloudandclearpreference

emergedfortheexistingfactor“howindividualsreceive,processanduse

informationandinfluence,”inthatinmostinterviews,afact-basedorientation

surfaced,whichoftenultimatelywasamethodofadvocacy,specificallyhowand

whyagivenorganizationeitherismakingstridesinenvironmentalresponsibility

concerns.

Althoughthisstudydidnotseektodiscoverfactorsthatdidnotmanifest,

analysissuggeststhatinternalvariablesrelatedtocharacteristicsofindividual

people—PRpractitionersandtopmanagement—maynotbeasrelevanttothe

practiceofconflictmanagementinNorwayontheissueofcorporateenvironmental

responsibilityconcerns.

FurtherstudyofcontingencytheoryinNorwaywarrantsinvestigation

becauseglobalizationmeanscommunicatingeffectivelycrossculturally.Norway

made$4.4billionofdirectpurchasesofU.S.realestatelastyear,makingitthe

biggestforeignbuyerafterCanada,accordingtocommercial-propertybrokerage

CBREGroupInc.Thetrendcontinues,asearlierthisyearNorway’sfederalfund

dropped$1.5billiononprimeNewYorkrealestate(Mulholland,2015).Further,

Norwayinvestedmorethan$9billionintheUnitedStatesin2013,whichwasa

232%increasefrom2012(OrganizationforInternationalInvestment,2014).In

Norway,oneinfourforeigninvestmentsisAmerican,whichismorethananyother

country.Ultimatelyhavingamorerobustandnuancedunderstandingof

contingencytheorywillhelpcontinueadvancingboththetheoreticalandpractical

developmentofthefieldofpublicrelationsandconflictmanagement.

84

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AppendixA:PreliminaryInterviewInstrumentRespondent

1. Whatisyourpositioninthecompany,andhowlonghaveyouworkedforthecompany?

2. Howlonghaveyoubeenworkinginthisposition?3. Describeyourexperienceincommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability

issues?

Environmentalsustainability

4. Wheredoescommunicatingenvironmentalsustainabilityfitintothegrandschemeofyourcompany’soperations?Communicationplan?

5. Howdoesyourcompanydefineenvironmentalsustainability?6. Whataretheenvironmentalsustainabilityvaluesdefinedbyyourcompany?7. Howarethesevaluesdecidedupon?

Publics

8. Tellmeaboutthemostimportantpublicyoudealwithwhencommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability.Whyisthisonethemostimportant?

9. Tellmeaboutthemostrecenttimeyouhadtocommunicateenvironmentalissueswiththismostimportantpublic.

10. Tellmeaboutthemostdifficultpubicyoudealwithwhencommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability.Whyisthisonethemostdifficult?

11. Tellmeaboutthemostrecenttimeyouhadtocommunicateenvironmentalissueswiththismostdifficultpublic.

12. Whataretheotherpublicsyoudealwithwhencommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability?Tellmealittleabouteachandwhyeachisimportant.

Stance

13. I’dliketoexploreseveralbig,importantorotherwisememorableinstanceswhereyouhadtocommunicateenvironmentalsustainability.Canyoulistthreeinstances?Foreach:

a. Tellmeaboutthestance(s)youtookwithwhichpublic(s).b. Howdidyouarriveatthatstance?

i. Whowasinvolvedinthediscussiondeterminingthisstance?ii. Whatfactorsdidyoutakeintoconsiderationindetermining

stance?Becomprehensive.Finalthoughts

14. Isthereanythingyoubelieveisimportantthatyouwouldliketoadd?

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AppendixB:RevisedInterviewInstrumentRespondent&Company

1. Whatisyourpositioninthecompany,andhowlonghaveyouworkedforthecompany?

2. Howlonghaveyoubeenworkinginthisposition?

Conflict&Stance

3. I’dliketoexploreamemorableinstanceofcommunicatingconflictregardingenvironmentalsustainability.Describeatimewhenaconflictarose.

a. What/howmuchwasatstakewiththeconflict?b. Tellmeabouttheactionsyoutook.Whyweretheychosen?c. Whatwasthedesiredoutcome,anddidtheseactionsachieveit?d. Whatconsiderationsoutsideyourcompany’scontrolwererelevant?

i. Whatfactorsdidyoutakeintoconsiderationindeterminingstance?Becomprehensive.

e. Whatconsiderationswithincompany’scontrolwererelevant?i. Whatcharacteristicsoftheseconsiderationsmadethemworthconsidering?

ii. Whatcharacteristicsofthecompanymattered?iii. Whatcharacteristicsoftheissuemattered?iv. WhatcharacteristicsofthePRteammattered?v. Getintothenittygritty!

f. Whatsituationalfactorswererelevant?i. Howdidyouchoosewhatfactstoincludeandhow?

g. Whowithinthecompanyandwhooutsideofthecompanyultimatelyhadaneffectontheoutcome?AnyonefromPR?

Publics

4. Tellmeaboutthemostimportantpublicyoudealwithwhencommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability.Whyisthisonethemostimportant?

a. Tellmeaboutthemostrecenttimeyouhadtocommunicateenvironmentalissueswiththismostimportantpublic.

5. Tellmeaboutthemostdifficultpubicyoudealwithwhencommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability.Whyisthisonethemostdifficult?

a. Tellmeaboutthemostrecenttimeyouhadtocommunicateenvironmentalissueswiththismostdifficultpublic.

6. Whataretheotherpublicsyoudealwithwhencommunicatingenvironmentalsustainability?Tellmealittleabouteachandwhyeachisimportant.

90

Finalthoughts

7. Generallyspeaking,howwouldyoucharacterizethiscompany’sapproachtodealingwithconflict?Why?

8. Isthereanythingyoubelieveisimportantthatyouwouldliketoadd?“mighthavetoprobetotriggerrecognition”

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AppendixC:ContingencyTheoryFactors*Externalvariables

1. Threatsa. Litigationb. Governmentregulationc. Potentiallydamagingpublicityd. Scarringoforganization’sreputationincommunitye. Legitimizingactivists’claims

2. Industryenvironmenta. Changing(dynamic)orstaticb. Numberofcompetitors/levelofcompetitionc. Richnessorleannessofresourcesintheenvironment

3. Generalpolitical/socialenvironment/externalculture((levelofconstraint/uncertainty)

a. Degreeofpoliticalsupportofbusinessb. Degreeofsupportofbusiness

4. Theexternalpublic(group,individual,etc.)a. Size/numberofmembersb. Degreeofsourcecredibility/powerfulmembersorconnectionsc. Pastsuccessesorfailuresofpublictoevokechanged. Amountofadvocacypracticedbyorganizatione. Levelofcommunication/involvementofpublic/smembersf. Whetherthepublichaspublicrelationscounsellorsornotg. Community’sperceptionofpublic:reasonableorradicalh. Levelofmediacoveragethepublichasreceivedinthepasti. Whetherrepresentativesofthepublicknoworlikerepresentativesof

theorganizationj. Whetherrepresentativesoftheorganizationknoworlike

representativesfromthepublick. Public’swillingnesstodiluteitscause/request/claiml. Movesandcountermovesm. Relativepoweroforganizationn. Relativepowerofpublic

5. Issueunderquestiona. Sizeb. Stakesc. Complexity

Internalvariables

1. Organization’scharacteristicsa. Openorclosedcultureb. Dispersedwidelygeographicallyorcentralizedc. Leveloftechnologytheorganizationusestoproduceitsproductor

service

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d. Homogeneityorheterogeneityofemployeese. Ageoftheorganization/valueplacedontraditionf. Speedofgrowthintheknowledgeleveltheorganizationusesg. Economicstabilityoftheorganizationh. Existenceornon-existenceofissuesmanagementpersonnelor

programi. Organization’spastexperienceswiththepublicj. Distributionofdecision-makingpowerk. Formalization:numberofrulesorcodesdefiningandlimitingthejob

descriptionsl. stratification/hierarchyofpositionsm. Existenceorinfluenceoflegaldepartmentn. Businessexposure(productmixandconsumermix)o. Corporateculture

2. Publicrelationsdepartmentcharacteristicsa. Totalnumberofpractitionersandnumberwithcollegedegreesb. Typeofpasttrainingofemployees:trainedinPRorex-journalists,

marketing,etc.c. LocationofPRdepartmentinhierarchy:independentorunder

marketingumbrella/experiencingencroachmentofmarketing/persuasivementality

d. Representationinthedominantcoalitione. ExperiencelevelofPRpractitionersindealingwithconflictf. Generalcommunicationcompetencyofdepartmentg. Autonomyofdepartmenth. Physicalplacementofdepartmentinbuilding(nearCEOandothertop

decisionmakersornot)i. Stafftrainedinresearchmethodsj. Amountoffundingavailablefordealingwithexternalpublicsk. Amountoftimeallowedtousedealingwithexternalpublicsl. Gender:percentageoffemaleupper-levelstaff/managersm. Potentialofdepartmenttopracticevariousmodelsofpublicrelations

3. Characteristicsofdominantcoalition(topmanagement)a. Politicalvalues:conservativeorliberal/openorclosedtochangeb. Managementstyle:domineeringorlaidbackc. Generalaltruismleveld. SupportandunderstandingofPRe. Frequencyofexternalcontactwithpublicsf. Departmentperceptionoftheorganization’sexternalenvironmentg. Calculationofpotentialrewardsorlossesusingdifferentstrategies

withexternalpublicsh. Degreeoflinemanagerinvolvementinexternalaffairs

4. Internalthreats(howmuchisatstakeinthesituation)a. Economiclossorgainfromimplementingvariousstancesb. Marringofemployees’orstockholders’perceptionofthecompany

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c. Marringofthepersonalreputationsofthecompanydecisionmakers(imageinemployees’perceptionsandgeneralpublic’sperception)

5. Individualcharacteristics(publicrelationspractitioner,dominantcoalitionandlinemanagers)

a. TraininginPR,marketing,journalism,engineering,etc.b. Personalethicsc. Toleranceofabilitytodealwithuncertaintyd. Comfortlevelwithconflictordissonancee. Comfortlevelwithchangef. Abilitytorecognizepotentialandexistingproblemsg. Extentofopennesstoinnovationh. Extenttowhichindividualcangraspothers’worldviewsi. Personality:dogmatic,authoritarianj. Communicationcompetencyk. Cognitivecomplexity:abilitytohandlecomplexproblemsl. Predispositiontowardsnegotiationm. Predispositiontowardsaltruismn. Howindividualsreceive,processanduseinformationandinfluenceo. Familiaritywithexternalpublicoritsrepresentativep. Likeexternalpublicoritsrepresentativeq. Gender:femaleversusmale

6. Relationshipcharacteristicsa. Leveloftrustbetweenorganizationandexternalpublicb. Dependencyofpartiesinvolvedc. Ideologicalbarriersbetweenorganizationandpublic

*PerCameron,Cropp&Reber,2000