an analysis of lesson topics within senior high school

北里大学一般教育紀要 19（2014） 69-99

― ―69

原著

An Analysis of Lesson Topics within

Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:

Commonalities with and differences from

the Japanese situation

Seiko HIRAI

Kitasato University,College of Liberal Arts and Sciences

Abstract

Some segments of the Japanese education system believe that other Asian countries,

including Taiwan,have demonstrated recent advances― from elementary school-level to

college-level― in English language education.Some of these educators think this may help

to explain the perceived improvement in practical English skills in these countries.In this

study, English language education in Taiwan＊1

was examined in order to redress the

relative scarcity of information about the use of high school English textbooks in Taiwan.

The primary focus was on lesson topics outlined in the Taiwanese senior high school

English textbooks.212 lesson topics were analyzed.These topics appeared in 18 textbooks

used in Taiwanese high schools that were published before the 2008 revision of Ministry of

Education (MOE) guidelines. Although the Taiwanese government has already begun

incorporating their latest(2008)MOE guidelines,it is simply too early to examine how these

new textbooks will impact the Taiwanese English education situation.Consequently,this

study focuses mainly on the earlier guidelines.The lesson topics were classified according

to the Nippon Decimal Classification.

The findings suggest that,in Taiwan,practical English functions,including common

writing skills,are emphasized.However,these Taiwanese texts also increase the breadth of

students’intellectual exposure to English by focusing on literature classics, particularly

poetry. English language educators in Japan may find some elements of the current

findings, particularly with respect to differential emphasis on literature in Japanese and

Taiwanese textbooks,helpful in informing and driving the discussions currently underway

on the future direction of English education in Japan.

Key words and phrases：Taiwanese high school English textbooks, lesson topics,

critical thinking, literature,Nippon Decimal Classification

I. INTRODUCTION

Many English language educators in Japan have already noted recent differences in

English language education― from elementary school-level to college-level― between

Japan and other East Asian countries(Butler,2005;Kawazoe,2005;Koike,2008;Oka,2009;

Tanabe,2003;Tanaka,2007).Kawai (2005)and Oka (2009)have,for example, illustrated

some of these distinctions by focusing on quantitative differences such as the much higher

vocabulary requirements in Korean and Chinese senior high schools compared with those

within the Japanese system.There are also indications that the types of text-books and

associated teaching activities might be an important distinction between the different East

Asian education systems.Hence,Kawazoe(2005)has pointed out that countries such as

China have been willing to very rapidly change their English teaching methods, from a

rote-memorization based paradigm,to one that is updated to reflect and address modern

challenges.On a similar note, Butler (2005) specifically points to how elementary school

textbooks and other teaching materials used in Korea focus on strengthening and stimulat-

ing critical thinking ability to a much higher degree than is attempted in the Japanese

system.

In a study that focused primarily on textbooks, Ogawa et al. (2005) have noted

differences, in “Lesson Topics”, in the senior high school textbooks used in Korea and

China compared with those used in Japanese textbooks.These authors suggested that the

adoption of lesson topics and forms are influenced by foreign language education policy

and curriculum guidelines set by each country at the national level. For instance, the

textbook topics in Japan and China are more relevant to the development of economy and

industry,which reflect the respective education policies of these two countries.Moreover,

literature topics, which are quite common in Korean and Chinese textbooks, are less

frequently used in Japanese textbooks,which appear to be consistent with the Ministry of

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) curriculum guidelines,

which place less emphasis on topics concerning literature.

Such differences in textbooks and guidelines between these countries have been

invoked by the ministry’s advisory committees (MEXT, 2005), and by other Japanese

educators (Koike, 2008; Koike et al. 2008) to explain some perceived improvements in

practical English skills― as measured by international standardized tests― that may

recently have surfaced in Korea and China (Appendix Table 1a and Table 1b).

The significance of Japanese test-takers’scores in international standardized tests,

such as TOEFL,and TOEIC is still debated among Japanese academia.Despite this,some

An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation

― ―70

interesting “trends”are apparent. For example, Koike (Koike, 2001; 2008; Koike et al.,

2008) has persistently pointed to how, since the 1960’s, the scores of such standardized

test-takers from other East Asian countries have caught up with,and even surpassed those

of their Japanese counterparts. Torigai (2002) reached a similar conclusion about the

situation in the 1990’s and there are indications that this“trend”is not changing,as Oka

(2009) found when he reported that in 2004, Japan placed 29th out of 30 Asian nations.

Indeed, as shown in Appendix Table 1a, Japanese TOEFL test-takers scores in the

decades spanning 1991 to 2010 have been the lowest among most East Asian countries,

excluding North Korea. Butler (2005) is particularly concerned with a study by Torigai

(2002)that demonstrated that Japan’s mediocre TOEFL scores were pulled down by the

relatively low scores obtained by Japanese senior high-school test-takers.

Interestingly,as Appendix Table 1a indicates,even TOEFL test-takers from Taiwan

appear to consistently have higher scores than do their Japanese counterparts.Even more

apparent is the relative lack of improvement Japanese TOEIC test-takers seem to have

made since the 1990’s(Appendix Table 1b).Even as TOEIC test-takers from China,Korea,

and Taiwan demonstrated marked gains in scores between 1997 and 2005,gains made by

Japanese test-takers are barely visible.Nevertheless,it should be noted that caveats apply

here as such differences may be more apparent than real.

Butler (2005), Kawazoe (2005), Koike (Koike, 2001; 2008; Koike et al., 2008), and

Tanaka (2007) are representative of many Japanese English language educators who

believe that Japan can gain a lot by examining how these other Asian countries have

brought about such “improvements”in the English language skills of their peoples,

although these educators concede that it is difficult, from such observations, to draw

broad conclusions on the relative merits of the different English education systems in use

in East Asia.

Studying the senior high school English language education process,in particular,can

be very revealing because many more individuals with sufficient exposure to the entire

English learning process are represented at this stage of the process than at earlier or even

subsequent stages.To this end,analyzing the textbooks used at this stage is very impor-

tant because these materials provide a clear index for the kinds of language skills and

abilities the educators are emphasizing and expecting their students to gain.

There are two main ways English textbooks are investigated. The skill-based

approach examines the teaching of vocabulary,grammar and language structure(Kodera,

1996). The other method examines the contents and topics used for the lessons. Most

researchers have focused on the former, but recently some researchers (Koshino &


― ―71

Nakamura,2001) have started probing the latter.Because the contents and topics used for

such lessons often exert an enormous impact on the development of students’understand-

ing of the world (Katayama et al., 1986), these topics can be useful surrogates for inves-

tigating the specific aims and perspectives of the English education program in a target

country.For example,when the frequencies of lesson topics(such as philosophy,technol-

ogy, natural sciences, etc.)are classified and investigated, it may be possible to discern

whether all standard lesson topics are adequately represented or whether only certain

areas are emphasized in textbooks―such analyses can be indirect indicators of the specific

types of English usage favored by particular education boards and governments.Indeed,

Erikawa’s (2002;2006)analysis of English textbook topics in Japan following the second

World War and into the 1990s shows a correlation between socio-economic factors and

textbook topics.

Some recent studies have used this approach to study the situation not only in Japan

(Erikawa,2002;2006;Koshino& Nakamura,2001)but also in other Asian countries such

as China and South Korea(Ogawa et al.,2005),but to the best of my knowledge,there has

been only limited work on this for Taiwan.Data from Taiwan are frequently included in

many comparisons of English proficiencies,among East Asian nations.Yet,little informa-

tion on the use of English textbooks in Taiwan is currently available.This makes it more

difficult to draw direct comparisons on senior high school English education between

Taiwan and the other East Asian nations.The current study was designed to redress the

relative scarcity of this information.In particular I was interested in lesson topics in senior

high school textbooks,and have expanded the scope of the 2005 study by Ogawa et al.by

examining the situation in Taiwan.

As is the case with Korea and China, Taiwan is similar to Japan in that English is

viewed,both within the educational framework,and in society,as a“foreign”language,

not a“second”language.The educational system in Taiwan uses a 6-3-3(5)system similar

to that in Japan.Another similarity relates to the communication challenges each of these

countries faces in terms of globalization.

Although the Taiwanese government has already begun incorporating their latest 2008

MOE guidelines,it is simply too early to examine how these new textbooks will impact the

Taiwanese English education situation. Consequently, this study focuses mainly on the

earlier guidelines.Nevertheless, several of the new textbooks that have already incorpo-

rated the new 2008 guidelines were also examined to get some sense of perspective and

context on changes underway. How the Education ministry guidelines influenced the

selection,by textbook publishers,of textbook topics was also examined.Of the four aims

― ―72


stated in the Taiwanese 1995 MOE guidelines, only two major aims specifically refer to

topics,such as“English literature”,“fine arts”,“Taiwanese and foreign cultures”,“inter-

national affairs”,and “advances in science and technology”,which is the primary focus

of the present study.These two aims are:

1. To cultivate interest in learning English and to help students to appreciate English

literature and fine arts through both passive and active participation in such activ-

ities.

2. To encourage familiarity with not only Taiwanese but also foreign cultures and also

to promote an understanding of international affairs,and of advances in science and

technology.

The subject areas covered in these texts, and how the topics are structured and

presented,were examined. A major finding is that not only are practical English func-

tions, including common writing skills,emphasized in Taiwanese textbooks but also that

the students are given a broader intellectual exposure to English via literature classics and

poetry. MEXT and its advisors might find this information useful in planning changes

to the Japanese English language education,especially in secondary schools.

II. METHODOLOGY

1. Taiwanese textbooks investigated and the number of topics examined

Data for the study were collected between 2004 and 2012, during which the author

travelled from Japan to Taiwan 11 times.Included in these periods were several trips to

the National Textbook Resource Center in Taipei―where several officers＊2were intervi-

ewed for specific information on the textbooks and on MOE issues― and to the library of

National Taiwan Normal University.Several university faculties＊3were also interviewed

for textbook-specific information on MOE issues.Because the Taiwanese MOE guidelines

are in the Mandarin language,these materials were translated into Japanese by a Chinese

colleague.The author then completed the Japanese language to English language transla-

tions of these materials and had the final English version verified by a colleague in

Taiwan.

Of the five senior high school English textbooks series authorized by the Ministry of

Education in Taiwan,only three are widely used,published by three distinct publishing

companies: the Far East English Readers (FEER), the Lung Teng English Readers

(LTER),and the San Min English Readers (SMER).FEER is the most popular series of

textbooks(Chen Chia-hung,2000;Chen Hong-wen,2003),the next most popular is SMER,


― ―73

followed by LTER.

Each of the Taiwanese series consists of six textbooks― books 1 through 6―which

students study over a three-year period.Here,all textbooks from the three series,a total

of 18,were investigated.Each textbook,except for two(books 5 and 6 of LTER),consists

of twelve lessons.Thus, the total number of lessons examined in this study was 212(See

Table 1a).As each lesson represents a single topic, a total of 212 topics were examined.

Because the main reading section or story for each lesson comprehensively and adequately

represents the topic focus of each lesson, the ‘pre-reading’and ancillary activities or

exercises that accompany each lesson were not examined.Additionally,I have observed in

the recent versions of FEER,New Far East English Readers;NFEER (2008):(Table 1b),

to analyze the recent trend.

Table 1a

Taiwanese Textbooks Analyzed

Textbooks Publishers Publication

Year

Number of

Lessons 12 1999 Far East Book Company Far East English Readers 1

Far East English Readers 2 Far East Book Company 2000 12

12 2000 Far East Book Company Far East English Readers 3


12 2003 Far East Book Company Far East English Readers 5


Lung Teng English Readers 1 Lung Teng Book Company 2002 12

12 2002 Lung Teng Book Company Lung Teng English Readers 2


10 2003 Lung Teng Book Company Lung Teng English Readers 5



12 2005 San Min Book Company San Min English Readers 2

San Min English Readers 1 San Min Book Company 2004 12





Total 212 18

― ―74


2. Japanese textbooks investigated

Data for the Japanese textbooks were mostly collected in 2004.Of the sixteen senior

high school English textbooks series authorized by MEXT, ten publishers, Sanseido,

Shubunkan, Taishukan, Zoshindo, Kaitakusha, Kyoikusha, Obunsha, Tokyooshoseki,

Bun-Eido,Daiichi Gakushusha,were chosen because they represent the most widely used

textbooks used for senior high school English programs.

The data for Japanese textbook topics were taken from the same textbooks,listed in

Table 2 used by Ogawa et al.(2005).The six kinds of senior high school English textbooks

authorized by MEXT are:English I,English II,Reading, Writing,Oral English I and

Oral English II.Only two of these six, titled English I and English II,were specifically

examined because they comprehensively integrate general language skills,and are used by

almost all schools in Japan. In each textbook, the main lessons were examined and the

activities and exercises that are found between the main lessons were excluded because

these sections are typically not consistent with the topic focus of the lesson. Seventy

textbooks for English I and English II were published in 2004.A wide margin in the level

of difficulty,ranging from‘very easy’to‘rather difficult’exists between the textbooks,and

20‘rather difficult’textbooks were selected for analysis.202 lessons in total,as shown in

Table 3,were examined,and because each lesson represents a single topic,a total of 202

topics were examined,almost the same number as for the Taiwanese textbooks.Some of

6 72 Total

12 2008 Far East Book Company New Far East English Readers 6

New Far East English Readers 5 Far East Book Company 2008 12 12 2008 Far East Book Company New Far East English Readers 4

New Far East English Readers 3 Far East Book Company 2008 12

12 2008 Far East Book Company New Far East English Readers 2

New Far East English Readers 1 Far East Book Company 2008 12

Number of

Lessons

Publication

Year

Publishers Textbooks

Table 1b

Taiwanese Textbooks Additionally Analyzed

Three major publishers supply textbooks in Taiwan: Far East English Readers, Lung Teng

English Readers,and San Min English Readers.Each publisher has a series of books,numbered

1(for grade 10) to 6 (for grade 12).All textbooks listed follow the 1995 MOE guidelines.


― ―75

these data were originally collated and presented in a paper I co-authored with Ogawa et

al.in 2007.For the current study,some additional analysis and collation of these data were

completed.

3. Classification of Lesson Topics:The Nippon Decimal Classification

To reduce individual biases and to facilitate comparisons between countries, I have

used “The Nippon Decimal Classification”(NDC)― the most widely used library classifi-

cation system in Japan― to categorize topics in this study.The Japan Library Association

constantly updates the NDC to reflect contemporary changes.

Table 3 shows how the NDC employs a multi-tiered classification system,with the first

Table 2

Japanese Textbooks Analyzed

8 2004 Sanseido Crown English Series I

Crown English Series II Sanseido 2004 10 8 2004 Shubunkan Encounter English Series I

Encounter English Series II Shubunkan 2004 8

12 2004 Taishukan Genius English Course I

Genius English Course II Taishukan 2004 10

Textbooks Publishers Publication

Year

Number of

Lessons

9 2004 Kyoikushupan One World English Course I

New Legend English II Kaitakusha 2004 12 10 2004 Kaitakusha New Legend English I

Mainstream II Zoshindo 2004 12

10 2004 Zoshindo Mainstream I

11 2004 Kyoikushupan One World English Course II

Planet Blue English I Obunsha 2004 9 12 2004 Obunsha Planet Blue English II

Prominence English I Tokyoshoseki 2004 10

10 2004 Daiichi Gakushusha Voyager English Course I

Unicorn English Course II Bun-Eido 2004 11 10 2004 Bun-Eido Unicorn English Course I

Prominence English II Tokyoshoseki 2004 10

10 2004 Daiichi Gakushusha Voyager English Course II

Total 72 20

― ―76


tier comprising ten classification items: Philosophy, History, Social Sciences, Natural

Sciences, Technology, Industry, the Arts, Languages, Literature and General Works.

General Works covers all items that cannot be classified in categories 1-9.Each of the 10

items within the first tier is then subdivided into 100categories,which in turn are further

subdivided into 1000 topics. Hence, a first-tier item, such as

. Two topics,

TS:

can be

divided into political science,which itself has sub-categories such as political history and

conditions. To minimize confusion, I have represented first tier items in bold italics

(

3%),

on ti

);second tier items are represented in bold (political science);third tier items

are italicized (political history and conditions).

III. RESUL

the

1. Taiwanese Textbooks:

General Observations:

Table 4 illustrates how lesson topics are represented in the three Taiwanese senior

high school English textbooks.Within

(7.

first classificati

st to

er,

c

,

(2.4%),

while

occurs

most frequently, at 26.4% of all topic categories, with

at 11

pic

%

at

2 nd at 18.9%, and

ies are ncy a

3 rd

here

.8%

e

),

e both ranke 0%),

. The nex

(4

and

e

e lo

(

for

r

a

each occur at

9.9% freque

e

t h

i

nd t

4%

d

w

8.0 t a

r

k

e

d, at 1.h

-

q

4 th

s

gh e

n

i gor

e

fr

t .

c ue .n

y

s

c ec i o en S i al S s c

ce ei n Sc s

S c l Sc a s o c i i ne e

i rat r e L u t e

Phi o h os y l p r c l es a Scien N ut a a eg L ng s u a

chno y T g e lo ts yr o Hi T r Ae h st dn u yrts I

en rks eral Wo G

Table 3

Organization of the NDC

0 General works

1 Philosophy

2 History

3 Social Sciences

4 Natural Sciences

5 Technology

6 Industry

7 The Arts

8 Languages

9 Literature

30 Social Sciences

31 Political science

33 Economics

32 Law

36 Society

37 Education

35 Statistics

34 Public finance

39 National defense,Millitary science

38 Customs, folklore and ethnology 318 Local goverments

319 International relations

314 Legislature.Parliaments

315 Political parties

317 Public administration

316 Stat and individual

312 Political history and conditions

313 Forms of states

311 Political theory and thought

310 Political science


― ―77

Even within the most common first tier topics, differences in second and third tier

classification item frequencies were observed (Table 5).Social issues,English /American

novels and poetry,ethics,and biographies are all emphasized in these lower tiers whereas

the natural sciences and technology,which are highlighted within the first classification

tier, are not well represented here(Table 5).

The highest first tier category,

lish usage(for e

,has 56 topics,considerably more than

the 40 in the next highest category,

ry is

the fou

.Nevertheless,within the second classifica-

tion tier,English/American literature topics in

al problems

occur most frequently,while

Society(for example,“The World’s Best-Loved Advice Givers”from FEER,Book 5)and

Customs, folklore and ethnology, both in

lligraphy. The n

, rank second and third

respectively (Table 5).

ing on marke

, with 25 topics, ranked third, among first tier cate-

gories (Table 4), heavily emphasizes specific second tier items such as Ethics-Morals

(Table 5).

The first of the two categories occupying

r items

rth rank is

h 17 topics, inclu

,which

has 21 topics,many of which deal with

engineering, env

including pharmacy(for exam-

ple,“Chinese Medicine”from LTER,Book 4)although Astronomy and Space science is

also represented. The other fourth ranked category, also with 21 topics, is

it

h

ext cat

.

Here,many textbooks deal with English,such as reading English,conversation,composi-

tion,and speech.There is heavy emp

n

asis on practical Eng

which come from

t

xample,“How

to Carry on a Conversation”from FEER,Book 6).

The next catego

ape

/Ca

f wa

.

te.

w

, w

h o

n

l

is rank

egory is

ding various current issues

such as genetic

ting a

,

d commerci

ironment

ons.

The las

, and how to dispose o

wit

s

11

,

o

it

cs

r

i

y three

ed next with 15 topics.

four top

follows next

cat

h

go

t

y

pi

fo

e

m

ncluding

Sports,Dramas/Movi

r

s, and Pictures

ier

wo o

e us r

w

In

h

u

t c

ation s

topics,t

ati

f

c

c

o

f

it

o

s e

n

ateg

i

o

s

c

ocu r

t

l

and o m c

ry

n J

l

d l e a n is e i h p r

a

s

/

i

t f s i h e New

So c S s i e l e ci c n a a t r Li ut re e

t u Li r e t e r a

l So ai s i c S e c c en

ph li o y s h o P

a S u c l N i e t n s r c e a

c n al s e c e ci e M d i s

eg L n a a g s u

l T go y hno ce

yr sto i H e h ts T r A

I r ust d y n

s General work

― ―78


Table 4

Lesson Topic Frequencies in Taiwanese Textbooks (1)

Textbooks

NDC

Far East

English

Readers

Lung Teng

English

Readers

San Ming

English

Readers

Total %

General

Works

0.0%

%%%

0 1 1.5% 2.8%2 3 1.4%

11.8%25 13 18.1%10.3%7 5 6.9%Philosophy

History 4 5.6% 8 11.8% 3 4.2% 15 7.1%

26.4%56 15 20.8%35.3%24 17 23.6%Social

Sciences

Natural

Sciences

5 6.9% 5 7.4% 11 15.3% 21 9.9%

8.0%17 11.1%8 7.4%5 5.6%4 Technology

Industry 3 4.2% 0 0.0% 2 2.8% 5 2.4%

The Arts 4 5.6% 1 1.5% 4 5.6% 9 4.2%

Languages 15 20.8% 3 4.4% 3 4.2% 21 9.9%

Literature 15 20.8% 14 20.6% 11 15.3% 40 18.9%

100%212 100%72 100%68 100%72 Total

Table 5


The 2 nd tier

Frequency out of a pool of

212 topics examined

NDC Item No. Category

Fiction.Romance.Novels 933(Literature)

31

Family. Man and woman. Aged people 367(Social Sciences)

32

Practical ethics 159 (Philosophy)

12

Poetry 931(Literature)

20

11

289 (History) Individual biography

Ethics.Morals 15(Philosophy)

8

14

38(Social Sciences) Customs, folklore and ethnology

11

83(Language) English

21

93(Literature) English/American literature

17

36(Social Sciences) Society

Category NDC Item No.Frequency out of a pool

of 212 topics examined

The 3 rd tier


― ―79

Comparison of Three Textbooks

There are some significant differences between the three publishing companies in

subject matter (Graph 1). The most striking difference is for the

lessons ea

topic, in

which FEER has 15 lessons as opposed to only three each for the two other book com-

panies.Moreover,SMER places greater emphasis on

g the content of

ni

,with a total of 11

lessons,compared with only five each for the other two book companies.In the

R,NFEER

category, LTER, with a total of eight lessons, outpaces the other two book compa

f F

es

(three and four

opics.

e 6)

ch).

Indeed, from what I have observed in the recent versions o

m t

EE

e a trend

(2008):

(Tabl asi, there does see nc o b war n s i

t

to e d r

a se L n ag gu

N c Sl e u at ie s ra nc

st H y o i r

ura ences l Sci Nat

Table 6


Textbooks

NDC

Far East English Readers(1999-2003)

New Far East English Readers(2008)

0 00 Natural Sciences

Philosophy1 5 6

14 173 Social Sciences

History2 4 6

4 45 Technology

Natural Sciences4 5 12

7 47 The Arts

Industry6 3 1

14 159 Literature

Languages8 15 4

Total 72 68

Differences in lesson topic frequencies between the new and older versions of the Far East English

Readers series of textbooks are tabulated here.

― ―80


2. Japanese Textbooks:

Table 7 summarizes how lesson topics are represented in Japanese senior high school

English textbooks.Most of the Japanese publishers sampled tend to follow the guidelines

set by MEXT. These guidelines are quite broadly categorized into umbrella-like defini-

tions such as “International Understanding,”“Everyday or commonplace events”, and

tend to emphasize topics such as “Customs and Manners”, “Narratives”“Geography”,

and “History”,“Science”,etc.Reflecting this,

ome publishers,

occurs most frequently,at

29.7%,with

ar to favor Social

2 nd at 17.3%,and

ral Scie

3 rd at 10.9%.

e differenc

is 4 th,

occurring at 10.4% frequency but this is not very different from

hin the mo

(9.4%), and

rst tier top

(8.9%).The other categories are considerably lower,with

e repres

at 5.5%,

high freq

at 3.5%,and

h second and

at 3.0%,while

upings,

as Dai

is the lowest ranked,at

1.5%.

Despite the concordance on lesson topics between publishers, some differences are

also apparent. For example, the publisher Obunsha clearly does not focus on

ver on

es, in sec

as much as do the other publishers (highlighted in gray; Table 7). Instead,

Obunsha focuses on other areas, such as

e, while

nd Kaitak

,

sha,a

ca

, and

ories ar

e

.

The publisher Shubunkan has no topics whatsoe

es

thi d tier gro

s

o

where

third

ichi

Gakushusha allocat

m f

fiv

u

(25% of total) topics to this category.S

ar

e-

g

e

a

a

ics (Ta

such

u

.

Taishukan

if tier cla

u

s

t c ic

ppe

t

n it

S e i

req

r

enci

a

l

.ences to N c

o e

Ther

uen

n

b

t

s

8)

e

H

e io d

t

a c

mon f

n

st c i

d

i m

es,

e

d an

c

n e

a

y i

n

t b

t

w

n

e

n

ve

t o

o a S c Sl i ien c es c

u e a N t Sc ar nc s i l e T A h str e c n l T y e o o h g

a g e L u n ga

hpo y s lo Phi r s y H ot i

dust nI ry L t er ar it u e k Ge o s r al ne W r

i c o l a S

sei Stud

i c c S al e e r ut n s Na r Ae st Th gua e Lan g

yg olo chn Te

Soc iences ial Sc Natural

Graph 1

Lesson Topic Frequencies


― ―81

topics oc

,and

ore freq

are not as frequently encountered in these subdivisions.Indeed,

ho

(Table 8).

tly than cur m

a

,e from uen

, nd

o t d s

es c n c S ei T Art he s

P h i h ol p y so c n l Scie Na es ra tu The

r st A y Technolog

Total 18 100%

0.0%0 Literature

11.1%2 Languages

22.2%4 The Arts

0.0%0 Industry

Technology 1 5.6%

22.2%4 Natural

Sciences

Social

Sciences

27.8%5 5.6%1 History

Philosophy 5.6%1

0

%

0.0%General

Works

Sansei

do

Textbooks

NDC

Table 7

Lesson Topic Frequencies in Japanese Textbooks (1)

Shubun

kan

Taishu

kan

Zoshin

do

Kaita

kusha

0.0%

18.8%

6.3%

31.3%

12.5%

0.0%

0.0%

18.8%

6.3%

6.3%

100%

0.0%

9.1%

4.5%

40.9%

9.1%

4.5%

0.0%

13.6%

9.1%

9.1%

100%

0.0%

0.0%

4.5%

45.5%

18.2%

13.6%

4.5%

4.5%

9.1%

0.0%

100%

0.0%

13.6%

4.5%

22.7%

4.5%

18.2%

9.1%

13.6%

4.5%

9.1%

100%

0

3 1 5

2

0 0 3 1 1 16

0

2 1 9

2

1 0 3 2 2 22

0

0 1 10

4

3 1 1 2 0 22

0

3 1 5

1

4 2 3 1 2 22

20 0 1 1 2 5

3

6 0 1

1

21 1 2 0 0 1

4

7 3 3

0

20 0 3 0 0 1

4

7 1 3

1

21 0 4 4 0 3

5

2 1 1

1

100%

0.0%

5.0%

5.0%

10.0%

25.0%

15.0%

30.0%

0.0%

5.0%

5.0%

100%

4.8%

9.5%

0.0%

0.0%

4.8%

19.0%

33.3%

14.3%

14.3%

0.0%

100%

0.0%

15.0%

0.0%

0.0%

5.0%

20.0

35.0%

5.0%

15.0%

5.0%

100%

0.0%

19.0%

19.0%

0.0%

14.3%

23.8%

9.5%

4.8%

4.8%

4.8%

Daiichi

Gakushu

sha

Bun-ei do

Tokyo

Sho seki

Obun

sha

Kyoiku

shupan

0.0%0

1 5.0%

1 5.0%

4 20.0%

6 30.0%

10.0%2 2 10.0%

3 15.0%

1 5.0%

0 0.0%

100%20

% % % %

General

Works

Philosophy

History

Social

Sciences

Natural

Sciences

Technology

Industry

The Arts

Languages

Literature

Total

Total

1.5%

8.9%

5.4%

29.7%

17.3%

10.4%

3.5%

10.9%

9.4%

3.0%

100%

3

18 11 60

35

21 7 22 19 6 202

% % % % % %Textbooks

NDC

― ―82


3. Comparison Between Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks:

To facilitate comparisons with Taiwanese textbooks,lesson topics in all ten Japanese

publishers were aggregated and are presented in Graph 2. Four trends are evident. 1)

ost frequently r

was ranked the first in both Taiwanese textbooks and Japanese text-

books.In both countries,the most common second tier category was society(Table 5,8).

Customs, folklore, ethnology,was also most frequently represented in Taiwanese text-

books but was absent in Japanese textbooks(2 nd tier topic;Table 5,8).On the other hand,

politics (within the 2 nd tier category political science), which is hardly addressed in

Taiwanese textbooks, was the second most common

panese textbook

topic in Japanese

textbooks (2 nd tier topic; Table 5,8). 2) The most striking difference is seen with

overed (2 nd

,which is the second m

). In

addition, p

epresented first-tier topic in Taiwanese

textbooks, but was hardly represented at all in Japanese textbooks (18.9% in Taiwanese

textbooks,2.9% in Ja

in the fo

oetry, w

s;Graph 2 In both countries,English and American

literature,

ly ed in J

rm of novels and stories, are c

nor

; Tabl

ap

tier topic

ch is c

e 5,8

requent extbo ompl anese hi ,etel oks si i f y g t

e s c c n Soc e l i ai S

c S ial So ces ci ne

e ratur Lite


― ―83

The 3 rd tier

Frequency out of a pool

of 202 topics examined

NDC Item No. Category

Psychology 14(Philosophy)

14

Society 36(Social Sciences)

15

Zoology 48(Natural Sciences)

8

Political science 31(Social Sciences)

13

7

80(Language) Linguistics

Motion pictures 778(Arts)

11

12

141(Philosophy) General psychology

11

519 (Technology) Pollution.Environmental engineering

34

361(Social Sciences) Sociology

17

369 (Social Sciences) Social welfare

Category NDC Item No.Frequency out of a pool of

202 topics examined

The 2 nd tier

Table 8

Lesson Topic Frequencies in Japanese Textbooks (2)

The top 5 lesson topics within each of the 2 nd and 3

rd tiers are represented here.

encountered in Taiwanese textbooks(3 rd tier topic;Table 5,8). 3)

ted in Taiwanese

t

,and

ooks (Ta

are more common first tier topics in Japanese textbooks than in Taiwanese

textbooks (Graph 2). In both countries,medicine is a very common second tier category

within

hree broad catego

,while within

al langu

,

ge

,public pollution was most frequently

represented (data not shown). 4) Although the number of lessons representing

elines

(e

are almost the same in both countries(Taiwanese textbooks:11.3％;Japanese

textbooks:9.3％;Graph 2,there are differences in second-tier topic frequencies(Table 5,

8).Hence,among second-tier topics,gener

ional ex

a

er

is the most represented in Japanese

textbooks,whereas practical topics such as English are the most represen

OE guid

all under

v

extb

th the 20

ble 5,8).

IV. DISCUSSION:

1. General Observations on Taiwanese Textbooks

This investigation shows that a very large segment of lesson topics covered f

hile also

just t

sing their exposu

ries―

nternat

aim to fo

p

te

iences. I

, and

estingly, t

―which

together account for about 57%of all lesson topics.This is consistent with M

ures w pprecia-

in

en wi literat

08 guidelines),which

iarity w

s th r,among students,a deeper a

ese three

tion of ocal and ure and enhanced famil forei

to

i

re

l

o i e

g

h cult

nt c r

n

a t ic er p

t a N S u l r ces en a ci

r h A t e T s

c ut ci S n es e l a N ar e T on gy ch ol

ag La e gu n

oS cia n Scie l ces a iter e tur L y oph Philos


Graph 2

Lesson Topic Frequencies in Taiwanese& Japanese Textbooks

Differences between the Japanese and Taiwanese textbooks,in lesson topic frequencies,are visible

in this graph.The lesson topic frequencies are expressed as cumulative percentages.

― ―84

categories represent only two of the three“pillars”of topic emphasis recommended within

the 1995 Taiwanese MOE guidelines;these refer specifically to literature,and culture and

international affairs. A third pillar on science and technologically-oriented topics is not

represented to the degree suggested by the MOE guidelines.

Of the three emphasized categories in Taiwanese textbooks,

the most

pop

stands out in

how differently it is featured in Taiwan compared with its treatment in some other

countries such as China and even Japan.Under

en Hong-wen

,many topics,with a particular

focus on American and European literature,are treated in the Taiwan situation.Classic

poetry is given almost the same level of attention as is given to classic novels.At least one

chapter in every textbook I examined presents poems in a well-organized approach that

exposes students steadily, in a step-wise fashion, to material of increasingly higher

difficulty level.

Another characteristic feature of Taiwanese textbooks is their focus on teaching

“practical”English within the

over,

NFEE

category(almost 10% of all topics).Given that

the older (1995) MOE curriculum guidelines have placed a greater value on utilitarian

English,it is not surprising that the areas in English communication,reading and writing

that are especially emphasized include topics on the practical aspects of daily life. The

level to which the three textbook companies conform to MOE guidelines is an important

factor at play here.Although,of the three text book companies,FEER textbook series has,

by far, the greatest frequency of Language topics, it still appears to have a relatively

well-balanced distribution of topic subjects. In fact, these topics emphasizing practical

English are seldom found in the LTER or the SMER series.FEER books are

dopted spec

ular in the Taiwanese school system (Chen Hong-wen,2003)and are strongly support-

ed by various school teachers (Chen Chia-hung,2000;Ch

o two parts:

,2003).Indeed,the

FEER series focuses on practical aspects―“Following Instructions,”“Making Requests,”

“Filling Out Forms”― to a much larger extent than do the other two textbook series. In

fact,these types of topics are seldom found in the LTER or the SMER series.Interesting-

ly, the newest 2008 MOE guidelines have called for more emphasis on language and

practical English skills, and it seems reasonable to infer that the MOE may have been

influenced by the relative success of the FEER text series approach. More

ks int ines R (2008) has actually a

ading”and t

ific aspects of the recent 2006 interim MOE

guidel

he Ta

on increasing emphasis on communicative approaches by splitting the text-

boo ts.

T

ther

iwanese

one only for“re

rge from the

he o

E gui

focused only on“conversation”

par

t MO oks d delines i tex h bo r tre ive nt of the t m ei at e n

e i e r L t ur at

e L ra it re tu

s Language


― ―85

natural sciences― the number of topics related to

Ogawa et al.,2005

does not seem to

match the expectations implied by the scope of the topic areas and materials that is

contained within the 1995 MOE curriculum guidelines. Indeed, the overall number of

ing,“historical

topics found in these textbooks is relatively small in comparison with

the numbers of

ic

materialism (

and

en associat

topics.However, the SMER books (the

second most popular textbook series),which represent recent editions (2004 and 2005)of

the three textbook included in this analysis,have a more proportionate ratio of

oliticized

to

en as a distinct

id

(1:1)than that (almost 3:1)found in the other two textbook series.

Indeed, when all topics are considered, the SMER series is actually the most well-

balanced.Recent versions of NFEER (2008)have already increased the content of

alizations and it

topics(Table 6)and it will be interesting to see whether the trend towards more

topics about the natural sciences, found in SMER, continues and even expands to the

other textbooks.

The discrepancies,between the MOE and the textbooks,relating to

gories:

c

are even

more difficult to reconcile.It remains unclear why the textbooks do not cover sciences and

technology when the MOE curriculum guidelines stress the importance of these areas.One

possible reason for this variance is that Taiwanese textbooks,unlike textbooks in mainland

China,which seem to de-emphasize literature(

am,2005).The ten

;Ogawa et al.,2007),have

been influenced by a reorganized “Cheng-Chu Neo-Confucianism”approach to moral

traditionalism (Harrell& Huang,1994)― this seems to fit with longstand

tbook curricula w

”

tenets that value traditionalism (such as the fine arts) more than they do modernist

tbooks

About 47%

oft

he topics co

ed with industrial and technical topi

n

s).Nevertheless,the view

that Taiwan has retained traditional Chinese cultures,mores,values,and customs more

than has mainland China has become contentious and p

here is no co

ev

esponding

guidel

eology of indigenization,often described as“Taiwanization”or“bentuhua”,has gained

more traction in recent decades (Makeh

just two cate

h sch

sio

t

inherent in these dualistic

trends therefore makes it difficult to make gener

sson topics. Alth

also complicates any

attempts to conflate developments in senior hig

s, t

v

ool

o

ex

on

rr

panese Te

and

ith tradi-

tional emphases on Confucianism.

2. General Obser

v

ati

h

ns

es

Ja

in

ough th

x

s

focus on ne, in t

of t

, in es is con

vered fall under

T guideline e

Ne e ert 9 el

nc

s,

or

a moder

i

,

ore foc

i

ses of l

hes

h

199

E

se

id

e f is ming t

w e c M

n

X

gu

t

u

e s i ,

te

.

h

f i

n

n

l

t

e r s o

c S t se N a c n r i a l e u

e a u s e c r a i l N t c S n

i i e a c oS c en S c s l r Lit r ut a e e

u r e at e Lit r

n N i u c e ces l a a S r t

l a ra tu N

cie s ce S n

rt nI y us d

c c S o c i S l n ia e es

a ne l t N i ra S u ces c

ces l cia So n Scie

tura ences l Sci Na

― ―86


technologically advanced society, the importance of the sciences is typically understood

and so the inclusion of this topic is unsurprising. Moreover, the newest guidelines do

specifically include and reference the

ensive approach t

(MEXT, Central Education

Council, 2003;MEXT;2010).

An additional 40% of the topics fall, at almost equal frequencies, into the four

categories of

an are g

s,

ater than th

,

se observ

, and

tween the Ta

. These observations

agree with the findings of Ogawa et al (2007). To a large degree, the ten publishers

examined conform with MEXT guideline on lesson topic selections. These guidelines

expressly state that students’basic practical communication abilities such as listening and

speaking must be developed and that these specific topic areas should be emphasized; it

is also suggested that the publishers use issues that“relate to the daily lives,manners and

customs,stories,geography,history,traditional culture,etc.,of Japanese people and the

people of the world, focusing on countries that use the foreign language being taught.”

MEXT places less emphasis on literature topics and all the publishers have followed this

assiduously.

3. Comparison Between Taiwanese and Japanese Textbooks

There are some clear differences between Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks. In

many Japanese senior high school English textbooks,the contents are focused and limited

to reading, writing or communication, and not to some combination of these areas. In

stark contrast, the Taiwanese textbooks favor a more compreh

cerpts from novel

hat

incorporates all three such areas within a single textbook.Overall,the differences between

the Taiwanese books examined and those used in Jap

eir abi

re

ty in a

parti

o

ular lang

ed

be

can do so by f

iwanese publishers.

The major difference between Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks relates to how

much emphasis is placed on

re is langua

topics,with such topics occurring,in Taiwanese

textbooks, at a frequency more than six-fold higher than in Japanese textbooks. To a

considerable degree,this difference centers around the treatment of poetry as Taiwanese

textbooks emphasize poetry to the point where there are almost as many poems as there

are ex

teratu

li

.

A belie

s, whereas Japanese textbooks are completely devoid of this

sub-category

languag

f persists in education circles that people wanting to improve th

i e target

reading

e

( g

c

-

depende

uage

d language-

ocusing on literature written in th

tensive

t, 1982;

,d

Akyel & Yalcin, 1990; Marquard

iven,re

Povey, 1979). English l

x

e

cuss dr n,nt an t qu i iring io f studen s,e n, s a o d

N ci a n ur e s l S a c t e

h t T Ar e o ec l o g T n y h g a n e L u g a i hP hy l p oso

e tur Litera


― ―87

writing (Chamot & O’malley, 1986.) Indeed,Marquardt (1982)has noted how important

literature is in mastering the English language, and Chen Hong-wen (2003) reports that

Taiwanese senior high school teachers support the use of literature,particularly poetry,in

their English classes.

Material such as English literature can be sufficiently demanding,cognitively,that it

requires students to use higher-order thinking abilities.There is considerable literature on

how one’s understanding of complex matters improves as one’s ability in a target language

develops and expands,suggesting some synergistic interplay between the two sets of skills

(Vygotsky, 1986;Wells, 1986). Critical thinking and analytical thinking require learning

through the processes of comparison,evaluation,and criticizing,and such approaches can

foster higher-level English language development. Improving reading and writing activ-

ities impacts the development of other language areas, such as speech functions (Wells,

1986).

This focus on literature and “traditional”English language instruction are key

components of considerable debate, within Japan, on the future direction of English

education in the country and will be expounded in the sections below.

Another major difference between the Japanese and Taiwanese systems centers on

how Japanese textbooks favor politics,which are almost completely ignored in Taiwanese

textbooks(I found only one reference,and even that― on the prevention of damage by a

natural disaster― is apparently only tangentially linked to political science).Moreover,

ges presented by

g

and

alizati

are more commonly represented in Japanese textbooks

than in Taiwanese textbooks.As expounded in the following section,differences between

the Japanese and Taiwanese government guidelines can account for some segments of

these observed differences in lesson topics.

Some similarities between the two sets of textbooks are also apparent. Hence, text-

books from both countries have similar levels of emphasis on first tier items such as

wo countr

,although Taiwanese textbooks focus much more attention on practical topics

such as

health i

(also a first tier item)whereas Japanese textbooks focus instead on a

second tier item,

hat medicine is th

.In keeping with the common challen

tegory(Tabl

in te

lob

ooks fro

on,

th countries.On

is the most heavily represented in both Taiwanese and

Japanese textbooks,with society ranking as the most common second tier ca tries, it is

p

e

5,8). Given how

i

m bo

g t

e

ssues are viewed with great importance in both coun

tween textbo

robably unsurpr i sin w

i

t

s are more striki

e most emphasized f e eld

f i r hin s

be

b he t

th balan

oks fr

xt ever,

s m dif r e t ence w

a om t he i

o

ila n

ce,h

s.t i re n g e a i ht

a N ci t l S es r u c a en A t The r s

a e gu na g L

s E h l g i n

l a u g l re ge ang ne a

c Scien S es l a c o i

a a tur iences l Sc N

― ―88


4. Historical perspectives:

It can also be instructive to look back at the historical record to gain some perspective

on why these particular differences exist between these two neighboring countries. The

difference between the two countries’textbooks in the focus on

e-centric t

topics is

particularly interesting in light of how, sixty years ago, there was much more emphasis,

in the Japanese education system,on literature and reading than has been evident more

recently(Erikawa,2002;2004;2006;Koshino&Erikawa,2004;Saito,2004;Murakami,2007;

Sato 2009).

During the 1950’s,textbook publishers enjoyed a great level of freedom without much

input from the then Ministry of Education (Erikawa, 2002; 2006; Murakami, 2007). A

corollary of the freedom accorded to publishers in this time period is that literature,which

was not specifically targeted for emphasis, was simply featured more heavily than in

recent times(Erikawa,2002;2006;Murakami,2007).This began to change in the 1960’s as

the Ministry of Education drew guidelines that the publishers were forced to follow

(Murakami, 2007;Erikawa, 2002;2006; Isobe, 2006). Since then, Japanese textbook pub-

lishers have planned their textbooks carefully around the ministry’s guidelines.

It does seem clear then that this closer adherence to MEXT guidelines is reflected in

how all ten Japanese publishers do not place much emphasis on

e abrupt cha

, which is

consistent with all recent MEXT guidelines (Ogawa 2005; 2007) and with the prevailing

view, since the late 1990’s, among many Japanese English language educators (Kizuka,

2009). In fact, the 1970 guidelines required teaching materials to include standard

literatur

9;Sato, 200

opics such as novels, poetry, essays, and biographies, but all of these

were removed from the 1978 guidelines (Koshino & Erikawa, 2004). Indeed, English

Language education even in the U.K., in the 1970’s began moving away from traditional

methods to “Teaching English as Communication”(Brumfit, 1981). This presaged a

similar shift in English Language education in other European and Asian countries in the

1990’s (Kizuka, 2009).However, it is now being recognized, among Japanese academics,

that Japan may have taken this emphasis on communication to such an excessive degree

that it has negatively impacted the quality of teaching English over the last several

decades (Erikawa,2006;Kizuka,200

-

tion mater

9).

A notable change in this vein manifested in 1982, when MEXT de-emphasized the

teaching of grammar,which resulted in textbook publishers removing grammar-focused

textbooks from their publishing lines (Isobe, 2006). Grammar-based materials were

reduced to being scattered sporadically throughout textbooks,and oral-based communica

d (Erikawa,ials were favored and emphasize e s 006).The 2 s nge e w r

ti t era L ure

L e iteratur


― ―89

facilitated by another MEXT-mediated phenomenon that converged in 1982,viz.“Yutori

Kyoiku”,which loosely translates into a“more relaxed education policy”that recommend-

ed reducing the numbers of all subject classes, including those for English. In Japan’s

consensus-driven culture,these recommendations quickly took root.Hence,both grammar

and vocabulary contents were reduced in English textbooks (Chujo et al., 2008; Isobe,

2006).For example,Sato points to how 6800 vocabulary words were required in the 1951

government guidelines but by 1998,these guidelines only required 2700 words(Sato,2009).

This trend continued over the intervening years;Japan’s MEXT 1989 guidelines reflected

this change towards a“communicative-based”methodology(Kizuka,2009),while in 2002,

MEXT’s“A Strategic Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities”focused a greater

level of emphasis on communication.

5. Political,Cultural, Socio-Economic and Ideological Considerations

Many Japanese academics believe that the decrease in vocabulary content described

above has impacted the study of Literature, which requires a high vocabulary level,

among Japanese students(Erikawa,2002;Koshino&Erikawa 2004;Murakami,2007).The

convergence of these trends― away from literature, reading, and high vocabulary and

towards communication―might have collectively exacerbated the situation regarding the

quality of teaching English in the country.

This analysis of the Taiwanese textbooks suggests that although Taiwan’s education

system seems to also have followed this general trend of focusing on English for communi-

cation, it did so without sacrificing an emphasis on literature.As discussed earlier,there

appears to be considerable consensus, among Taiwanese educators, on the benefits of

using literature in English classes(Chen Hong-wen,2003),whereas no such clear consensus

exists in Japanese academic circles.This probably explains the major difference between

Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks, in terms of how much emphasis is placed on

9) has criti

topics.

Despite the consensus-driven ideology prevalent in Japanese society, a clear shift in

English education approach and protocols has become central to a large ideological divide

between English language educators(Koshino&Erikawa,2004;2006;Kizuka,2009).Even

though most Japanese educators maintain that formal English-based protocols emphasiz-

ing practical speaking and conversation skills are more relevant and important today,

some others want Japanese students to gain a deeper understanding of the full comple-

ment of English language skills emblematized by reading,writing,listening,and speaking

(Saito, 2004; Murakami, 2007; Sato, 2009). Indeed, Sato (200 the zed how i c

e eratur Lit

― ―90


MEXT 2002 plan focused too heavily on practical-based skills, such that“speaking”and

“conversation”are referenced a total of 30 times whereas“reading”is referenced only five

times,and there is no reference made,at all, for“literature.

1980 marked a watershed year in which Japanese media noted that the English

education system in Japan was not keeping pace with the challenges of an increasingly

internationalized world,one that the Japanese economy was becoming more plugged into

(Goto,1997;Tsukamoto,1999).Other East Asian countries,such as China,Korea and even

Taiwan also apparently recognized the need to begin English education in the earliest

stages of school in order to meet the challenges posed by globalization (Allen,2010).The

media and other observers in Japanese academic and business communities are quick to

point out that while these other three countries have long been began making the

necessary changes to their respective education systems,Japan remains mired in a long-

running debate on the merits and practicalities of such“large-scale”institutional changes.

It seems reasonable to conclude that the government is concerned about Japan’s

standing vis a vis English ability within the East Asian block of nations and about the

state of English education in Japanese schools.In fact,MEXT members and advisers who

advocate English education at the elementary school stage in Japan have been encouraged

by the apparent success of this approach in Korea and Taiwan (MEXT, 2005; MEXT

Central Education Council,2006). Possibly in response to this,several plans,such as one

in 2002 and another in 2011, have been instigated to bring about reform in English

education in Japan.

But even before the above-mentioned revisions,MEXT has faced criticism.Because

all public and private schools in Japan must follow MEXT guidelines,many educators

(Erikawa,2002;Oka,2003)have expressed concern about how this has impacted Japanese

textbooks, especially in terms of vocabulary requirements. It is fair, therefore, to con-

clude that many academics do not agree with the previous directions taken by MEXT and

it seems that these criticisms have prompted MEXT to make revisions, for the 2013

guidelines,such as increasing,by about 30%,the number of vocabulary words that will be

required (“Koukou eigo”Dec.2,2008;MEXT,2010).

Taiwan and Japan have taken different routes in English education and although it

can be useful to explore some of the reasons for this,it is virtually impossible to say that

the Taiwan method is more“effective”than is the Japanese approach. However, if the

differences that are evident in TOEFL and TOEIC data are accepted as surrogate indica-

tors of English“proficiency”,then it could be argued that Japanese educators may be well

advised to examine the Taiwanese system for some additional perspectives on what might


― ―91

be relevant to the Japanese English language education program,especially in secondary

schools and perhaps also in colleges.

It is hoped that the information presented here on differences between Japanese and

Taiwanese textbooks, can help inform, in a meaningful way, the discussions, described

above,underway in Japanese academia.Ideological differences in general procedures and

approaches between English language educators in Japan need to be addressed and

quickly bridged.Hence,whether Japanese students can gain a deeper intellectual expo-

sure to the intricacies of the English language by being encouraged,via a school-directed

emphasis on literature and poetry classics, to develop a richer reading habit (Sato,2009),

or whether formal English-based methods are more useful,must be reconciled.Whatever

approaches are adopted must be balanced with proportionate exposure to literature and

poetry in order to inculcate strong reading habits. In the final analysis, what is really

needed to drive the process of improvement forward is a stronger consensus and that level

of agreement may come with an approach that combines the strengths and benefits of

proposals from both sides.

V. CONCLUSION

This study addresses the paucity of data on Taiwanese textbooks and compares the

types of lesson topics outlined in the Taiwanese senior high school English textbooks with

Japanese textbook counterparts. Taiwanese textbooks, consistent with MOE guidelines,

emphasize “practical”English functions, such as common writing skills, as well as

exposure to broader intellectual concepts such as literature classics and poetry.Although

textbook lesson topics are useful indicators of how English is taught in a particular

educational system, it remains a surrogate indicator and other measures must also be

included before specific conclusions can be inferred from any comparative study.Differ-

ences other than text-book content between the system in Taiwan and that in Japan were

not examined in any detail so it remains unclear whether and to what extent, such

differences can account for perceived differences in English competency. From these

perspectives, it would be interesting and perhaps very illuminating to conduct a more

detailed comparison of the English education textbooks used in Japan with those used in

other Asian countries.

Note:＊1Clearly, the political status of Taiwan remains a contentious issue within and

― ―92


without the People’s Republic of China(PRC).The PRC claims that the ROC government

is illegitimate and refers to the ROC as the“Taiwan Authority”,whereas the ROC views

itself as an independent sovereign state.While not wishing to offend any readers,I have,

for the purposes of this research, described Taiwan as a separate entity with its own

educational system.＊2and

＊3:see Acknowledgments

Acknowledgements:

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr.Chang Wu-chang＊3for providing

very useful information that clarified specific and rather abstruse academic issues.I also

wish to thank Ms. Chen Meng-tsung

＊2for helping me efficiently navigate the Textbook

Research Center in Taipei. I am especially grateful to Ms.Hsu Yu-chi for her unfailing

support.

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Appendix：

Appendix Table 1a

Summary of TOEFL Test and Score Averages in Asian Countries:

China Japan Korea(DPR)

Korea(ROK)

Taiwan number of

examinees

number of

examinees

number of

examinees

number of

examinees

number of

examinees

＊＊＊＊＊7782786977［iBT］ January2011-

December 2011

［iBT］January 2010-December 2010

77 70 78 81 76 ＊＊＊＊＊

［iBT］January 2009-December 2009

76 67 75 81 74 ＊＊＊＊＊

＊＊＊＊＊7277696578［iBT］January 2007-

December 2007

＊＊＊＊＊7378726676［iBT］January 2008-

December 2008

［CBT］July 2005-June 2006

216 192 193 218 206 333271284454203786359017


215 191 190 215 205 2639010234047788243817963

＊＊＊＊＊7172696576［iBT］ September 2005-

December 2006


214 186 179 207 198 254437309344128425422699


211 183 176 202 193 181605031131886076417644

24075 81749 4600 86188 27000202209184188213［CBT］July 2002-June 2003

21206 83093 4783 85010 21720203213187190213［CBT］July 2003-June 2004

［PBT］July 2005-June 2006

557 497 543 538 530 292118830343298327

10961 20554 1043 14862 10071194198178188211［CBT］July 1998-June 1999

14539 21636 1434 18839 10178193200178188211［CBT］July 1999-June 2000


559 484not re-ported

530 524 13052213251274145


563 487not re-ported

533 523 1164143741105116

76201 3685 12 640 197532543not re-ported

491555［PBT］July 2003-June 2004

67085 3910 28 865 170533545not re-ported

495559［PBT］July 2004-June 2005


562 501 510 535 510 329676166733610045370760


560 498 498 522 508 52826103674161114643979964

92499 99134 453 85235 34035515533509504559［PBT］July 1999-June 2000

92720 35121 281 32814 21897519530514505560［PBT］July 2000-June 2001

73206 154204 1586 112630 49737507518497496555［PBT］July 1996-June 1997

Country

Year

― ―97


Source:EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE website (URL. http://www.ets.org/toefl)The iBT

values represent scores out of a maximum of 120(x/120),the CBT numbers represent scores out of

a maximum of 300(x/300),and the PBT numbers represent scores out of a maximum of 677(x/

677).

Data not provided

118459 278309 2483 129003 105232506510480494553［PBT］July 1993-June 1995

58240 144572 1368 86039 46785509518492499556［PBT］July 1995-June 1996

Appendix Table 1b

Summary of TOEIC Test and Score Averages in Asian Countries:

Country China Japan Korea(ROK)

Taiwan

Year 1997 2005 1997 2005 1997 2005 1997 2005

Number of Test

Takers3,529 1,763 862,509 821,510 405,822 150,605 11,462 62,617

287(94)

257(100)

287(100))

250(96)

259(86)

246(88)

307(98)

256(107)

Listening Mean(SD)

Reading Mean(SD)

246(118)

266(116)

206(93)

198(91)

230(105)

248(107)

218(102)

243(97)

(181)(192)(197)(192)(168)(172)(203)(217)Total Mean(SD)

The scores displayed represent averages and standard deviations (SD)for tests taken in 1997 and

in 2005.Data presented in this table were adapted from data originally given in the TOEIC Test

Report on Test Takers Worldwide in 1997 and in 2005.The TOEIC values represent scores out of

a maximum of 900(x/900).

― ―98


台湾は英語が外国語として教えられる社会的背景が日本と似ており、6-3-3(5)制の学校教

育制度も日本と同様である。しかしながら、英語教育ではすでに1990年代には小学校に公式

に英語教育が導入され始め、現在は小学校から高校までの一貫カリキュラムを実施している。

近年、アジア諸国の英語教育が注目されているが、隣国台湾で2005年から開始された小学校

から大学までの英語教育改革を検討していく価値は大きい。本研究では、台湾の高等学校で

使用されている英語の教科書で扱われている題材を分析した。これを日本のものと比する

ことにより、その特徴を捉え、日本の英語教育に示唆するものを明らかにすることが目的で

ある。

調査の対象とした教科書は、台湾で最も多く使用されている教科書会社３社のもので、合

計18冊（一学年２冊使用）である。それらの教科書で扱われている題材内容を日本十進分類

法（NDC）に基づいて分類し、その結果を分析・検討した。その特徴としては、１)「言語」

としての英語が多く取り扱われ、実用的な英語の題材が、「読む」「書く」「話す」「聴く」の

４技能の観点から取り上げられており、とりわけ、「自分の意見を書く」指導を重視している

こと２)古典や現代の文学作品を多く取り上げ、中でも「詩」を重視し、人間性の教育を

重んじていること、が挙げられる。題材内容については、日本に比べ文学作品が多く取り扱

われている(台湾19％：日本３％)。この傾向は、新学習指導要領に則った改訂後の教科書に

ついてもその傾向が変わらないことが明らかとなった。文学作品を取り扱うことは、英語で

ものを考え、論理的思考に働きかける教材として、欧米では言語教育において広く使用され

ており、これからの日本の英語教育でもその可能性が大いに検討される価値のあるものであ

ろう。

キーワード：台湾、高等学校英語教科書、題材内容、論理的・批判的思考力、文学、

日本十進分類法

要旨

台湾の高等学校英語教科書の題材研究

―日本との比を中心とした分析―

平井清子


― ―99

an analysis of lesson topics within senior high school

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