an american vietnamese cross cultural study on gender role reflection in magazine advertisements
TRANSCRIPT
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
University of Languages & international Studies
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
NGUYỄN HẢI HÀ
AN AMERICAN-VIETNAMESE CROSS-
CULTURAL STUDY ON GENDER ROLE
REFLECTION IN MAGAZINE
ADVERTISEMENTS
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of bachelor of arts (TEFL)
Hanoi, May 2011
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
University of Languages & international Studies
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
NGUYỄN HẢI HÀ
AN AMERICAN-VIETNAMESE CROSS-
CULTURAL STUDY ON GENDER ROLE
REFLECTION IN MAGAZINE
ADVERTISEMENTS
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of bachelor of arts (TEFL)
SUPERVISOR: PHAN THỊ VÂN QUYÊN, M.A.
Hanoi, May 2011
ACCEPTANCE PAGE
I hereby state that I: Nguyen Hai Ha, group 07E1, being a
candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the
requirements of the College relating to the retention and use of
Bachelor’s Graduation Paper deposited in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper
deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study
and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established
by the librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of the paper.
Signature
Date
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Ms.
Phan Thi Van Quyen, my supervisor, for her great encouragement,
consultancy and guidance, without which this study could have never
been accomplished.
Also, I would like to take this chance to thank all the teachers of
the Faculty of English Language Teaching Education and the Fast Track
Programme who have provided me with the knowledge, experience and
conditions for me to pursue my interests and complete this study.
Furthermore, I hope to send my best regards to each and every
members of the group 07E1, the wonderful companions through the thick
and thin of my academic years, especially during the implementation of
this study.
Last but not least, my heartfelt thanks go to my best friend, Truong
Hai Ha and my family, especially my mother and my sister, whose
unconditional love and care allow me to get this far.
ii
ABSTRACT
The co-evolution of mass media and advertising in the 21st century
has allowed the latter to exceed the function of a commercial tool.
Advertisements today serve not only as the bridge between producers and
consumers but the mirror of different aspects in everyday life, culture
included. Gender role as one of the basic concept engraved in every
culture, as a result, is of no exception. The interactive relationship
between advertisements and culture as well as that between gender role
and culture provided a solid foundation for this study on the American
and Vietnamese gender role reflection in magazine advertisements.
To carry out the investigation, a total of 822 advertisements were
collected from 48 issues of Vietnamese and American magazines
published in 2010 through random sampling. Familial role, working role,
recreational role, user/endorser role, decorative/symbolic role and
dominant role were chosen to study the preference for each gender of the
two cultures. The advertisements were analyzed systematically, role by
role and culture after culture. Based on the statistics acquired,
interpretation of the characteristics, similarities and differences of the
gender roles in the two cultures were put forward. Last but not least,
suggestions to bridge the cultural gap were made for the viewers of the
advertisements and advertising agencies. Ways to exploit magazine
advertisements as authentic materials were also proposed to improve the
effectiveness of ESL classes.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements i
Abstract ii
Table of contents iii
List of tables, figures, and charts vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study 1
1.2. Aims of the study and research questions 2
1.3. Significance of the study 3
1.4. Scope of the study 4
1.5. Organisation
4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1. An overview of culture 6
2.1.1. Definition of culture 6
2.1.2. Elements of culture
8
2.2. An overview of gender role 10
2.2.1. Definition of gender 10
2.2.2. Definition of gender role 11
2.2.3. Gender roles and culture 12
2.2.4. Gender roles in American and Vietnamese
cultures
16
2.2.4.1. Traditional and modern gender roles 16
2.2.4.2. Gender roles in American culture 18
2.2.4.3. Gender roles in Vietnamese culture
19
2.3. An overview of magazine advertisements 21
2.3.1. An overview of advertisement 21
2.3.1.1. Definition of advertisement 21
2.3.1.2. Classification of advertisement 22
2.3.1.3. Advertisement and culture 25
2.3.2. An overview of magazine 27
2.3.2.1. History of magazine 27
2.3.2.2. Classification of magazine 29
2.3.3. An overview of magazine advertisements 30
2.3.3.1. History of magazine advertisements 30
2.3.3.2. Classification of magazine
advertisements
31
iv
2.3.3.3. Components of a magazine
advertisements
33
2.3.3.4. Advantages and disadvantages of
magazine advertisements
35
2.4. Previous study on gender role reflection in magazine
advertisements
37
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 41
3.1. Research method 41
3.2. Selection of subjects 43
3.2.1. Selection of advertisements 43
3.2.2. Selection of magazines 44
3.3. Procedures of data collection 45
3.4. Procedures of data analysis
46
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 51
4.1. Findings about gender roles as reflected in American
and Vietnamese magazine advertisements
51
4.1.1. Genders’ familial role 51
4.1.2. Genders’ working role 53
4.1.2.1. Fields of work 53
4.1.2.2. Responsibility at work 55
4.1.3. Genders’ recreational role 56
4.1.4. Genders’ user/endorser role 57
4.1.5. Genders’ decorative/symbolic role 59
4.1.6. Genders’ dominant role
60
4.2. Implications about gender roles in American and
Vietnamese cultures
61
4.2.1. Genders’ familial role 61
4.2.2. Genders’ working role 64
4.2.2.1. Fields of work 64
4.2.2.2. Responsibility at work 65
4.2.3. Genders’ recreational role 66
4.2.4. Genders’ user/endorser role 68
4.2.5. Genders’ decorative/symbolic role 69
4.2.6. Genders’ dominant role
70
v
4.3. Application 72
4.3.1. Suggestions for the advertisement viewers 72
4.3.2. Suggestions for the advertising agencies 73
4.3.3. Suggestions for ESL classes
73
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 75
5.1. Summary of findings 75
5.2. Limitations of the study 76
5.3. Suggestions for further research
77
REFERENCES 78
APPENDICES 85
Appendix A: Checklist 85
Appendix B: American and Vietnamese advertisements 87
vi
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND CHARTS
List of figures
Figure 1: The relation between gender roles and culture
Figure 2: The social role theory of sex differences and similarities (Eagly,
1999)
Figure 3: Components of a magazine advertisement (Ogilvy, 1983)
Figure 4: American female model in symbolic role
Figure 5: American female model in dominant role
Figure 6: Vietnamese model in children-related tasks
Figure 7: Vietnamese male model in children-related tasks
Figure 8: American male model in household chores
Figure 9: Vietnamese male model in household chores
Figure 10: Responsibility at work in a Vietnamese advertisement
Figure 11: Responsibility at work in an American advertisement
Figure 12: Vietnamese female model in recreational role
Figure 13: American male models in recreational role
Figure 14: Vietnamese female in symbolic role
Figure 15: American female in symbolic role
Figure 16: Vietnamese male in dominant role
Figure 17: American female in dominant role
vii
List of tables
Table 1: Magazine advertisement formats (Altstile, 2006)
Table 2: Types of gender roles in Skorek & Schreier (2009)
Table 3: Selection of magazine titles
Table 4: Selection of magazine advertisements
Table 5: Ranking of products which advertisements feature more females
than males
Table 6: Ranking of products which advertisements feature more males
than females
List of charts
Charts 1&2: Genders’ familial roles as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
Charts 3&4: Genders’ fields of work as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
Charts 5&6: Genders’ responsibility at work as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
Charts 7&8: Genders’ recreational role as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
Chart 9: Genders’ decorative/symbolic role as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
Charts 10&11: Genders’ dominant role as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisement.
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
The modern time has been witnessing the expansive popularity of
advertisements bridging the gap between commercial products and their
consumers.
With the assistance of a wide range of mass media forms, among
which are magazines and other visually powerful channels, the
significance of advertisements have long gone beyond the commercial
benefits they bring their creators and targets. Advertisements today do not
function merely as a marketing tool generally described by Stephen
Leacock as “the science of arresting the human intelligence long enough
to get money from it”. Rather, what concerns people more about
advertising nowadays turns out to be whether it reflects reality or
reversely, our social beliefs and values are being shaped by advertising
itself (Holbrook, 1987; Pollay, 1986) to the point that “you can tell the
ideals of a nation by its advertisements” as Norman Douglas generalised.
At the core of almost every culture’s set of beliefs and values finds
gender roles, the accepted characteristics and behaviours for the
individuals living in that specific culture. Men and women living in the
American culture, a well-developed industrialized country might be
assigned with a distinguishable role at work and at home compared to
their counterparts in Vietnam, a developing country of agricultural base.
For no culture can be claimed more civilized than others, it is important
to be aware of and pay full respect to the cultural similarities and
2
differences between countries, which marketers are required to follow
strictly in order to persuade their customers. Apparently, it does not take
an expert in marketing to realize the fact that the same products, when
promoted in different countries, may not be introduced in the same
advertisements, using the same illustrations and models.
As a result, it is not totally unfounded to conclude that gender roles
are of no exception when it comes to the manifestation in advertisements
of all forms. Particularly, in magazine advertisements, the inanimate
images are obliged to be carefully selected for the successful conveyance
of the intended messages. A marketer might be putting the sales of a
product at risk if s/he uses and portrays the male and female models in the
advertisements at a random or inconsiderate manner. The role that the
male and female models play in the advertisements should be aligned
with the role that the target culture expects of their members to gain the
general customers’ favour.
All the aforementioned reasons encouraged the researcher to utilize
magazine advertisements for an investigation into the common reflection
of gender roles in the United States of America and Vietnam in the hope
for more accurate perception regarding the cultural similarities and
differences.
1.2. Aims of the study and research questions
As previously mentioned, this study aimed at investigating into the
reflection of gender roles in magazine advertisements from the United
States and Vietnam for further understandings on the similarities and
differences in this aspect of the two cultures.
3
Firstly, the researcher wished to explore how gender roles are
reflected in magazine advertisements of the two countries.
Secondly, a comparison and contrast between the roles of the
gender within each country as well as across the two countries was drawn
from the analysis of the magazine advertisements.
Finally, a cross-cultural insight into the gender roles of the United
States and Vietnam was attained on the base of the above results.
Hence the questions that this study attempted to answer included:
1) How are the gender roles of American culture reflected in
American magazine advertisements?
2) How are the gender roles of Vietnamese culture reflected in
Vietnamese magazine advertisements?
3) What are the differences and similarities in gender roles in
American and Vietnamese culture as reflected in magazine
advertisements?
1.3. Significance of the study
Upon its completion, the research could bring about some
noticeable benefits. First and foremost, it offered an insight into the
concept of gender roles in the cultures of the United States and Vietnam
by putting forward the similarities and differences between them two
regarding the matter. The mutual understanding between the two cultures
as well as their gender roles and magazine advertisements, therefore,
would be improved. Moreover, the research would serve as a helpful
reference for researchers who took an interest in the same field or related
4
matters. Lastly, marketers or advertisers may find the research supportive
as a source of suggestions for more effective culture-specific works.
1.4. Scope of the study
This study focused on the roles of the genders in Vietnam and the
United States as reflected in magazine advertisements. The reason for this
concentration was the researcher’s interest and desire for more
knowledge about the popular beliefs and values towards the role of the
genders in Vietnamese and American culture.
The magazine advertisements chosen, therefore, will be those
published in Vietnam and the United States only. In addition, because of
the limit of time and budget, the concentration of the research was
confined to the gender role reflection in magazine advertisements in the
current situation of the year 2010.
More importantly, because the research adapted a cross-cultural
approach, only the cultural aspect of the magazine advertisements was
taken into consideration. Other aspects, for example, aesthetic, creativity
or commercial effectiveness were placed out of the discussion.
1.5. Organisation
Chapter 1: Introduction - the description of the research’s rationale,
aims, research questions, significance and scope
Chapter 2: Literature Review - the theoretical foundation of the
research, offering readers the overview of 1) gender role 2) magazine
advertisement 3) gender role reflection in advertisements in the context of
American and Vietnamese culture
5
Chapter 3: Methodology - the details of the methods and procedures
applied and implemented by the researcher
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion - the presentation of the researcher’s
findings and further discussion on the similarities and differences of
gender roles as reflected in American and Vietnamese magazine
advertisements
Chapter 5: Conclusion - the summary of the main points, the limitations
of the research as well as the suggestion for further studies
At the end of the paper is the inclusion of the references and appendices.
6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. An overview of culture
2.1.1. Definition of culture
It is a matter of fact that the definition of “culture” has been
formulated by a great number of scholars in the history of research,
central to a variety of fields including anthropology, cultural studies,
organizational psychology as well as management studies. In 1952, a total
of 164 definitions were enumerated by Alfred Kroeber and Clyde
Kluckhohn in their book titled “Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts
and Definitions” which testified to the various approaches people have
taken toward the meaning of “culture”.
Among the numerous definitions, from an anthropological
perspective wrote Edward B. Tyler (1871) about culture as “that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any
other compatibilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
Cited by Haviland, Prins & Walrat (2007, p. 26) as one of the earliest,
this definition placed the emphasis on the elements of culture as a product
of human’s developmental history as well as the scope of one culture’s
value - among members of a society.
On the other hand, Edgar H. Schein (2010), widely respected as the
most preeminent figure in organizational culture study, came up with the
following definition about “culture”.
The culture of a group can now be defined as a pattern of shared
basic assumptions learned by a group as it solved its problems of
7
external adaptation and internal integration, which as worked well
enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new
members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation
to those problems. (p. 18).
Schein’s definition differs from that of Tyler in its stress on (1) the
scale of one culture, (2) the functions of culture and (3) the authority it
has on each member. According to Schein, culture does not only form
among members of the society but even among members of a particular
group of people who need culture for its functions to operate.
Furthermore, from this definition, culture can be understood as certain
unwritten rules that a group of people unanimously abide and maintain.
Last but not least, the sociologist Hofstede (2003) considered
culture “the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes
the members of one human group from those of another”. Unlike the
abovementioned, this definition attached the importance to not only the
collectivity within one culture but also the distinction on further scale.
According to Hofstede, between cultures, besides basic similarities, there
should also be the differences that set one apart from another.
In general, this study submits to the definition of culture as a
exclusively human concept containing beliefs, values, attitudes,
behaviours, habits, customs, etc. that a group of people consider
appropriate and commonly followed to separate them from similar
counterparts.
8
2.1.2. Elements of culture
To understand one culture, it is of great importance to comprehend
the variations of the same elements that exist in every culture.
Researchers have listed numerous elements that constitute cultures,
explicit and implicit, tangible and intangible, abstract and concrete.
Among them, the most significant and relevant to the subject of this study
were beliefs, values and attitudes.
Beliefs are “shared ideas held collectively by people within a given
culture about what is true” (Andersen & Taylor, 2010, p. 36).
Accordingly, people within one culture are bound together by the
common beliefs. Strongly held beliefs may even lead to conflict between
cultures with opposite viewpoints. For example, those who believe in
Gods may find it difficult to tolerate atheists; people who choose to rely
on scientific knowledge and evidence may constantly argue with those
believing in superstitious phenomena. In the world there exist cultures
who believe women are born to be submissive whereas others hold a
more egalitarian view on the genders.
Values are defined by Misra and Yadav (2009, p. 30) as the “basic
convictions that people hold on to regarding to what is right or wrong,
good or bad, important or unimportant, desirable or undesirable.”
Abstract as they seem, values provide people with the ideal principles and
a general outline for behaviours. Freedom and individualism are the two
values most highly appreciated and preserved in American culture which
affects not only the people’s choices of lifestyle but also the nation’s
political and economic system. In Japanese culture, however, it is the
responsibility that is attached with the greatest value. That is the reason
9
why in this culture, since the early times, homosexuals have never been
faced with harsh criticism. As West & Green (1997, p. 81) stated, “for a
Japanese man to enjoy the physical attractions of another man is one
thing, to turn his back on family - including ancestors, extant relatives
and future descendants - by failing to reproduce - is another”. As long as
they prioritize and fulfill their duties towards their families, communities
and societies, homosexuality is tolerated in Japanese culture to some
extent.
Attitudes, according to Aswathappa (2000, p. 166), are “positive
or negative evaluations, feelings and tendencies which make an
individual behave in a particular way towards people and objects.”
Therefore, attitudes may include opinions about different issues in one’s
life such as love, marriage, truth and honesty, justice, the roles of the
genders, individual freedom, etc. The common attitudes of people on the
same subject may vary among dissimilar cultures. People’s attitudes
towards time, for example, depend greatly on cultures. Most Westerners
pay close attention to punctuality and share a common belief that “time is
money” whereas in some other cultures, for instance, Vietnam’s, people
tend to take it not as seriously. For them, being late is neither rude nor
offensive and what is left off today can be finished tomorrow.
The aforementioned elements of culture are deeply intertwined;
each results in and from the other, holding the equal significance in the
composition of culture. With a cross-cultural approach, this study was
carried out to find the similarities and differences of American and
Vietnamese cultures in these elements, especially the attitudes, toward the
chosen subject, gender roles.
10
2.2. An overview of gender role
2.2.1. Definition of gender
Etymologically, according to Harper (2001) the word “gender” is
derived from the Old French “gendre”, which, in turn, came from “genus”
in Latin. Although the meaning of both the original words are confined to
“kind”, “type” or “sort”, the world is used in the contemporary English as
“the fact of being male or female, especially when considered with
reference to social and cultural differences, not differences in biology”
according to the Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Dictionary.
Because of their similar referents, the word “gender” and “sex”
may seem interchangeable. The terminological difference was first
introduced by Money (1973) yet with little importance attached until the
development of feminism in the 1970s. The former word since then has
proved more favourable in academic works as the euphemism for the
latter resulting from the “desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals,
to use a more academic term, or to avoid the connotation of copulation”
(Haig, 2004).
The subtle distinction has been drawn by the World Health
Organization as “gender”, which includes “masculine” (male) and
“feminine” (female) as the two main categories, emphasizes on the
“socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a
given society considers appropriate for men and women” whereas “sex”
refers to the biological and physiological features that distinguish
between men and women. For the same reason, as pointed out by WHO,
11
unlike the aspects of sex which vary little among different human
societies and cultures, aspects of gender tend to vary dramatically.
2.2.2. Definition of gender role
Coined by the sexologist Money in 1955, the term “gender role” is
originally “used to signify all those things that a person says or does to
disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or
woman, respectively” (Money, 1973). This definition of “gender role”
viewed the gender as a “status” that an individual can choose to gain for
himself or herself by certain manifestation. However, it made “gender
role” appear to be self-assigned whereas, in fact, other factors, culture
included, contribute to the allocation of the roles for the genders as well.
As a result, when greater emphasis is placed on the cultural aspects
of the term “gender” as aforementioned, “gender role” can be
alternatively interpreted as what specific cultures expect their male and
female individuals to perform to define themselves according to their
biological sex (Bland, 2005). Or in other word, “gender role” refers to the
set of characteristics, behaviours, attitudes, values and beliefs that a
certain group of people consider appropriate for males and females within
their circle.
Studying the “gender role” in a cross-cultural approach, therefore,
can be understood as researching on which roles people from each culture
prefers or not for each gender. The purpose of such procedure is to point
out how people’s expectations or attitudes towards the roles of the
genders vary across cultures. That was also the approach that this study
12
took to investigate into the gender role reflection in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements.
2.2.3. Gender roles and culture
It is of great importance to place the emphasis on the relation
between gender roles and culture which can be illustrated as follows.
Figure 1: The relation between gender roles and culture
First of all, cultural factors in the human society take part in
the formation of gender role. This viewpoint is supported by “the social
role theory of sex differences and similarities” by Eagly (1999) which
holds the belief that social structure, culture included, determines the
difference in the appropriate behaviours and attitudes for the gender
hence the gender roles. Eagly (1999) proposes that gender roles imposed
on and observed by the individuals of the society is the outcome of a
sequence involving both the biological and societal factors which can be
summarized in the figure below. The process during which each
individual learns how to behave in a way that is acceptable by the
surrounding culture or society is called “socialization”.
13
Figure 2: The social role theory of sex differences and similarities (Eagly,
1999)
In addition, citing Eagly (1999), Canary & Dindia (2006, p.162)
indicated that “because the implications of each sex’s physical attributes
depend on the demands of the environment, considerable cross-cultural
variability occurs in the particular activities allocated to women and
men.”
Moreover, Deutsh (2007) argued that parents, peers and the media
are not the sole agents in the socialization of the genders’ distinctive
roles. People do not merely internalize gender roles as they grow up but
they also respond to changing norms in society and modify some
themselves. Thus not only the cultural factors in the society but also the
cultural background as parts of each person’s identity determine the
formation of gender roles.
14
The Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) further affirms the
cultural construction of gender roles as it posits that people learn the
appropriate behavior and attitudes from the family and overall culture
they grow up with. The acquisition is carried out as children are rewarded
for conforming to their parents’ or to be more exact, culture’s
expectations and are punished for disapproved behaviors and attitudes
which results in the extinguishment of these. Gender roles, in general, are
of no exception to these acquired behaviors and attitudes.
Reversely, it is undeniably true that gender roles reflect the
cultural characteristics of the community that has generated them.
By observing the ideal gender roles of communities, one can partially tell
the similarities and differences in some aspects of their culture. The
variation in some cases can be quite extreme across the cultures.
Pakistani culture, for example, is widely known for the unequal
treatment towards male and female individuals. Despite the rather non-
sexist viewpoint of the Qu’ran which stated “If any do deeds of
righteousness - be they male or female - and have faith, they will enter
Heaven, and not the least injustice will be done to them” as translated by
Ali (2005), females in this Islamic country are expected to take an
extremely submissive role. Consequently, in terms of marriage, Pakistani
females have little independence, constantly exposed to the risk of
physical abuse, forced and underage marriage, sexual harassment,
domestic violence and other severe violation. Among the violent crimes
against Pakistani women is the brutal custom of “karo-kari” or “honor
killings” which is “done to restore family honor after a woman exhibits
15
“indecent behavior”: insisting on choosing her own spouse, flirting,
seeking a divorce, or being raped” (Assadi, 2011).
At the other end is Tchambuli culture where it is the male
individuals that seem to receive less favour. Through the observation of
Mead (1935), males and females in this New Guinea tribe are assigned
with totally reversed roles. The Tchambuli women are in charge of the
fishing and manufacturing of the mosquito bags which are the chief
sources of their food and income. As a result, they are granted the
dominant status within each household and in the community as well. The
initiative in courting, sexual relationships and marriage are also made by
the women of the tribe. It is the woman who gets to choose her spouse
and if she is sexually unsatisfied, she is free to have affairs and leaves her
original husband to marry whoever else pleases her. The Tchambuli men,
on the other hand, are expected to be financially dependent, relying on
their appearance and ability to entertain to seek for women’s attention
and affection. Theatrics and arts understandably take up most of the
Tchambuli men’s time while flowers, jewelry and clothes are of their
deepest concern.
A more balanced view on the genders’ roles is taken by the Basque
culture. The country is located between France and Spain, to the west of
the Pyrenees Mountains on the Atlantic coast. Here women are expected
to function as the equal administrator of the domestic finance and bear the
same responsibility in the operation of the “basseri” - the Basque
farmhouse (Bullen, 2003). In some regions, the first-born child might
inherit the farmstead, gender notwithstanding, in others, the heir may be
chosen based on his or her ability to operate the “basseri”. Even the local
16
language expresses the same attitude towards the gender role: there is “no
distinction, no orthographic change to reflect male and female in the third
person” (Jameson & Armitage, 1997, p. 307). Dialect-specific, the same
term “hura” or “bera” is used in Basque language as the pronoun for “he”,
“she” and “it”. Direct equivalent for terms like “chairman”, “postman” or
“milkman” cannot be found in the language. Instead, for example,
“chairman” in Basques is called “mahaiburu”, literally translated into “the
head of the table” and remaining unchanged for both males and females
in the position. Neither does the grammatical gender was assigned for the
nouns like in other Romance language.
Apparently, from these examples about the role of the females in
Pakistan, Tchambuli and Basque, it does not take too far an inference to
recognize the cultural distinction. In Pakistani culture, people believe
males should be the one to hold the dominant role; the Tchambuli choose
to grant females in their culture with that role whereas the Basque culture
attaches the genders’ roles with the same significance.
Above all, the association of gender role with culture was the
justification for the cross-cultural approach of this study on the gender
role reflection in American and Vietnamese magazine advertisements.
2.2.4. Gender roles in American and Vietnamese culture
2.2.4.1. Traditional and modern gender roles
In both cultures exists a common attitude or certain expectations
regarding the appropriate roles for male and female individuals, which
largely derived from the physical specialization of the genders earlier
mentioned.
17
The “traditional expectations” or the traditional gender-role
attitude, according to Sudha (2000), assign females as a role performer at
a lower position compared to male counterparts, limit their freedom and
power, demand the sheer obedience in them and direct them to put more
effort and attach greater importance to the operation of the household,
which include the task of child-bearing and rearing. As a result, women
are sometimes viewed as sexual objects encouraged to pay close attention
to their appearance and generally judged by that. The role of men, in
traditional attitudes, is to be the breadwinner who chiefly work outside
the household, the more influential decision-makers in the family who the
other members, including and especially the female ones, depend on and
submit to.
On the contrary, the cultural “modern expectations” towards the
genders proposes a more equal status between men and women, “provide
more freedom and power and lead to the distribution of household work
among all the members of the family” as well as “assign certain new
tasks in addition to the existing ones such as earning income to support
the family, managing non-domestic affairs and attending to children’s
academic requirements” (Sudah, 2000) for both males and females.
Ideally, this equal treatment extends beyond the household, applicable to
workplace and other aspects of life. As a result, the modern attitude
toward gender roles is also usually referred to as the egalitarian gender-
role attitude.
The difference in the gender-role attitudes, if any, lies in the level
of tradition and/or modernity and how much of it is expressed in each
18
culture. That is also the goal of this study through magazine
advertisements.
2.2.4.2. Gender roles in American culture
In the past, specifically before World War II, the female role in the
American culture, under the influence of European ideology, was
confined to the household which included child-bearing and rearing and
other routinely chores around the house whereas males are assigned with
the important rule of the breadwinner, making the most of the family
income. The occurrence of the World War II allowed women to attempt
at more tasks outside the households and prove the competency in
placement of the men who were required to serve in the army. More
importantly, the outburst of the Women’s Liberation Movement during
the 1960s and 1970s lent the support to the changing roles of the genders,
especially that of females.
In addition, the egalitarian treatment between the genders in
American culture is supported by the fundamental beliefs and values
cherished by the people since the commencement of the country. Among
these core beliefs and values are self-reliance, individualism and
competition as listed by Vu (2009). Accordingly, people are encouraged
to make their attempts at whichever roles they feel suitable for them to
express, support and prove themselves. The women in American culture,
therefore, are less easily associated with and restricted to the traditional
roles such as family devotee or homemaker.
Nevertheless, until the most recent time, the equality between the
genders has not yet reached the level of absolute. Between the two
19
genders, men are still less expected to take on the traditional female roles
such as family devotee, homemaker, caregiver, nurses or nanny. Women
are given the full rights to join supposedly male-dominant areas but
prepared about the lower possibility to be as successful and appreciated
as their male counterparts. The absence of a female leader in the 200-
year-long history of the United States along with the public scrutiny on
fashion that the female politicians, for instance, Hillary Clinton,
Condoleezza Rice or Sarah Palin received instead of their political
contribution foresee the arduous journey until women are able to escape
the public view as a sexual or beauty object.
Although a study by the World Bank Group as cited by Gaddis
(2007) have reported a number of 46% females at work, women still earn
less than men with the same diplomat or degree. In a 2000 cross-cultural
survey conducted by the GeNet (Gender Equality Network), the
statement, “a man’s job is to earn money and a woman’s job is to look
after the home and family”, still earned the endorsement of roughly 50
percent of the respondents from the United States of America, as cited by
Scott (2006).
2.2.4.3. Gender roles in Vietnamese culture
The deep-rooted influences of feudalism and Confucius philosophy
in the history of Vietnam, along with the agriculture-based economy,
have given rise to the bias towards the male gender in Vietnamese
culture. Despite the exposure to the Western beliefs and values in the
modern time, the expected gender roles in Vietnam remain largely
unchanged.
20
An old Vietnamese proverb illustrated this viewpoint which
popularity and value preserves despite the flow of time is “Đàn ông xây
nhà, đàn bà xây tổ ấm” (Men build houses, women make homes). As a
result, a great number of Vietnamese women, from a fairly young age, are
taught to put more time and effort to train themselves as the good wife
and mother rather than an effective member of the labour force. For
females, the ignominious failure, rather, is the incompleteness of the
familial duties, especially children-related, because “Con hư tại mẹ, cháu
hư tại bà” (The children are spoilt because of their mothers; the
grandchildren are spoilt because of their grandmothers), reads another
Vietnamese proverb.
On the other hand, it is men’s role to earn money, lead the family
and function as the social representative of the household so as not to be
deemed failures. The importance of the father or husband in the family is
commonly compared to the framework or the roof of the house which
provides it with strength and shelter (“Con không cha như nhà không
nóc”) However, the success of a male individual, unlike female, is hardly
measured by the excellence of his familial duties but his financial power
or career achievement. Usually, in Vietnam, the property and business of
the family is directly transferred to the sons of the family. This is partially
because once married, the daughters are expected to leave their families
and live with their in-laws, devoting to their husband’s families instead.
As a result, women receive less investment and encouragement to
pursue education and professional achievement. According to Do (2002),
there are fewer women than men have training of any kind, for example,
in 1999, just over 3 percent of the total rural women aged 13 and over
21
have technical qualification. In addition, women who favour academic or
career achievement over familial and maternal development, who get
married late or prefer to lead a non-marriage life are likely to face
criticism and ridicule from the public. Reversely, the same treatment goes
to men who fail to be the breadwinner of the family or take an interest in
supposedly female-dominant areas such as household chores or fashion
and beauty. Therefore, if traditional and modern gender role models are
the two extreme ends of the spectrum, there is a high probability that
Vietnamese culture leans more towards the traditional end.
2.3. An overview of magazine advertisements
2.3.1. An overview of advertisement
2.3.1.1. Definition of advertisement
For a better understanding, it is recommended that the definition of
“advertisement” be derived from that of “advertising”, which in turn has
been defined by several attempts. Among them, Arens & Bov’ee (1994,
p. 6) has proposed that “advertising is non-personal communication of
information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about
products (goods and services) or ideas by identified sponsors through
various media.” Wells, Brunett & Moriarty (1992, p. 10) reinforced the
same sense of the definition in theirs, “advertising is paid non-personal
communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade
or influence an audience.” A simpler definition has been put forward by
Fletcher (2010), according to whom, advertising is “a paid-for
communication intended to inform and/or persuade one or more people”.
22
Although the wording may vary, the same key points were
emphasized across the definitions. First is the fact that advertising is
“paid-for”, which highlights the economic impact of advertising by its
nature. As businesses pay for advertising, they have full control regarding
the form, content or placement of the advertisements. Secondly,
advertising is “communication” as it bridges the gap between the sender
of the message, producers and advertisers, and the receiver, the
consumers. Whether by verbal or non-verbal means, advertising must be
able to convey a certain message from the people who create it to the
people who are exposed to it. Last but not least is the goal of advertising -
either to inform and/or to persuade people, aiming at a certain response
towards what is advertised. Failing to serve this purpose, an
advertisement can hardly be considered one.
As a matter of fact, there is a difference between the term
“advertising” and “advertisement”. The former emphasizes on the action,
referring to the process whereas the latter directs at the end result of such
process. Nevertheless, “the words are used interchangeably”, according to
Fletcher (2010, p.1). Therefore, in this study, “advertisements” are
understood as those characterized by the three key points aforementioned,
similar to “advertising”.
2.3.1.2. Classification of advertisements
To classify advertisements, numerous criteria can be applied,
resulting in a variety of advertising types. But the most common and all-
embracing basis, according to Vu (2009), categorises advertisements in
accordance to their objectives and the means of mass media utilized.
23
Accordingly, objective-based classification divides
advertisements into three main groups as follows.
(1) Commercial advertisements: include advertisements created
for the economic purpose, specifically, to boost the sales of a
certain product. Depending on the stage of the product’s life
cycle, the advertisements can be pioneering, competitive or
retentive only.
(2) Non-commercial advertisements: include advertisements
usually made by non-profit organizations aiming at the
awareness or seeking certain responses of a community toward
a social issue, e.g. AIDS, road traffic safety, national security,
etc.
(3) Institutional advertisements: include advertisements focusing
on the promotion of the brand or the companies rather than a
specific product. The purpose of this genre of advertisements is
to help brands earn favour, make good impression and build
trust in not only consumers but partners and the general public
alike.
Media-based classification, on the other hand, separates
advertisements into four main groups as follows.
(1) Print advertisements: are those presented to the viewers in the
form of paper and ink, either featured in newspapers and
magazines or as separated brochures or fliers. The print media
has been exploited for the purpose of advertising since its early
stage of development. Newspapers and magazines sell spaces in
their issues for advertising agencies and the cost the agencies
24
have to pay depends on several factors, for instance, the
position of the advertisements, the size, the frequency of
appearance.
(2) Outdoor advertisements: the most common examples of this
genre are advertisements placed on billboards, kiosks and
through events. For example, to promote the launching of a
movie, the posters can be put on several billboards on the street
whereas signing events can be organized for fans of the cast.
(3) Broadcast advertisements: exploit on-air means such as
television, radio and most recently, the Internet to approach
consumers. Compared to the other genre, advertisements in this
form have the advantage of not only the inanimate visual factors
but that of audio and motion as well.
(4) Covert advertisements: differs from the other genres for its
sense of subtlety. Sometimes referred to as “product placement”
or “embedded marketing”, covert advertisements result from the
agencies’ attempt to avoid blatant advertisements which may
cause consumers’ boredom and refusal. Instead, in covert
advertisements, the products are placed in other context, most
popularly in movies or TV series. The brand may not be
mentioned clearly but the appearance or reference of the
product is inserted to a recognizable extent.
Overall, the collection of advertisements to serve as the subjects of
this study did not exclude any of the three genres of the objective-based
advertisements, but limited to those of print media, more specifically,
those featured in magazines according to the media-based criterion.
25
2.3.1.3. Advertisement and culture
That culture is shared and can be learnt is considered its
characteristics. Understandably the popular utilization of advertisements
via mass media outlets such as magazines grants them the role of one of
the most important transmitter. By looking at advertisements, one can
learn certain features about the culture of the group they target.
It is hardly arguable that advertisements, magazines’ included, are
controlled by cultural differences. The ultimate goal of advertisements
and for which they are created is to persuade their viewer to purchase the
products. And to successfully carry out such mission, according to
Goffman (1979), advertisements need to originate from the target
consumers themselves, to express their beliefs, values and attitudes
towards the world. Studies on advertising appeals showed that the level of
emphasis placed on advertising appeals differ across cultures.
For example, more emotional and fewer comparative appeals have
been found in Japanese advertisements compared to those in the US,
which parallels with the importance the two cultures attach with these
values in everyday life (Hong, Muderrisoglu and Zinkhan, 1987).
Similarly, where respect towards parents and the elderly are almost
compelled like in Vietnamese culture, advertisements displaying signs of
inappropriate attitude may result in a negative reception. Non-verbal
behaviours such as winking or pointing with fingers may have dissimilar
interpretation across culture.
As a result, to ensure the effectiveness of advertisements, it is
essential that creators of advertisements be aware of such cultural
26
distinctiveness. They do research into the culture, making sure to show
the appreciation as well as submission towards its distinctive features in
their works to gain viewers’ favour. Depending on the receptive culture,
the same product may be introduced in a totally different advertisement,
exploiting a brand new appeal. Thus advertisements somehow turn out to
be a mirror reflecting the cultural characteristics of their target
consumers.
The role of advertisements may even exceed that of a mirror as
they are also believed to have the power to “shape or affect the cultural
values of its consumers over time” (Pollay, 1986). Rather than simply
depicting the reality, advertisements in general and particularly magazine
advertisements has become “an integral part of modern culture”
(Campbell, 200, p. 352) which “reinforce and strengthen many social
values, norms and stereotype of its audience” (McQuail, 1994).
For example, before Gerard Lambert came up with his series of
print advertisements for Listerine, the prominent mouthwash, unpleasant
mouth odour had never been considered so offensive. But the Lambert’s
headlines made it the reason for young women to be “Often a Bridesmaid
but Never a Bride”, the kind of problem that “Even your friend won’t tell
you”, which seemed so worrisome that they started to wonder “Could I be
happy with him in spite of that?” The success of Listerine gave rise to
that of Odorono the underarm deodorant, Palmolive the perfume for skin
and Lifebouy the soap. In the end, the sensitiveness of Americans toward
the body odor became somewhat of an obsession. Until 1920s, most
American bathed only once a week, rarely washed their hair and soaps
were said to smell worse than body odor. In contrast, “Americans today
27
spend almost $4 billion a year on products whose only purpose is to alter
natural body odors, odors unsmelled a generation ago!” (Twitchell, 2000,
p.62). People want to smell good and telling another person that he or she
has bad breath or unpleasant body odor is considered rude. As a result, it
can be concluded that Listerine’s and other deodorants’ partially shaped
the attitude of American people, its target consumers, towards body odor
thus proving the cultural impact of advertisements.
Overall, advertisements including those featured in magazines and
culture share a bilateral relation. Some distinctive features of culture are
reflected in advertisements whereas others are influenced and even
formed by advertisements themselves. Researching on advertisements in
different forms of mass media in countries can bring about a better
understanding of their unique cultures. This is also the foundation for the
researcher to carry out this study on gender role in American and
Vietnamese culture as reflected in magazine advertisements.
2.3.2. An overview of magazine
2.3.2.1. History of magazine
The development of magazine as a form of print media “published
periodically at regular intervals like fortnightly, monthly, quarterly,
annually” to “serve the educational, informational and entertainment
needs of readers” (Trehan, 2006, p.99) dated back to the early eighteenth
century in the history of humankind, before the birth of mass media.
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (2011), the world’s first
magazine, despite the more book-like appearance, is largely believed to
be The Gentleman’s Magazine, which also originally coined the term
28
“magazine” for its genre. Founded by Edward Cave in England in 1971,
The Gentleman’s Magazine was initially introduced to the readers as a
storehouse which collected articles and essays from other publications
and started to publish works of its own later on in 1738, followed by a
number of counterparts all over the world.
However, it was not until 1800s that magazine began to extend its
appeal to public readers. Before S.S. McClure dropped the price of his
general-interest McClure's magazine to only 15 cents, magazines were
confined to readers from the upper classes only because of its elite
content, expensive price and costly distribution fee. Such “lowest-
common-denominator approach” (Kleiner, 1979) earned the magazine
great success and opened up a new era for magazines, bringing them the
broader readership of average citizens thus the more remarkable
economic benefits.
At this point, magazines still looked more like books. According to
Kleiner (1979), magazines then were described to have “no headlines or
continued stories, and pictures were confined to within columns” and
readers consequently formed the habit of starting “at the very first page
and read straight through, column by column, until the end. People didn't
flick through or skim, and magazine layouts didn't encourage them to.”
The turning point for the format of magazines came later with the
increasing use of illustrations, initially in the form of sketches and
drawings and later progressed onto photographs. In mid 1900s, the
invasion of advertisements, the higher demand on the display and the
changing attitude towards the quality of magazines assisted by the more
29
advanced printing technology caused magazines their last transformation
into the modern slick looks, spreading from fashion magazines onwards.
2.3.2.2. Classification of magazine
Although there are different bases to classify magazines, the
simplest way is to base on their frequency of publication. Accordingly,
magazines can be divided into daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly,
quarterly, annual, etc.
However, as far as the content is concerned, according to Trehan
(2006), the genres of magazines fall into five main categories as follows:
(1) Consumer magazines or general interest magazines include
those whose target is the general readers. Magazines of this genre
normally focus on a wide range of topics. For example, the
Harpers’ Magazine is one of the most popular general interest
magazines in the United State which consists of publications on
literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts in every issue.
(2) Special interest magazines are distinguishable from the previous
genre in the way they are devoted to a more particular topic in all
issues so as to satisfy a segment of readers in the market only. As a
result, they can be sub-divided into (i) those with a specific group
of readers targeted e.g. men’s and women’s, kids’, housewives’
magazine and (ii) those differentiated from others based on the
topics in focus, e.g. magazines with concentration on fashion,
architecture or craft.
30
(3) Business magazines contain publications that deal with the topic
of business and trade hence the favour by traders, dealers,
manufacturers and groups of readers who are involved in the field.
(4) Regional magazines refer to magazines which have circulation
within a particular geographical region.
(5) Professional magazines are meant to satisfy the needs of people
for specific groups of professionals. The content of the magazines
belonging to this genre may require a certain level of academic
background knowledge.
To best serve the purpose of this study, magazines of general interests
and special interests were selected for the large number of viewers they
target. More importantly, for special interest magazine, men’s and
women’s magazines would show how the genders view the roles of
themselves whereas general interests provide the viewpoint of common
readers, undivided by gender.
2.3.3. An overview of magazine advertisements
2.3.3.1. History of magazine advertisements
Certainly, the invention and progress of magazines played an
important role in the history of magazine advertisements. When
magazines succeeded in approaching a larger number of readers in the
late nineteenth century, advertisers started to take an interest in them as a
potential channel to promote products thus the explosion of magazine
advertisements. Kleiner (1979) argued that this phenomenon was not
solely because of the advantages advertisers saw in magazines but also
31
owing to the contribution of other external factors, especially the
industrial and economic elevation at the time. For instance, the
introduction of plate glass windows in the early twentieth century paved
the way for the appearance of large department stores which later became
the subjects of one of the most expensive early advertisements in the
history.
Nevertheless, the co-evolution and mutual dependency of
advertising and mass media were undeniable, particularly between
advertising and magazine. Magazines offered the space for advertisers to
promote their products; advertisers boosted the economic benefits of
magazine publishers. Thanks to the success of magazine advertisements,
advertising agencies were established, carrying out research, turning the
business into a real industry. For the advertisements, magazines’ page
size was also standardized and to compete with the advertisements for the
attention of readers, magazines had to adapt advertising-type graphics as
well. If the magazine fails to attract readers, advertisers are exposed to the
threat of losing channels to approach their consumers, however, without
the advertisements; the chance of survival in the market for some
magazines may be easily devastated. The history of magazine
advertisements, therefore, does not only involve the history of magazine
but also that of advertisements and the special relationship they share.
2.3.3.2. Classification of magazine advertisements
The most conventional classification of magazine advertisements is
based on its position in the issue. This divides the advertisements into
classified advertising and display advertising. The former can be found
32
when the second half or a particular section of the magazine is dedicated
for advertisements only. The advertisements in the classified section are
arranged according to the type of products being introduced. Display
advertising describes the positioning of advertisements alongside the
editorial content of the magazines. The rates, the cost of the magazine
advertisement, may depend on such certain display positions.
Another way to categorise the advertisements, enumerated by
Altstile (2006), provides a more detailed insight into the format of the
magazine advertisements which basic unit is the page. Variations in
advertisements, therefore, are caused by the amount of page or spaces
allowed.
Variations Placements
Spreads Two facing pages
Half-page spreads A horizontal format on both sides of two facing pages with
editorial above or below the advertisement
Half-page vertical
/horizontal
The outside half of the page if vertical, the bottom half if
horizontal
Quarter-page/
third-page
fractional
The corner or the outer edge of the page
Island Anywhere on the page, surrounded by the editorial content
Advertorial A portion of the advertisement looks like the editorial
content but overall contain the message of the advertisers
Inserts Single page at the front and/or the back
Multiple pages in the issue
Table 1: Magazine advertisement formats (Altstile, 2006)
33
For the best view of the visual elements, only advertisements that
cover at least half of the page were selected to be the subject of this study,
eliminating quarter-page/third-page fractional, island and inserts. For
advertorial, if the images were not as large as a quarter of the page, it
would be considered of no use as well.
2.3.3.3. Components of a magazine advertisements
Despite the variability of magazine advertisements, Ogilvy (1983),
one of the most prominent figures in the industry, generalised from his
experience and research that they are composed of the five key factors as
follows.
Figure 3: Components of a magazine advertisement (Ogilvy, 1983)
More importantly, he insisted on the decisiveness of each factor to
the success of the advertisements in magazines. Accordingly, in Ogilvy’s
opinion, the headline played the most crucial importance because the
research that he and his team conducted had showed that “five times as
many people read the headlines as read the body copy. It follows that
34
unless your headline sells your products, you have wasted 90% of your
money.” (Ogilvy, 1983, p.71)
The significance of the illustration as the main attention grabber of
the magazine advertisement hardly needs any explanation, simply
because “a picture is worth thousand words”. Another important result of
Ogilvy’s research was that “readers look first at the illustration, then at
the headline, then at the copy”. Consequently, he strongly recommended
advertisement creators to set the layout of their works in that order for the
best effectiveness. The proportion of a successful advertisement,
according to him, should leave about 65% of the allowed space for the
illustration.
As for the caption, their research also pointed out that four times as
many readers read captions as body copy. The body copy turned out to be
the most likely to be ignored as only five percent of readers actually
spared time on them, which reasoned Ogilvy’s advice for copywriters to
try to keep it brief.
As time went by, certain changes have been made to the
components of magazine advertisements. What is unlikely to change is
the fact that both visual and verbal elements contribute to the success of a
magazine advertisement. However, to avoid ambiguity and ensure the
objectivity of the findings, this study chose to focus on the visual element
of American and Vietnamese magazine advertisements to investigate into
the gender role reflection.
35
2.3.3.4. Advantages and disadvantages of magazine
advertisements
Both Trehan (2006) and Altstiel (2006) along with many
advertisers and researchers of the field have recommended magazine
advertisements for their following qualities compared to other forms of
media.
(1) Selectivity: Most magazines set a clear target reader for them
which makes it easier for the advertisers to identify and come
up with designs that appeal to each group of customers the best.
(2) Printing quality: Compared to newspaper and other forms of
print media, magazines are printed on better quality paper and
colours, which adds more to the attractiveness of the
advertisements.
(3) Long life span: Magazines tend to last longer than newspaper
and can be re-read for quite some time after the published date.
(4) Design flexibility: With varied sizes, colours, pages and
placements, magazines offer the designers of advertisements
more options.
(5) Credibility: Some magazines provide the advertisements with
more prestige. Just by placing the advertisements in the issue,
the advertisers can earn more of the consumers’ trust.
(6) Leisure Readership: Magazine readers normally enjoy the
publications at a relaxing manner without any pressure, with
greater interest and for a longer time, the chance for the
advertisements to deliver the intended message thus is higher.
36
On the contrary, there are certain limitations to the effectiveness of
magazine advertisements, some of which was reported by Trehan (2006)
as follows.
(1) Limited reach: Magazines are still not the media form that is
capable of reaching the largest number of consumers, especially
in the modern time of Internet and decreasing reading habit.
Moreover, some magazines are only regional, which limits the
expansion of the advertisements’ popularity. In addition,
magazines are quite costly compared to other print media.
(2) Long lead time: Normally it takes months or even years for a
magazine to be designed and placed in a magazine. Therefore, it
might be challenging to keep the advertisements up-to-date with
the consumers’ needs.
(3) Excessive amount: The numbers of advertisements included in
an issue automatically lessens the chance to be noticed for one.
(4) Delayed readership: The leisurely nature of magazines might
prevent readers from reading them immediately. Short-term
campaigns, as a result, may go to waste.
(5) Disadvantages of print media: Similar to other print media,
magazines fail to provide audio or animated effects to illustrate
the use of the products.
In general, as this kind of advertisements were only allowed a certain
area of space on the page of the magazine and limited to inanimate
effects, the images in magazine advertisements need to be well selected.
Along with the excellent printing quality, these features of magazine
advertisements made them the ideal subjects for the focus of this study.
37
2.4. Previous study on gender role reflection in magazine
advertisements
The messages to the public about gender role embedded in
magazine advertisements have been the centre of a large number of
studies all over the world, especially in the U.S. The objects of the studies
vary from the investigation into the reflected role of one gender in one
culture to that of both genders to the extension beyond the geographical
boundaries for a cross-cultural insight.
One of the earliest studies on the subject is that of Courtney and
Lockeretz (1971) who studied the portrayals of the genders in their
functional roles (family role, working role, recreational role and
decorative role), in their relationship with each other and with the
products they are chosen to advertise. The findings were listed as follows
by Kang (1997).
Women were rarely shown in out-of-home working roles.
Not many women were shown as a professional or high-level
business person.
Women rarely ventured far from home by themselves or with
other women.
Women were shown as dependent on men's protection.
Men were shown regarding women as sex objects or as
domestic adjuncts.
Females were most often shown in ads for cleaning products,
food products, beauty products, drugs, clothing, and home
appliances.
38
Males were most often shown in ads for cars, travel, alcoholic
beverages, cigarettes, banks, industrial products, entertainment
media, and industrial companies (p. 92-95).
The most popular analytic framework was constructed by Erving
Goffman (1979) on the base of “behavior displays” including the
postures, gestures, sizes, positions and placements of the models in print
advertisements. Gender role, therefore, was reflected in five categories:
(1) Relative Size: refers to the difference in the size of male and
female portrayal in advertisements, especially in height.
(2) The Feminine: refers to the use of fingers and hands to trace
the outlines of an object which is distinguishable from grasping or
holding.
(3) Function Rank: refers to the rank in occupations of male and
female individuals, whether male or female models are portrayed in the
executive role.
(4) The Ritualization of Subordination: refers to the postures of
the models, whether or not they show expressions of submission or
superiority.
(5) Licensed Withdrawal: refers to portrayal of models which
remove them psychologically the social situation e.g. turning one's gaze
away from another's or maintaining a telephone conversation
The result accordingly was that women were more often depicted
in a position lower or beneath men, in subordinate career roles and as
emotionally withdrawn and disoriented.
39
The development of Goffman’s framework has given rise to an
explosion in the number of women as well as gender role portrayal in
magazine advertisements, for example, Bretl & Cantor (1988); Courtney
& Whipple, (1974); Reichert, Lambiase, Morgan, Carstarphen, &
Zavoina, (1999). Only a few improvements in the portrayal of women,
however, are visible from the findings of these studies, even in those
researching on samples chosen over a long period of time, for instance,
from 1979 to 1991 in Kang (1999) or 1955-2002 of Lindner (2004). It is a
common finding in these studies that compared to the earlier days;
women are portrayed with more independence and more diverse roles
other than sexual and family-oriented ones. Yet the balance in the roles of
the genders is not highly achievable shortly in the future as seen in these
studies.
Another trend prevailing among the recent studies on gender role
portrayals, which possibly resulted from the rising popularity of cultural
exchange among countries as well as the mere concentration on the
subject in the US previously, is the comparison and contrast between the
US and another country. Crossed over the language barriers, these studies
managed to point out the relatable and distinguishable features in gender
role portrayals in magazine advertisements not only between the US and
similar Western cultures like the UK (Lysonski, 1985; Mitchell and
Taylor, 1990), Germany (Robbins & Paksoy, 1989; Piron and Young,
1996) or Poland (Skorek & Schreier (2009) but extending to countries of
typical Eastern cultures like Japan (Maynard & Taylor, 1999) and Korea
(Kang, 1997) as well.
40
Especially, to compare and contrast the reflection of gender role in
magazine advertisements from the US, Germany and Poland, Skorek &
Schreier (2009) have developed a typology to investigate into the
different roles that the genders are portrayed in. The typology is
composed of three types of role that these researchers consider the most
important:
(1) Working/nonworking role (Courtney and Lockeretz, 1971),
(2) Product-related role
(3) Dominance role (Goffman, 1976; Klassen et al., 1993)
Further explanation on each category can be viewed in the figure 5
below. The advantage of this typology is that it is the synthesis of the
framework constructed by previous researchers. However, there seems to
be some unclear and overlapping points among the categories, for
example between the “decorative role” and the “symbolic role”. The
inclusion of “decorative role” in the “working/non-working” category is
quite questionable. Moreover, it is unnecessary to divide the “product-
related role” into user, endorser and symbolic roles. If it were only to
show which products were conventionally associated with which gender,
a checklist of common products would do the task better. In shorts, the
researcher of this research would adapt this typology but rearrange the
roles into family-oriented role, working role, recreational role, and
decorative/symbolic role. More specific roles would also be investigated
for the first three categories.
41
Table 2: Types of gender roles in Skorek & Schreier (2009)
The findings of such cross-cultural studies vary across the targeted
countries representing the similarities and differences in their diverse
cultures. Nonetheless, together they completed the global portrayal of
gender role in our time to some extent. As hardly any similar research has
been carried out between the US and Vietnam, this study attempted to
point out the similarities and differences between the two cultures in
terms of gender roles and submit the Vietnamese piece into the jigsaw to
provide a broader and more objective view of gender role reflection in
magazine advertisements all over the world.
42
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research method
To implement the study, the researcher chose to apply the method
of quantitative content analysis, briefly defined by Weber (1990, p.9) as
“a research method that uses a set of procedures to make valid inferences
from text”, which can be “about the sender(s) of the message, the
message itself or the audience of the message.” In other words, “content
analysis is any research technique for making inferences by
systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics within
text.” (Stone, Dunphy, Smith & Ogilvie, 1966, p.5).
The objective of content analysis, according to Lasswell (1951)
should be directed towards the questions, “Who says what, to whom,
why, to what extent and with what effect?” The method is applied on the
basis that “text, images and expressions are created to be seen, read,
interpreted and acted on their meanings, and must, therefore, be analyzed
with such uses in mind.” (Krippendorff, 2004). The purposes of content
analysis, therefore, include:
Disclose international differences in communication content
Describe trends in communication content
Identify the intentions and other characteristics of the
communicators
Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to
communications
Reflect cultural patterns of groups, institutions or societies
43
Reveal the focus of individual, group, institutional or
societal attention. (Weber, 1990, p.9)
Content analysis was chosen as the method for this study as the
researcher intended to investigate into the gender roles in American and
Vietnamese cultures as reflected in the two countries’ magazine
advertisements.
3.2. Selection of subjects
3.2.1. Selection of advertisements
As earlier defined, the focus of this study was on Vietnamese and
American magazine advertisements; it was the advertisements from the
two countries’ magazines that were chosen as the subjects for data
collection and data analysis.
More importantly, although the message of advertisements is
conveyed via both visual and verbal elements, as earlier cited, studies
showed that the visual elements, specifically the illustrations play the
most prominent role; advertisements featuring male and female models
would be selected for this study.
Besides, the purpose of the study was to investigate the gender role
reflection of Vietnam and the United States; therefore, the advertisements
must be those created and published in the two countries. Last but not
least, the study focused on the situation of 2010, certainly, the
advertisements had to be featured in magazines published in the same
year.
44
3.2.2. Selection of magazines
For a balanced selection of magazines and advertisements within,
three genres were finalized: general interest, men’s and women’s. The
former genre would show how the genders view the roles of each other
whereas the two latter display how the roles of each gender were
presented to themselves. The selection of magazines from these three
genres, therefore, would help avoid the bias resulting from single-sex
audience. The major titles of each genre from the two countries were
chosen according to the 2009/2010 report on World Magazine Trends of
IFPP (International Federation of the Periodical Press) to consist of:
Genre United States of
America
Vietnam
General Interest Reader’s Digest
The New Yorker
Thanh nien tuan san
Kien thuc ngay nay
Men’s
Magazine
Playboy
Maxim
The thao van hoa & Dan
ong
Phong cach & Dan ong
Women’s
Magazine
Cosmopolitan
O, The Oprah Magazine
Dep
Tiep thi & Gia dinh
Table 3: Selection of magazine titles
In general, four issues of each title would be selected, resulting in a
total of 48 issues. For monthlies, one issue from each quarter of 2010 was
chosen. For weeklies, four issues of each title were chosen at random.
45
3.3. Procedures of data collection
After finalizing the selection of magazine titles and issues, the
researcher moved on to collect the issues in both Vietnam and the United
States. For Vietnamese issues, as the year of the study’s implementation
was 2011, the magazines of the previously were available at secondhand
book stores in Hanoi. Moreover, the researcher received the support of
friends and acquaintances that subscribed to some of the titles and stored
up the 2010 issues. Therefore, the researchers met hardly any trouble
finding the right Vietnamese titles and gathering the right number of
issues.
The task was a little more challenging for American magazines. At
first, the researcher wanted to apply the same strategy as for Vietnamese
issues - purchasing the American titles available both in Vietnam and the
United States. However, it did not bring in desired results because of the
budget limit and geographical distance. The researcher then decided to
turn to the Internet for scanned versions of the issues, mostly from
http://avaxhome.ws/, a recommended website for links to download
scanned newspapers and magazines published in different countries
including the United States. For some titles, the full collection of all the
2010 issues was offered.
Once the issues were gathered, the advertisements were separated
and stored according to the magazines’ genre. The procedure of data
collection from both Vietnam and the United States thus was a success,
providing the researcher with sufficient data to proceed to the next step of
the study. The result of the data collection procedure is presented in the
following table.
46
Genre United States of
America
Vietnam
General Interest Reader’s Digest (33)
The New Yorker (29)
Thanh nien tuan san (26)
Kien thuc ngay nay (17)
Men’s
Magazine
Playboy (33)
Maxim (35)
The thao van hoa & Dan
ong (34)
Phong cach & Dan ong
(25)
Women’s
Magazine
Cosmopolitan (202)
O, The Oprah Magazine
(108)
Dep (85)
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (195)
Total 440 382
Table 4: Selection of magazine advertisements
3.4. Procedures of data analysis
To analyze the data, the researcher decided to make use of the
typology of Skorek & Schreier (2009) with some adjustment. As
previously elaborated, the studied gender roles would consist of six main
categories. The first three roles including familial role, working role and
recreational role were based on the context of the advertisements. The
user/endorser role and decorative/symbolic role reflects the relationship
between the male and female models and the products being advertised.
The last one, dominant role, helped the researcher draw the conclusion
about the assertive and submissive role of the genders in interaction.
(1) Familial role: advertisements portraying male and female models
in a family or household context would be placed in this category.
47
Furthermore, to study the specific work division in the family, the
researcher provided the familial roles into three sub-categories as
follows.
Doing children-related tasks e.g. educating, feeding, caring
for the children,
Doing household chores e.g. cooking, doing the laundry and
Others e.g. decorating the house, fixing household
appliances, or simply posing as a family
(2) Working role: advertisements showing models working outside
the household, either doing the job or in working attire would be
categorised here. Two sub-categories were applied to study the
working roles of the genders.
Fields of work: This sub-category was partially adopted
from that of Skorek & Schreier (2009) to include the most
common areas of employment, some of which were
conventionally believed to suit one gender better than other
e.g. business for males and education for females.
Responsibility at work: This category was exploited to
survey the ranking at work of the genders. At the same
workplace, it is believed that males tend to take the higher
position with more responsibility. For example, if the setting
of the advertisement was a factory and the boss was featured,
there was a high chance that it was a male. The inclusion of
this category was to testify such belief, to identify the gender
48
with higher chance to take the superior rank of responsibility
at work.
(3) Recreational role: advertisements displaying models doing things
for enjoyment when they are not working would be placed in this
category. “Sports”, “arts”, “shopping”, “drinking” and “others”
(e.g. watching TV, chatting, playing games) were chosen among
the typical activities. Through this category, the gender assumed to
have a greater tendency of taking the recreational role was
expected to be revealed.
(4) User/Endorser role: Skorek & Schreier (2009) exploited this
category with three subs: “user”, “endorser” and “symbolic” role.
However, as explained earlier, the first two sub-categories slightly
overlapped and the separation hardly supported the focus of the
study. When a model appeared in the role of an endorser, it could
be inferred that he or she must have used the product beforehand to
qualify the recommendation. As a result, to study this role, the
researcher decided to join the first sub-categories and form the
user/endorser categories to see which products were more likely to
be advertised by which gender.
(5) Decorative/Symbolic role: Advertisements in this category
depend on the male and female models’ aesthetics or sexual appeal
to assure the successful communication of the intended message.
Models would be depicted without the implication of the user or
endorser role, merely employed for decorative or symbolic
purpose. For example, in the following advertisement, the target
consumer of the watch was not females, yet there was a female
49
model making an appearance. The intended message in this
advertisement did not take too far an inference: the beautiful
features of the watch are comparable to that of a female. This
category helped the researcher find out from which gender the
aesthetic or sexual appeals were more likely to be exploited.
Figure 4: American female
model in symbolic role
Figure 5: American female
model in dominant role
(6) Dominant role: Advertisements in which the male and female
models acting opposite each other would be studied for this
category to identify the one with greater control of the situation.
The dominant role was constructed based on the works of Goffman
(1976) and Klassen et al (1993). Based on the focus of the
illustration, the posture of the models, the hand placement, etc.
these advertisements could be classified into traditional (i.e. male
dominate), reverse (i.e. female dominate) or equal model of
dominance. For example, in the above advertisement, the female
50
was the focus of the picture, looking straight into the camera, her
hand placement and the higher position indicated that she was the
one with predominance. This example, therefore, exhibited the
reverse model of dominance where females gain control of the
situation.
The above categories of roles were examined objectively and
independently from one another. A checklist (available in Appendix A)
was utilized to study the advertisements, role by role and culture after
culture. Comparison and contrast were made between the genders within
one culture first, followed by that across the cultures of the United States
and Vietnam. The results were then counted and presented in charts and
tables for explanation and further discussion.
51
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Findings about gender roles as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
As earlier mentioned in chapter 3, the findings are presented in this
chapter centering the roles of the genders in accordance with the context
of the advertisements (family role, working role and recreational role),
the product being advertised (user/endorser role and decorative/symbolic
role) and dominance in case of simultaneous appearance in the
advertisements (dominance role).
4.1.1. Genders’ familial role
Charts 1&2: Genders’ familial roles as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Female
Male
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Female
Male
52
The chart above illustrated the domestic role division between the
genders in American and Vietnamese cultures as shown in a total of 140
magazine advertisements.
Accordingly, in both cultures, it is the female models that are more
often depicted in the household context or with family members. The rate
of female models’ appearance in the advertisements of both the United
States and Vietnam stay as high as 80 percent, dominating their male
counterparts by four times in both cultures.
The division in specific domestic roles, on the other hand, sees
some differences between the two cultures. In the United States, children-
related tasks are exclusively performed by female models. Similarly, in
Vietnam, that nearly 80 percent of these are taken charge of by females
suggests a more active involvement of the males in offspring issues, that
they do take part in the provision of the children’s education, nutrition
and affection. Regarding household chores, an equal ratio was recorded
between American males and females portrayed in the advertisements,
indicating the egalitarian share between the two genders. In Vietnam,
however, only 10 percent of the male models are depicted involving in
the housework. As for the other familial tasks e.g. decorating the house
or fixing the appliances, in both cultures, females continued to dominate
as only 25 and 30 percent of male models could be found doing these
tasks in American and Vietnamese advertisements respectively.
Overall, despite the fairly distinctive rate in the division of
children-related tasks and household chores, in both cultures, there is a
higher chance for a female model to be featured in magazine
advertisements set in household and family context.
53
1
10
11
8
3
2
10
1
2
12
6
8
6
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Others
Security
Education
Sport
Art
Health/Medicine
Service
Construction
Business
Male
Female
4.1.2. Genders’ working role
4.1.2.1. Fields of work
Charts 3&4: Genders’ fields of work as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
4
4
0
12
10
9
9
5
1
0
3
6
13
4
8
2
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Others
Security
Education
Sport
Art
Health/Medicine
Service
Construction
Business
Male
Female
54
The charts in the previous page displayed the common fields of
work preferred for the genders as reflected in 187 advertisements from
American and Vietnamese magazines.
In the American chart, it can be seen that female workers account
for the larger percentage only in educational (100%) and artistic jobs
(nearly 60%) compared to their male counterparts. The percentage of
workers in other fields of work is led by men, including security (100%),
business and health/medicine (70%), followed by sports (60%). A
relatively equal ratio between the genders can be found in service jobs.
As for the Vietnamese chart, on the other hand, service industry is
the only fields of work that female employees take up the higher
percentage (70%) compared to male counterparts. In other fields, it is
male that account for the greater rate of employment, specifically,
construction (100%), sport (80%), business and health/medicine (60%).
Art is the only field which sees quite an equal division between the
genders. No male or female model is found doing educational jobs or
security in Vietnamese advertisements.
Overall, in both cultures, it can be concluded that more male than
female models are portrayed in working roles. Male workers also take up
the higher percentage in a larger number of working fields, i.e. business,
health/medicine and sports.
55
4.1.2.2. Responsibility at work
Charts 5&6: Genders’ responsibility at work as reflected in
American and Vietnamese magazine advertisements
The above charts describe the responsibility at work of the genders
according to the portrayal of magazine advertisements.
The Vietnamese chart sees the percentage of male workers with
higher responsibility at work is 8.5 times as high as that of the female
counterparts. Reversely, the chance of female workers assigned with
lower responsibility doubles that of male.
A more moderate ratio, on the other hand, is visible in the
American chart. Regarding the higher responsibility at work, there is a
relative equivalence of possibility between the genders. As for the lower
positions, a slightly higher percentage of 60 percent were recorded among
males.
Hig
her
Low
er
Female 14 6
Male 16 9
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Female
Male
High
er
Low
er
Female 2 16
Male 17 8
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Female
Male
56
4.1.3. Genders’ recreational role
Charts 7&8: Genders’ recreational role as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
118
2
2
0
3315
3
0
00%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Others Sports Arts Drinking Shopping
Female
Male
21 73
1
2
45 144
0
13
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Others Sports Arts Drinking Shopping
Female
Male
57
The charts in the previous page illustrated the recreational role of
the genders in American and Vietnamese culture reflected in their
magazine advertisements.
The American chart showed female individuals as the one with
more recreational roles featuring in 53 over 76 advertisements. Except for
drinking, the recreational activity enjoyed exclusively by males, more
females models have been found involved in arts (60%) and sports (65%).
No advertisements depicting male and female models shopping can be
collected from the chosen American magazine issues.
A rather striking resemblance can be viewed in Vietnamese
statistics as 76 out of 110 advertisements choose females to portray in
recreational role. Drinking is also portrayed as the recreational restricted
for male. Furthermore, there is a similar dominance in the percentage of
female models enjoying arts and sports. Shopping is the additional
recreational activities of Vietnamese females and males and yet another
one involving 70 percent more of the former compared to the latter.
4.1.4. Genders’ user/endorser role
In the following page firstly is the table displaying the products
(ranked in descending order) in which advertisements female models tend
to appear at a higher percentage than their male counterparts. Evidently,
though at different rate, the products which advertisements feature more
females than males in both cultures are very similar. The second table
ranking the products which use more male models in their advertisements
also sees such resemblance, except for cigarettes as advertisements for
this product are banned in Vietnam. Another similarity, understandably,
58
is the relatively equal rate of females’ and males’ appearance in
advertisements for vehicles and sport equipments and services.
Rank United States Vietnam
1 Educational products & services
100%
Educational products & services
100%
2 Beauty products & services
90%
Beauty products & services
92%
3 Clothing & accessories
88%
Clothing & accessories
79%
4 Food
85%
Food
73%
5 Non-alcoholic drinks
76%
Medical products & services
76%
Household facilities
72%
6 Household facilities
60%
Non-alcoholic drinks
68%
7 Media & Entertainment
56%
Medical products & services
66%
8 Media & Entertainment
65%
Table 5: Ranking of products which advertisements feature more females
than males
Rank United States Vietnam
1 Financial services
58%
Alcoholic drinks
67%
2 Alcoholic drinks
57%
Cigarettes
57%
Financial services
56%
Table 6: Ranking of products which advertisements feature more males
than females
59
4.1.5. Genders’ decorative/symbolic role
Chart 9: Genders’ decorative/symbolic role as reflected in
American and Vietnamese magazine advertisements
The chart above illustrated the comparison and contrast of the
genders’ decorative/symbolic role as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements. From the chart, it can be said that
there is a remarkable resemblance in the rate of the genders featured in
the two cultures’ advertisements for the purpose of decoration or
symbolism. More importantly, in both cultures, it is the females that take
up the higher rate of decorative/ symbolic appearance as 85 percent of the
advertisements depicted female models in this role.
4 2
24 14
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
US Vietnam
Female
Male
60
4.1.6. Genders’ dominant role
Charts 10&11: Genders’ dominant role as reflected in American and
Vietnamese magazine advertisements
The above charts demonstrated the rate of the dominant role of the
two genders as shown in magazine advertisements of the US and
Vietnam. The dominant role of the genders was found in advertisements
where male and females model acting opposite each other and determined
by several factors such as the focus of the photos, the postures of the
models, hand placement, etc. Accordingly, because the percentage of
male dominance in the advertisements almost doubles that of female
dominance and is six times higher than the equal portrayals, it can be
pointed out from the Vietnamese chart that males are more likely to be
the dominant one if both genders are featured. On the other hand, in the
American chart, there is quite a balanced ratio between male and female
dominance. Additionally, the percentage of equal role between the
genders in American advertisements doubles that of Vietnamese
counterparts.
41%
39%
20%Male
dominate
Female
dominate
Equal62%
28%
10% Male
dominate
Female
dominate
Equal
61
4.2. Implications about gender roles in American and
Vietnamese cultures
The statistics above carry certain implications about the gender role
in American and Vietnamese culture, which is elaborated with some
illustrative examples from the collected advertisements in this part of the
paper. Full view of the advertisements is available in Appendix B.
4.2.1. Genders’ familial role
Firstly, that in both cultures, the magazine advertisements show a
higher tendency for the female models to appear in the domestic setting
indicates the strong association of females with their traditional roles -
mothers or housewives. It means that for the people, it is more common
for a woman rather than a man to be in charge of the household’s
functioning.
Furthermore, when comparing the number of advertisements set in
familial context with that in workplace, the researcher has found that 70
percent Vietnamese females are portrayed in familial role instead of
working role. This rate in the American advertisements, on the other
hand, is only about 40 percent. The implication, therefore, is the stronger
preference of Vietnamese people for the traditional role of females as the
familial devotee.
The division in the specific roles, however, shows some slight
differences between the two cultures. Firstly, children-related tasks,
including the provision of education, affection and nutrition, are
traditionally believed to be females’ responsibilities owing to their
maternal nature as illustrated in the following Vietnamese advertisement
62
in Figure 5 (full view available in Appendix). In this example, all of the
three tasks as listed above are implied to be solely implemented by a
female - the mother of the child. The significant role of female has been
further affirmed in the American magazine advertisements as no sample
featuring male models as the father figure can be found among the
selected subjects.
Figure 6: Vietnamese model in
child-related tasks
Figure 7: Vietnamese male model
in children-related tasks
In Vietnam, on the other hand, the rate does indicate a more active
involvement of the male gender in children related tasks. However, while
a number of advertisements show female models carrying out the tasks
with children individually, most Vietnamese males appear alongside their
spouses and play a rather more indirect or subordinate role compared to
the latter. In figure 2, for example, the mother is the one who actually sits
down with the child and directly takes her hand to teach her how to write
63
whereas the role of the father is limited at standing further to the back and
watches them from above. The composition of the models in this
advertisement also implies that although the father in Vietnamese family
is not the main task-doer at home, he is the one with the higher rank of
status, monitoring the household’s functioning.
Regarding the household chores, mostly doing the laundry or
cooking, the statistics proves a reverse trend in which American males
appear more active as they share half of the work with females. To
Vietnamese, on the other hand, doing household chores still seems to
affect negatively the image of the male individuals in the family. As the
result, the portrayal of male models taking care of the housework in
Vietnamese advertisements is at the lower percentage and tends to be
more of an implication.
Figure 8: American male model in
household chores
Figure 9: Vietnamese male model in
household chores
64
For example, in figure 5, the male model featured in an American
cookware advertisement is portrayed in the kitchen, actually preparing the
meals for the guests. In figure 6, however, the Vietnamese model who is
supposed to take the similar role only takes as far as wearing the apron.
Generally, it can be concluded that, although domestic tasks are
still strongly believed to be the responsibility of chiefly the females, as
suggested in the advertisements, in both American and Vietnamese
cultures, it is of a more and more common trend for males to help their
partners ease the burden. On a side note, the fact that among 140
advertisements featuring male and female in familial roles, 75 percent are
taken from Vietnamese advertisements shows the great value the
Vietnamese people attach to familial, regardless of gender.
4.2.2. Genders’ working role
4.2.2.1. Fields of work
That in advertisements from both cultures, more males are featured
in working role than females shows the preference of both American and
Vietnamese people for males to join the labour force and thus support the
family financially.
In both cultures, parts of the traditional division are still favoured
as business, health/medicine and sports - some of the conventionally
male-dominant areas - experience only a few changes.
Although in the United States, the traditional preference remains in
educational and artistic jobs - those preferred for females, the equal ratio
in service jobs suggests the increasing participation of females in the
65
working force. The similar implication can be drawn out from the
dominance of female employees in the service sector and the equal
proportion of males and females in the fields of arts in Vietnamese
culture.
4.2.2.2. Responsibility at work
Regarding the responsibility at work, there is a noticeable
difference between the two cultures. In Vietnamese culture, male workers
tend to be the one more entrusted with higher responsibility at work
whereas female workers are more likely to play the subordinate working
role. This gender-specific ranking occurs most frequently in the fields of
business or health and medicine - the traditionally male-dominant jobs. In
the United States, however, such contrast is not as sharp.
For instance, in the Vietnamese advertisement below, a photo of an
operation in progress is used as the main illustration for a beauty product.
The photo shows a total of six people involving in the act. Regardless of
the dominating number of male, while the males are portrayed
performing the tasks, which implies their primary responsibility for the
success of the operation; the only female is put at the far right corner of
the photo, merely observing the performance of the male surgeons.
Furthermore, the advertisement also contains a smaller photo of the head
of the hospital’s cosmetic surgery department - a male as well, affirming
the higher responsibility of the males. The other advertisement is an
American one promoting a TV series. The characters of the series who
are supposed to be party organizers are presented in the identical working
attire indicating their equal share of responsibility in the job. These are
66
two fairly clear examples of the rank in terms of responsibility at work
between the genders in American and Vietnamese cultures.
Figure 10: Responsibility at work in a
Vietnamese advertisement
Figure 11: Responsibility at work in
an American advertisement
4.2.3. Genders’ recreational role
In both cultures, the portrayal of females in recreational role at a
higher frequency denotes the people’s impression that females are
involved in more leisure activities.
Moreover, the preference in the specific roles speaks volume about
the people’s beliefs and attitudes about the gender role. For examples, it
appears to both Vietnamese and American people that drinking remains
more preferable for males. The reason for this possibly is the negative
effect it might have on the family-friendly image of females in general.
67
On the other hand, sports activities seem to attract more females in
their free time. This might seem to conflict with the dominance of males
in sports as a working role earlier. The participation of more females in
sports as a recreational role emphasizes the association of females in the
two cultures and their appearance as most of the activities are advertised
to help the user lose weight and keep fit. It means that people find it more
common for females to play sports as a recreational activity to maintain
their health and physical appearance than taking it as a job which is
believed to suit males better. This function of sports is also more
applicable to males in the United States than the Vietnamese
counterparts, showing that their awareness of the importance of physical
appearance, though probably not so keen as females, is encouraged.
Figure 12: Vietnamese female
model in recreational role
Figure 13: American male models
in recreational role
68
For instance, in the above advertisements, while the females are
depicted exercising and thus hinted as the target of a fitness and spa
service in the Vietnamese advertisement, the American advertisement
focuses on male users by showing two males playing basketball, the fitter
one at advantage. The implication regarding their visual appeal is
conveyed in the headline “Shirts or Skins?” which indicates that males
with a nicer body can show it off with more confidence and have some
advantages over the pot-bellied counterparts.
4.2.4. Genders’ user/endorser role
The user/endorser role of the genders in American and Vietnamese
cultures reflected in the advertisements further affirms the strong belief of
the people in the association of the genders and certain roles in their
everyday lives. Regarding this matter, a striking resemblance can be seen
in the two cultures through their magazine advertisements.
In more details, the advertisements collected from the US and
Vietnam sees a larger number of beauty products and services as well as
clothing and accessories featuring females than that with males. This
implies the greater concern over the external appearance of females in the
two cultures, that no matter how different their cultural backgrounds are,
they all are supposed to care about their skin, figure, dresses, make-up,
etc. for the same purpose of looking as young, beautiful and fit as
possible.
Similarly, the fact that females appear in a dominant frequency
compared to males in educational products and services, food, non-
69
alcoholic drinks, household facilities and medical products and services
indicates the insistent link between them and their familial duties.
As for males, their dominance in working role is confirmed as they
appear more often as the users and endorsers of financial services
compared to females. Furthermore, as they are less restricted by the
familial role, their consumption of alcoholic drinks and especially
cigarettes in the United States are found at a higher frequency.
4.2.5. Genders’ decorative/symbolic role
As suggested in the statistics, the decorative/symbolic role of
females is exploited at a higher rate compared to males in both
Vietnamese and American cultures. This implies the popularity of the
view towards females as representative of beauty or sexuality, which is
the foundation for the implementation of their roles as decorators or
symbols in the advertisements.
For instance, in the two following advertisements, the symbolic
role of females are utilized. In the Vietnamese example, as the headline
indicates, the external appeal of the car is compared with that of a female
whose revealed legs are the focus of the illustration. Similarly, the
American beer advertisement centers a female model in bikini probably
to hint at the pleasure the beverage offer its consumer. Such exploitation
of females’ decorative or symbolic roles also affirms the submissive role
of females as they are viewed as males’ possession and entertainer.
70
Figure 14: Vietnamese female in
symbolic role
Figure 15: American female in
symbolic role
4.2.6. Genders’ dominant role
The reflection of the genders’ dominant role in American and
Vietnamese advertisements shows a considerable difference in the two
cultures. In Vietnamese advertisements, the male dominance - the
traditional mode in which males tend to take the lead - occupies the
highest percentage, outnumbering that of the reverse mode (the female
dominance) and that of the equal mode. The American advertisements,
however, see more equality in the dominant role of males and females as
the percentage of the reverse mode almost catch up with that of the
traditional mode. The percentage and number of equal division of
dominant power in American advertisements also surpasses that of
71
Vietnamese ones. This indicates the more egalitarian view of American
cultures towards the role of the genders.
Such distinction is most obviously seen in advertisements depicting
the sexual initiation or affection demonstration. For example, in the
following Vietnamese advertisement, the male model is the one taking
control of the intimate interaction based on the placement of his hands.
The American example, however, shows a reverse mode as the female
model is the one who initiates the contact. This also implies the situation
in real-life as Vietnamese culture, male is expected to take the lead in
courtship and sex whereas in American culture, either gender is free to
make the first move.
Figure 16: Vietnamese male in
dominant role
Figure 17: American female in
dominant role
72
4.3. Application
4.3.1. Suggestions for the advertisement viewers
Although more similarities than differences have been pointed out
about the expectation or the attitude of American and Vietnamese
cultures toward the gender roles, possibility of misunderstandings still
needs much consideration when people of the two cultures view each
other’s advertisements. This might lead to serious problem, limiting the
effectiveness of their cross-cultural communication.
Therefore, to reduce the chance of culture shock from the
advertisements or any other cultural reflector, it is suggested that the
viewers be aware of the similarities and differences in the two cultures
regarding the gender role. The awareness, of course, comes from the
endless progress of knowledge acquisition about the other culture, which
can be achieved in various means, especially in the current era of
technology and mass media.
Furthermore, it is crucial for the viewers to maintain an open mind
and receptive attitude towards the distinction between the two cultures
reflected in the advertisements. Culture should never be judged as “right”
or “wrong”, civilized or not for there is no cultural standard, only
similarities and differences. The emergence of differences ought to be
considered a chance for the viewers to broaden their knowledge and
enhance the awareness of their own cultural identity. And as J. William
Fulbright once said, “The rapprochement of peoples is only possible
when differences of culture and outlook are respected and appreciated
rather than feared and condemned”, only with a tolerating and friendly
73
perspective can success and harmony be achieved in communication
across cultures.
4.3.2. Suggestions for the advertising agencies
As earlier mentioned, the significant influence of cultural factors
have on advertisements in different markets is undeniable. Therefore, for
the advertising agencies, awareness and thorough understanding of the
cultural differences is the prerequisite to the formation and success of
advertisements. The similarities and differences of Vietnamese and
American culture in terms of gender role in this research is expected to
assist advertising agencies come up with culture-appropriate strategies for
their products when approaching Vietnamese and American markets.
4.3.3. Suggestions for ESL classes
As the achievement of the foreign language learner should not be
confined to the command of the language but include the understanding
of its culture as well, authentic materials have been utilized in the
classroom to support the activity of teaching and learning English.
Among the various sources, magazine advertisements can be exploited as
effective authentic materials too.
Advertisements in ESL classes has long been proved to bring about
benefits owing to their availability, authenticity, diversity and visual
attractiveness which captivates students, motivates and enhances the
effectiveness of the lesson. Furthermore, unlike other forms of
advertisements, using magazine advertisements in the classroom requires
hardly any special equipment, which fits the bad condition of some
Vietnamese educational institutions. The advertisements can be scanned
74
from magazines or printed from scanned version available on the Internet
and included in hand-outs for students. Even simpler, the advertisements
can be cut out from the magazines and presented to students.
There are many ways in which the magazine advertisements can be
utilized for educational purpose. Depending on the objective of the
lesson, whether it targets the linguistic, cultural or logical aspect, as well
as the level of students, the teacher can design appropriate activities and
collect suitable advertisements to achieve this goal. For example, if the
lesson focuses on the linguistic issues only, students at lower level can be
guided to work on the vocabulary and structure used in advertisements,
students at higher level can learn to write the body copy for an
advertisement. For lesson targeting the cultural understanding, the
advertisements can be used as the intriguing lead-in to further discussion
of certain topics or illustrative evidence of the cultural differences. As for
the logical aspect, the message of the advertisements can be analyzed to
help students improve their critical thinking.
75
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1. Summary of findings
In sum, the study has led to a number of important findings in
response to the research question about the gender role reflection in
American and Vietnamese magazine advertisements.
Regarding the reflection of gender role in Vietnamese
advertisements, it can be concluded that females are more associated with
their familial role and recreational role whereas males are likely to be
assigned with working role as well as positions with higher responsibility
at work. In addition, females are expected to be more concerned about
their external appearance and sexual attractiveness as shown in their
frequency in the decorative and symbolic role. The traditional mode of
male dominance also proved more common in situations involving the
physical contact between the genders.
As for American culture, several similarities can be pointed out
concerning the gender role reflection in the advertisements. The familial
role, the recreational role and the concern over external appearance and
sexual attractiveness are also found more common among females.
However, the more balanced rate in working role and responsibility
ranking as well the dominant role suggests a higher degree of
egalitarianism in American culture compared to that of Vietnam.
In general, it can be pointed out that neither of the cultures
expresses extreme viewpoints about the gender role, strictly confining
one gender to respective functions. Instead, both show a gradual
76
transition from the traditional attitude towards the modern or the
egalitarian outlook with the American leaning further forward.
5.2. Limitations of the study
Despite the effort of the researcher to preserve the validity and
reliability of the study, certain limitations related to the collection of the
data and the scope of the study remain inevitable.
First of all, concerning the data collection, the random sampling
has been applied to ensure the objectivity of the findings. However, this
leads to another problem as the number of advertisements collected is
quite large yet certain categories find no sample, making it difficult to
draw any conclusion about them, especially for the purpose of
comparison and contrast.
Moreover, as some elements of culture changes over the time, the
findings of the research may only be applicable to the current situation
and certain adjustments might be unnoticed. In the era of increasing
cross-cultural communication and globalism like today, there is a
possibility that the researcher has missed out some important knowledge
on the subject by limiting the scope to the year 2010 only.
Last but not least, though the cultural reflection of magazine
advertisements is undeniable, it is also important to be aware of the social
factors, e.g. class, ethnicity, intellectual level, which might affect the
accuracy of the generalization in the study.
77
5.3. Suggestions for further research
Since the number of cross-cultural studies on advertisements is still
limited, the future researchers can continue to investigate further into this
area. What remain the limitations of this study can also be considered
suggestions for new studies along the line. For example, other strategies
may be applied to collect and analyze the advertisements to elaborate
more on the role of one gender or one specific role of the gender. Another
suggestion is to study the role of the genders and observe their changes
over a longer period of time. The adjustment of the same brand or
products when transiting into a new market to fit the cultural distinction,
e.g. from American to Vietnamese is also a highly valuable and relevant
research question. Last but not least, the investigation into the gender
role in American and Vietnamese cultures can be approached from other
cultural perspectives as well, e.g. songs, novels, folklore or even the
language itself.
78
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APPENDIX A: CHECKLIST
Gender role reflection in Vietnamese / American magazine advertisement
advertisements
Magazine title:
Issue number:
Published date:
PART A: CONTEXT
Female Male
1. Familial role
a) Doing children-related tasks
b) Doing household chores
c) Others
2. Working role
2.1. Fields of work
a) Business
b) Construction
c) Service
d) Health & Medicine
e) Art
f) Sport
g) Education
h) Security
i) Others
2.2. Responsibility at work
a) Higher
b) Lower
3. Recreational role
a) Sports
b) Media & Entertainment
c) Shopping
d) Drinking
e) Others
86
PART B: PRODUCT
Female Male
1. User/Endorser
a) Beauty products & services
b) Clothing & accessories
c) Vehicles
d) Sports equipments & services
e) Financial services
f) Travel services
g) Media & entertainment
h) Household facilities
i) Food
j) Non-alcoholic drinks
k) Alcoholic drinks
l) Cigarettes
m) Medical products & services
n) Educational products & services
o) Others
2. Decorative/Symbolic role
PART C: DOMINANCE
1. Male dominate
2. Female dominate
3. Equal
87
APPENDIX B: AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE
ADVERTISEMENTS
(Order of appearance)
Cosmopolitan (5/2010, p.41)
88
Cosmopolitan (10/2010, p.270)
89
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (14/6/2010, p. 87)
90
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (146/2010, p. 59)
91
The New Yorker (11/2010, p. 53)
92
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (1/11/2010, p. 83)
93
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (1/11/2010, p. 149)
94
Playboy (5/2010, p. 7)
95
Dep (11/2010, p.149)
96
Maxim (4/2010, 2010, p.81)
97
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (1/11/2010, p.95)
98
Maxim (1/2010, p. 5)
99
Tiep thi & Gia dinh (14/6/2010, p. 38)
100
Cosmopolitan (10/2010, p. 35)
101