yuanlungao@163.com. whats language knowledge could be anything about the target language grammar...

语言知识教学绵阳市教育科学研究所

袁伦高yuanlungao@163.com

What’s language knowledge

Could be anything about the target language Grammar Vocabulary the characteristic features of particular text

types Culture understanding of how the language works in the

context

Implicit and explicit

Implicit knowledge acquire and use unconsciously Pick up on the way of exposing to the language

Explicit knowledge requires conscious teaching and learning

Implication Don’t have to teach everything

Heavy heritage

Renowned for the explicit teaching of language knowledge In class, we used to teach nothing but language

knowledge Much is said, but little is done to translate

language knowledge into the ability to use the language as a tool

Cramming and rote learning are the most often used method to teach language knowledge

How language knowledge comes into being?

Language in its natural form

Flow of soundsSystem of written symbols

Language in linguists’ eyes

phonemes

Morphemes

words

sentencesphrases

paragraphsdiscourse

Relationship Below included in above

Unreliable illusion

Progressive process

Acquaintance

acquisition

approximation

accuracy

Effective way of obtaining knowledge

scaffold students’ learning of specific language forms by setting well-constructed communicative tasks that naturally lead them to notice and reproduce those forms so that they gain implicit knowledge of them

make this knowledge explicit, for example by discussing the language forms

incidentally

Meaning-based v.s. form-based

Research has shown that language learners benefit when their attention is drawn to the forms of words, grammatical structures, and texts incidentally, in the context of real messages with meaningful content. Teaching grammatical rules explicitly and expecting students to memorize them is less effective. An important part of a language teacher’s repertoire is knowing how to teach language forms in meaningful and effective ways.

Meaning, form and use

Meaning---sugar coatForm---the medicineUse---the directions

A Wise Old Owl

by Edward Hersey Richards

A wise old owl sat on an oak.

The more he saw the less he spoke;

The less he spoke the more he heard.

Why aren’t we like that wise old bird?

Restrained teacher talk

Keep the explanations brief

A simple comment that the past tense refers to events in the past serves as an adequate explanation. The same holds true of a few comments on the past perfect, or any other structure. A visual diagram and several examples also further highlight the target language.

Limit the explanation to the task/lesson at hand

There may be several exceptions to the rule. There may be times when the language isn't used for some situation or with some medium. Yet this is all extraneous information. The teacher wants to provide just enough explanation for the students to practice the language correctly and purposefully.

Consider devoting several lessons to a specific grammar or language point

This allows the teacher to address and practice the rules and exceptions, yet not overwhelm the class with too much information. The teacher can also practice different skills/mediums, yet return to the same language point.

Address grammar and vocabulary again and again.

The teacher should provide several opportunities to acquire the target language during a course of study. Just because students have studied the target material once doesn't mean they can use it well. By revisiting the target structures, then students who grasped the form have a second chance to grasp the meaning and use of the target structure. Students who grasped the meaning have a second chance for the form and use.

Vocabulary

Formulaic expressions

expressions that can be used meaningfully in a consistent form in a specific context (without reference to how it might be adapted for other uses )

Vocabulary

Where vocabulary is introduced and practised in communicative contexts (rather than in lists), students are likely to see the relevance of learning words and phrases and to be sufficiently interested and motivated to remember them

From receptive to productive

A effective tool to help remember words

Mind Maps!Mind Maps!

Mind Maps!Mind Maps!

Word or PhraseWord or Phrase

Related CategoryRelated Category Related CategoryRelated Category

Related CategoryRelated CategoryRelated CategoryRelated Category

Related wordRelated wordRelated word

Related wordRelated wordRelated word

Related wordRelated wordRelated word

Related wordRelated wordRelated word

Mind Maps!Mind Maps!

•FastFast•Little preparation-timeLittle preparation-time•Pictures as promptsPictures as prompts•Different colorsDifferent colors•Can be used for any topicCan be used for any topic•Pre-teach vocabularyPre-teach vocabulary

Features:Features:

Is it easier to remember

words in “mind maps”

compared to lists?

oror

invitejeans

kilometermatchshowertennis

TheaterThirstywoman

activealive

bicycleboat

breadbuildcall

differentfoot

Word Lists vs. Mind MapsMemorize these words in 60 seconds

NO WRITING!!!

Write as many words as you can remember!

Look at the mind map for 60 seconds!

Music

Sounds

soft loud

Types

Instruments

People

rock

classical Singer

guitar drums

Guitarist

pop

piano

Pianist

sad happy

Write as many words as you can remember… use a mind map!

Grammar

Historically, grammar has been considered to be (Hinkel & Fotos 2002):

-nouns

-verbs

-participles

-articles

-pronouns

-prepositions

-adverbs

-conjunctions

The advent of other approaches:

-Direct approaches (audio-lingualism)

-Functional approaches

-Communicative approaches

The Audiolingual Method

The audiolingual method focuses on the comprehension of language at a largely mechanical level (Davidson, 1978).

Examples of mechanically structured activities might include repetition or substitution. The teacher is in control of the lesson, and students can often successfully participate without any understanding of meaning (Davidson, 1978).

Functional Approaches

These are usually based on situational language needs (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).

According to Skehan, these activities often follow a “presentation, practice, and production” protocol (cited in Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).

Communicative/Humanistic Approaches

These methods mimic a natural acquisition of language, for example, how a child acquires L1 (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).

Language is acquired using meaningful input, with no formal grammatical instruction. It is assumed that ELLs will naturally acquire the forms of language when this approach is used (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).

Myth: Grammar structures are meaningless forms (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)

- Learning a structure in grammar, is not complete unless its function is explored at the same time (Wagner-Gough, 1975).

- There are 3 dimensions to grammar instruction: form, meaning and function/use (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

- Grammar instruction should include the answers to when and why to use any given structure (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

Myth: Grammar acquisition consists of arbitrary rules (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)-Interlanguages (ILs) appear to follow rules,

and are systematic (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).This does not mean that an ELL would be using a grammatical structure as a NS would from first exposure, but that they are still moving toward its proper use while forming rules in his/her IL.

-Though systematic, this development through an IL may not be linear (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

Myth: Grammar structures are learned one at a time (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)

-The acquisition of some structures may depend on the acquisition of others. A simple accumulation of structures, one at time, can lead to a phenomenon known as backsliding. When backsliding occurs, it is because certain elements become omitted in order to make room for new elements (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

Myth: Grammar is acquired naturally, and doesn’t have to be taught (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)

- In French immersion programs, where the focus is on meaning alone, students have demonstrated a less than expected understanding of grammar in the language (Harley & Swain, 1984).

- Students may develop the ability to convey meaning, without developing proper grammar. Selective form-focused instruction may therefore be necessary to ensure that as language develops, so does grammar (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

Lightbrown and Spada (1990)research (cited in Larsen-Freeman, 1995):

-This study looked at 4 (primarily communicative) French immersion classes, each of which incorporated a varying level of form-based instruction in grammar.

-Their results demonstrated that the class that never focused on grammatical form performed the worst according to the assessment used.

- Part of the reason for this, according to Larsen-Freeman (1995), is that focusing student attention may facilitate learning.

Myth: Error correction and negative evidence might be unnecessary when instructing grammar (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)

-If errors are not corrected, then overgeneralizations in language tend to occur (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

-Negative evidence might be part of the input that ELLs need, though they may not have needed it to the same extent for their L1 (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).

Myth: All grammatical structures are learned in the same way (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)

“Any claim to the effect that all acquisition is the product of habit formation or of rule formation, or today, of setting/resetting parameters or the strengthening of connections in complex neural networks, is an obvious oversimplification of a complex process” (Larsen-Freeman, 1995, p. 141).

3 options in language teaching:

Focus on Forms

Focus on meaning

Focus on form

Focus on Forms:

“Parts of the language are taught separately and step by step so that the acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure of language has been built up…At any one time the learner is being exposed to a deliberate limited sample of language” (Wilkins, 1976, p. 2).

Focus on Meaning:The essential claim is that people of all ages

learn language best, inside or outside the classroom, not by treating the languages as the object of study, but by experiencing them as a medium of communication… “language is organized in terms of the purpose for which people are learning language and the kinds of language performance that are necessary to meet those purposes” (Wilkins, 1976, p. 13).

Focus on Form:“Overtly draws students’ attention to linguistic

elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication”

(Long, 1991, pp. 45-46).“Often consists of an occasional shift of attention to

linguistic code features– by the teacher and/or one or more of the students– triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production”

(Long & Robinson, 1999, p. 23).

Advantage of Focus on Form:

“The learner’s attention is drawn precisely to a linguistic feature as necessitated by a communicative demand” (Doughty & Williams, 1999, p. 3).

Arguments against Grammar Instruction:The study of grammar promotes knowledge about

language not how to use the language (Krashen, 1983, p. 10).

We acquire our first language without any explicit knowledge of grammar (Krashen, 1983, p. 10).

The natural order (Krashen, 1983, pp. 12-36) in which languages are learned precludes the influence of instruction.

If communicative competence is the goal, then classroom time is better spent engaging in language use (Krashen, 1983, p. 37).

Arguments for Grammar Instruction:Without explicit instruction learners’ interlanguage often

fossilizes.Grammar instruction may act as an advanced organizer

helping learners to notice features of language when they are ready.

Learning finite rules can help to simplify an otherwise daunting and complex task by organizing it into neat categories.

Older students’ expectation about language learning often includes grammar instruction.

Learning grammar structures allows for more creative applications of language.

(Lightbown & Spada, 1990, pp. 429-448)

Teaching Grammar:

Teachers need to consider how to present grammar to their students (approach), what options for dealing with the grammar should be used, and which area they will focus on during practice (accuracy, fluency, or restructuring).

Approaches

Deductive– teaching through rules (the rule is provided followed by the provision of examples in which the rule is applied).

Inductive– teaching through examples (students are provided with several examples from which a rule is inferred).

Sources of inductive instruction:Realia / ActionsWorksheets (can often be structured to

inductively lead students to a grammar rule)Authentic texts (after listening to a dialogue

or reading a text, students can answer questions to highlight certain grammatical structures– these may then be used to derive rules)

DialoguesRecorded Conversations

Options:

Teaching through practice:Drills: activities that are structured to allow

only one correct answerExercises: Open-ended grammar activities

Practice leads to the creation of a continuum ranging from text manipulation activities to text creation activities.

Practice:

Text manipulation activities: Provide students with sentences that they will be required to operate on in some limited manner such as: fill-in-the blank, make a choice from items provided, substitute another item, or transform into another pattern.

Practice:

Text creation activities: Require learners to produce language creatively using the target structure (these activities are not truly communicative because the students are aware that the purpose of the activity is to practice a specific structure).

Communicative grammar tasks:Provide students with genuine opportunities to

communicate using language that is known.These tasks differ from text creation activities in

that the students are not restricted in the language that is used.

As a result, because students are not focused on the use of a particular structure, tasks must be designed to ensure that the desired structure is utilized.

Refer to Penny Ur’s Grammar Practice Activities, 1988. (Lightbown & Spada, 1993)

Integrative Grammar TeachingCombines a form-based with a meaning-based

focus. “form focused instruction and corrective feedback

provided within the context of communicative interaction can contribute positively to a second language development in both the short and long term” (Lightbown & Spada, 1993, p. 205).

Students should be able to learn explicit grammar rules as well as have a chance to practice them in communication in the authentic or simulated tasks (Musumeci, 1997).

PPPPresentation / Practice/ Production

based on the Grammar-Translation Method in which grammar explanations are followed by exercises.

follows the premise that knowledge becomes skill through successive practice and that language is learned in small chunks leading to the whole.

views accuracy as a precursor to fluency.

PPP- Stage 1

In the first stage of the sequence the teacher introduces the language and forms to be studied.

PPP- Stage 2

In the second stage students practice using the language and grammar introduced by the teacher. This stage is often characterized by decontextualized drills.

The focus of this stage is the accurate use of language.

PPP- Stage 3

After students have demonstrated that they can accurately use the language and forms introduced, fluency is developed by providing opportunities for students to use what they have learned in a less controlled environment.

Criticism of PPP:

SLA research demonstrates that practice does not lead to perfection (Lightbown, 1985).

Language learning does not occur in a linear fashion influenced directly by the instruction that takes place (Ellis 1993; Skehan, 1996).

Relies heavily on the use of decontextualized and meaningless drills (Wong & Van Pattten, 2003).

Task Based Language Teaching

Accuracy and fluency are addressed in TBLT with a linguistic focus supporting the task or emerging out of difficulties experienced during the task.

This maintains the focus on communication rather than learning particular forms and promotes the relevancy of grammatical instruction.

Willis’ (1996) Model

Pre-Task: lexicon is introduced and learners are engaged in brief activities to activate their schemata about a particular topic or to equip them to participate in the main task.

Task: learners are actively engaged in completing a communicative task.

Language Focus: learners’ errors are highlighted and specific activities are utilized to allow them to practice using the correct language forms.

Accuracy Addressed Through Focused Tasks

Focused tasks are tasks that are likely to require the use of a particular form.

For example, writing a recipe will require the use of the imperative and decorating a room will require the use of prepositions.

Willis’ TBLT Framework

Willis (1996) advocated addressing accuracy through the structure of lessons:

a) Pre-task

b) Task

c) Post-task (language focus)

Pre-task Phase

In this phase the teacher will:

1) Introduce and define the topic

2) Use activities to help students recall or learn vocabulary and phrases

3) Provide examples of how the task may be completed

4) Provide instructions for completing the task

Task Phase During this stage the students complete the

central task of the cycle individually (in pairs or groups).

While the students work, the teacher ensures students understand the task and are being productive.

The teacher monitors time closely and observes how groups are functioning. This information may be relayed to students to promote effective group functioning or may be used in formulating future groups.

Language focus phase

In this phase students move from a focus on meaning to a focus on form.

The purpose of this phase is to develop accuracy by directing students’ attention to particular language forms and usage.

Tasks to Promote Negotiation

Negotiation contributes to language acquisition by making input more comprehensible (Long, 1985) and by providing opportunities to attend to form (Pica, 1994).

Types of Tasks – Willis (1996)1) Listing – brainstorming, fact-finding

2) Ordering and Sorting – sequencing, ranking, categorizing, classifying

3) Comparing – matching, finding differences and similarities

4) Problem Solving

5) Sharing Personal Experiences

6) Creative Tasks

Types of Tasks – Pica, Kanagy, Falodun (1993)

1) Jigsaw – learners combine different pieces of information to create a whole

2) Information-Gap – learners have different information. They negotiate to find the other individual’s information

3) Problem-Solving – students must find a solution for a problem (typically there is one resolution)

4) Decision-Making – students solve an open-ended problem by discussing multiple options and choosing the best

5) Opinion Exchange – learners exchange ideas without needing to come to a consensus

Some benefits of TBLT

Current educational research outlines that learners engage in the learning process using a variety of styles and intelligences.

TBLT provides an inductive approach to instruction and addresses different learning styles than PPP.

TBLT encourages more meaningful learning experiences that are relevant to students.

Some benefits of TBLT (Willis, 1996)

PPP is a form of the “banking model” of education whereas TBLT is a student-centered approach that provides a voice to students (content and language usage).

Principles of democracy are more reflective of a TBLT classroom.

Comparison

PPPTextbook languageOfficial content

valuableViews students as

“unknowing”Learning content not

problematicPower difference

inherent

TBLTCommunicative

language Process valuableStudents are valuable

contributorsLearning opportunitiesStudents are given a

voice

Social Rationale

TBLT empowers learners by giving them agency and recognizing the value of their language (non-standard forms of English).

A sample lesson--- Party time

Work in pairs or small groups and discuss the questions below. Today's article is about a man who spent $17.5 million

on a party.     What kind of party do you think it was?     What do you think he bought for the party?

The man in today's article is Britain's second richest man and has about $6.5 billion.     What kind of car do you think he drives?     What kind of watch do you think he wears?

Now share your ideas with your classmates.

Matchinguse a dictionary, or through peer cooperation

fortune    concert    luxury liner    generosity

Prediction

According to the information we get from the previous activities and the four words we discussed just now, what do you think today's article is about? 

Tell your partner.

Read for gist(skimming)

Find the answers to the following questions in the article as quickly as you can.  Do NOT use your dictionary. What did Hans Rausing spend $17.5 million on?

What kind of car does Rausing drive?

What kind of watch does Rausing wear?

600 guests on a luxury liner for a week and exclusive entertainment including a concert by Elton John.

A modest Morris Minor car.

A cheap Timex watch.

Scanning---Vocabulary

Find words in today's article that match the meanings below. the packages that are used to contain food

(Paragraph 2) a person who receives money or goods when

someone dies (Paragraph 2) something happened or came before

(Paragraph 3) not expensive (Paragraph 3)

food packaging

heir

previously

cheap / modest

Read for detail

Read the following statements.  Write T if you think a statement is true or F if you think it is false, according to the article. Hans Rausing is the richest man in Britain. Hans Rausing is usually very careful with his money. Hans Rausing works for his brother. Hans Rausing is 76 years old. Hans Rausing had 700 guests at his party. Elton John gave a concert at his party. Hans Rausing had a party because it was his birthday.

F

T

F

F

T

T

F

Language focus

"Hans Rausing spent $17.5 million on a party for 600 guests on a luxury liner..."

spent on

who How much money what

Decoding

Gabrielle's parents spent $10,000 on her wedding. What was the money spent on?

Her wedding Who spent the money?

Gabrielle's parents How much was spent?

$10,000

Language focus

"Rausing sold his stake in Sweden-based Tetra-Pak to his brother..."

sold to

Who Who What

Decoding

Shay sold his toys to his brother. What was sold?

Toys Who sold them?

Shay Who bought them?

Shay's brother

Exercises

Christine spent $20 on a new Elton John CD. What was the money spent on?

Who spent the money?

How much money was spent?

a new Elton John CD

Christine

$20

Exercises

1. Mark spent $50,000 on a new car. What was the money spent on?

Who spent the money?

How much money did he spend?

a new car

Mark

$50,000

Exercises

Karen sold her car to Pete. What was sold?

Who sold it?

Who bought it?

her car

Karen

Pete

Exercises

Douglas sold his television to his friends Kate and Pete. What was sold?

Who sold it?

Who bought it?

television

Douglas

Kate and Pete

Encoding

Look at the prompts below and write sentences on a sheet of paper using the two patterns Ron / desk  / Troy Bob / $3,000 / painting Harry /  television / Andrea Joan / $200 / tennis racket

Post-reading activities

CrosswordA writing taskGo to the internet to find more about old

age pension in UK and be ready to report your findings to the class next time

Work in pairs on the crossword puzzleClues Across2. when somebody spends more money than is necessary 3. great comfort in beautiful and expensive surroundings7. things that give people pleasure such as music, dance, and theater 8. a musical performance 9. a large ship

Clues Down1. when somebody gives others gifts, time, or kindness freely 4. a very large amount of money5. the different types of shares and investments an investor has 6. somebody who inherits something from his or her family

Answers to crossword

Across:

2. extravagant 3. luxury

7. entertainment 8. concert 9. LinerDown:

1. generosity 4. fortune 5. portfolio 6. heir  

Writing task

You are having a party soon.  Write a party invitation that you can send to your friends.  You can spend as much as you like!  In your party invitation be sure to include the following information: When the party is.

Where the party is.The kind of entertainment that will be at the party.

You can include more information too.  Use your imagination and have fun!

Prompts for reflection

How is it different from a routine reading class in our classroom, and the pros and cons of each?

Is it practical in my own class?How vocabulary and language points were

coped with in the class?Can this way of teaching ensure students’

good performance in the TEST?

Teacher v.s. student

Confidence in students

Have the God-given potential to learn a foreign language well With your support But not your swapping your role with your stude

nts

DIY advocated vocab. →Dictionaries Gram. →induction

Learn by doingThere is really only one way to learn how to do something and that is to do it. If you want to learn to throw a football, drive a car, build a mousetrap, design a building, cook a stir-fry, or be a management consultant, you must have a go at doing it. Throughout history, youths have been apprenticed to masters in order to learn a trade. We understand that learning a skill means eventually trying your hand at the skill. When there is no real harm in simply trying we allow novices to "give it a shot."Parents usually teach children in this way. They don't give a series of lectures to their children to prepare them to walk, talk, climb, run, play a game, or learn how to behave. They just let their children do these things. We hand a child a ball to teach him to throw. If he throws poorly, he simply tries again. Parents tolerate sitting in the passenger seat while their teenager tries out the driver's seat for the first time. It's nerve-wracking, but parents put up with it, because they know there's no better way.