veda detailed
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Etymology and usage
The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is
reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root -, meaning "see" or "know".[16]
As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith
as "ritual lore":
yáḥ samíhā yá âhtī / yó véna aâśa márto agnáy / yó námasā svahvaráḥ
"The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in
sacrifice."[17]
The noun is from Proto-Indo-European os, cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form" . Not
to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to
Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα , English wit , etc., Latin vō "I
see", etc.[18]
In English, the term Veda is often used loosely to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).
The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to
fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-
veda"science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the
early Upanishads); durveda means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".[19]
Chronology
Main article: Vedic period
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V
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The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 1500 –1000 BCE,
and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redactionof the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE,
resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze
Age and the Iron Age.[20]
The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the
mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which
annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end
in the age of Buddha andPanini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern
Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE.
Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BCE the
only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE
(Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the earlyIron
Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[21]
Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision
with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic
times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension
of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000
CE.[22]
Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving
manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[23]
The Benares Sanskrit
University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of
older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the
11th century onwards.
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The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Paānkrama-
Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its
scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-
Vedic" texts.
Volume I: SamhitasVolume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas
Volume III: Upanishads
Volume IV: Vedangas
A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.
Shruti literature
Main article: Shruti
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less
clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such
as Upanishads or Sutra literature. These texts are by many Hindu sects
considered to be shruti (Sanskrit: śrt ; "the heard"), divinely revealed like the
Vedas themselves. Texts not considered to be shruti are known
as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛt ; "the remembered"), of human origin. This indigenous
system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to
some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains:
These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal
reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather
several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads ... are
sometimes not to be distinguished
from Āraṇyakas...; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language
attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally
prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable
to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the
Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and
underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic
literature."[26]
The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discussquestions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some
mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been
regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vedānta
("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together, they are the basis of
the Vedanta school.
Vedic schools or recensions
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Main article: Shakha
Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of
different schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb") each
of which specialized in learning certain texts.[29]
Multiple recensions are known
for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a number of schools
associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on
memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and
reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. (See
also: Vedic chant )
Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that
these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate
fidelity.[30]
For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to
eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-
read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included
the jaṭā- pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in
the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse
order, and finally repeated again in the original order .[31]
That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of
the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as redacted into a single
text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings.[31]
Four Vedas
Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century
Part of a series on Hindu scriptures
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Vedas and their Shakhas
Rigveda[32][show]
Samaveda[32][show]
Krishna Yajurveda[32][33][show]
Shukla Yajurveda[33][show]
Atharvaveda[33]
[show]
Hinduism portal
V
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The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold ( trīya) viz.,[34]
1. Rigveda (RV)
2. Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS)
3. Samaveda (SV)
4. Atharvaveda (AV)
Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayī
vyā", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing
sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).[35][36]
This triplicity is so introduced in
the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the
three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus,
sorcery and speculative mantras.
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Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric , which are verses of
praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose,
and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sāman, which are in
metre, and intended for singing at the Somaceremonies.
The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of
mantras and hymns intended as manuals for
the Adhvaryu,Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively.
The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been
ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains
very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of
the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sanātanam, "the triple eternal
Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original
incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It
has no direct relation to the solemn Śrauta sacrifices, except for the fact that
the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses
Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation
also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies.
Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the
prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the
ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the
legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are
termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or
written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to
numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text.
They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being
the general Index or Sarvānkramaṇī .
Rigveda
Main article: Rigveda
The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[37]
It is a collection of
1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books
(Sanskrit: mandalas).[38]
The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[39]
The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period
of several centuries, commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of
the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu)
region of the Indian subcontinent.[40]
There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the
early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often
associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were
found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural
Mountains and date to c. 2000 BCE.[41]
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Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in UNESCO's Memory of the
World Register in 2007.[42]
Yajurveda
Main article: Yajurveda
The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of
verses borrowed and adapted from the Rigveda. Its purpose was practical, in
that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the
Samaveda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely
the Somayajna. There are two major groups of recensions of this Veda, known
as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White" (Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla
Yajurveda respectively). While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its
Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the
Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda four major
recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya).
SamavedaMain article: Samaveda
The Samaveda Samhita (from sāman, the term for a melody applied to metrical
hymn or song of praise[43]
) consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely
(except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda.[26]
Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the
Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing.
Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including
repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda
recension translated by Griffith.[44]
Two major recensions remain today, the
Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, as the
repertoire of the gātṛ or "singer" priests who took part in the sacrifice.
Atharvaveda
Main article: Atharvaveda
The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to
the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the
hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[45]
Most of the verses are metrical, but
some sections are in prose.[45]
It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some
of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda ,[46]
and some parts of the
Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[45]
though not in linguistic form.
The Atharvaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalāda andŚaunaka.[45]
According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).[47]
The
Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than
the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains
largely untranslated.
Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with
sacrifice.[48][49]
Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned
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with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases,
for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[45][50]
The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[51]
The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas"
connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of "Four Vedas". This may beconnected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of
priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[52]
The Atharvaveda is concerned with the material world or world of man and in
this respect differs from the other three vedas. Atharvaveda also sanctions the
use of force, in particular circumstances and similarly this point is a departure
from the three other vedas.
Brahmanas
Further information: Brahmanas
The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one "Veda" that would
flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature,
for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified
with Brahman, the universal principle (ŚBM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vāc "speech" is
called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM 6.5.3.4, 10.5.5.1). The knowledge of the
Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls
of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the
three Vedas (ŚBM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapatir eflecting that "truly, all beings are in
the triple Veda").
Vedanta
Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads, and Aranyakas
While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism
(Śrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted
the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three
Vedas with the bhūr bhvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka:
"Bhūḥ is the Rigveda, bhvaḥ is the Yajurveda, svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1.3.2).
The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the
syllable Aum (ॐ). Thus, the Katha Upanishad has:
"The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire whenthey live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1.2.15)
In post-Vedic literature
Vedanga
Main article: Vedanga
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Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known
as vāṅga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte defines this group of works as:
"N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas
and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation
of the text and the right employment of theMantras in
ceremonials."[53]
These subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from the end of the
Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic
Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit.
The six subjects of Vedanga are:
Phonetics (Śikṣā)
Ritual (Kalpa)
Grammar (Vyākaraṇa) Etymology (Nirukta)
Meter (Chandas)
Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
Parisista
Main article: Parisista
Parśṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary
works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and
elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them:
the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with
the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four
Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is
extensive.
The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with
the Rigveda canon.
The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters,
with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, consist of 18 works
enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series
(the Caraṇavyūha)and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa. The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra
Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha
Śrata Sūtra', the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa
For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly
named parisistas.[54]
Puranas
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Main article: Puranas
A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta
period[55]
) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical
sage Vedavyasa.[56]
Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda
that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to
the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc.) the original Veda was divided into
four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by
Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu
Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging
of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the
primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at
the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and
understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43)
attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the
monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata
(santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into threein Treta Yuga.
[57]
Upaveda
The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to
designate the subjects of certain technical works.[58][59]
Lists of what
subjects are included in this class differ among sources.
The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:
Medicine ( Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda
Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the
Samaveda
Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda
But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the
Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and
crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources.
In Buddhism
Buddhism does not deny that the Vedas in their true origin were sacred but
it holds that they have been amended repeatedly by certain Brahmins to
secure their positions in society. The Buddha declared that the Veda in itstrue form was declared by Kashyapa to certain rishis, who by severe
penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes.[60]
In the
Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka of theMahavagga (I.245)[61]
section the Buddha
names these rishis, and declared the Vedic rishis "Atthako, Vâmako,
Vâmadevo, Vessâmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhâradvâjo, Vâsettho, Kass
apo, and Bhagu"[62]
but that it was altered by a few Brahmins who
introduced animal sacrifices. The Vinaya Pitaka's section Anguttara
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Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda
that the Buddha refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time .[63]
Also in the "Brahmana Dhammika Sutta" (II,7)[64]
of the Suttanipata section
of Vinaya Pitaka[65]
there is a story of when the Buddha was in Jetavana
village and there were a group of elderly Brahmin ascetics who sat down
next to the Buddha and a conversation began.
The elderly Brahmins asked him, "Do the present Brahmans follow the same rules, practice the
same rites, as those in the more ancient times? "
The Buddha replied, "No."
The elderly Brahmins asked the Buddha that if it were not inconvenient for him, that he would tell
them of the Brahmana Dharma of the previous generation.
The Buddha replied: "There were formerly rishis, men who had subdued all passion by the
keeping of the sila precepts and the leading of a pure life...Their riches and possessions
consisted in the study of the Veda and their treasure was a life free from all evil...The Brahmans,
for a time, continued to do right and received in alms rice, seats, clothes, and oil, though they did
not ask for them. The animals that were given they did not kill; but they procured useful
medicaments from the cows, regarding them as friends and relatives, whose products give
strength, beauty and health."
So in this passage also the Buddha describes when the
Brahmins were studying the Veda but the animal sacrifice
customs had not yet began.
In the Mahavagga,[66]
the Buddha declares:
The one who annihilates the sins in himself,
who is not proud, who is passionless, whose spirit is humble,
who has comprehended the Vedas and is chaste,
for whom no joy exists in the world,:
that one is lawfully called a brahman.
The Buddha was declared to have
been born a Brahmin trained in the
Vedas and its philosophies in a
number of his previous lives
according to Buddhist scriptures.
Other Buddhas too were said to
have been born as Brahmins that
were trained in the Vedas.
The Mahasupina
Jataka[67]
and Lohakumbhi
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Jataka[68]
declares that
Brahmin Sariputra in a previous life
was a Brahmin that prevented
animal sacrifice by declaring that
animal sacrifice was actually
against the Vedas.
Further, the Suttanipata 1000
declares that 32 mahapurusha
lakshana (auspicious symbols of the
Buddha) that Buddhism uses, are
declared in the Vedic
mantras.[69]
Brahmayu was a well-
versed Vedic follower of the Buddha
who by reading the four Vedas saw
that the Buddha was auspicious as
per his 32 symbols.
[70]
In Jainism
The revealed nature of the Vedas
was challenged by Jains on the
argument that saying Vedas are
authorless holds no more meaning
than saying that anonymous poems
are written by nobody.[71]
Learning
and mastering the Vedas is
considered worthless in
Jainism.[72]
They reject the Vedasas false scriptures on the grounds
that they are associated with animal
sacrifice.[71]
The Vedas, according to
Jainism, were written by Bharata,
the first jaina chakravarti (universal
emperor).[73]
Some writers criticize
that Hindus do not know their own
scriptures as they are unaware of
the names of tirthankara which is
present in the veda.[71]
A Jain sage
intereprets the Vedic sacrifices as
metaphorical:
"Body is the altar, mind is the fire blazing with the ghee of knowledge and burning the sacrificial
sticks of impurities produced from the tree of karma;..."[74]
Further, Jain Sage Jinabhadra
in
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movement,
andGaudiya
Vaishnavism in
particular extended the
term veda to include
the Sanskrit Epics andVaishnavite devotional
texts such as
the Pancaratra.[77]
WesternIndology
Further
information: Sanskrit in
the West
The study of Sanskrit
in the West began in
the 17th century. In the
early 19th
century, Arthur
Schopenhauer drew
attention to Vedic
texts, specifically the
Upanishads. The
importance of Vedic
Sanskrit for Indo-
European studies was
also recognized in the
early 19th century.
English translations of
the Samhitas were
published in the later
19th century, in
the Sacred Books of
the East series edited
by Müller between
1879 and1910.
[78] Ralph T. H.
Griffith also presented
English translations of
the four Samhitas,
published 1889 to
1899.
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